What is urban population growth called? Growth of cities and urban population. Rates of urban population development. concentration of population in big cities. Creation of urban agglomerations. Megacities as the highest link in the process of urbanization. Main factor
Size: px
Start impression from page:
transcript
1 Tasks A22 in geography, practice, Tasks A22 in geography 1. Which of the statements contains information about the process of urbanization? 1) More than half of the world's population lives in flat areas and about a third at a distance of no more than 50 km from the sea coast. 2) If at the beginning of the twentieth century. there were 10 cities in the world with a population of more than 1 million people, then by 2000 their number increased to) In 1999, the world population was 6 billion people, at the beginning of 2006 already 6.5 billion people. 4) If in 1900 seven of the 15 largest countries in terms of population were in Europe, then at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. only two European countries remained among them. Urbanization is the process of growing cities and the percentage of the urban population relative to the rural population. 2. Which of the following statements contains information about population migrations? 1) In Russia at the beginning of the XXI century. More people die every year than are born. 2) In 2007, the number of those who arrived for permanent residence in Russia exceeded the number of those who left by 240,000. 3) The economic crisis in Russia has caused a slight increase in the number of people who are unemployed. 4) In the twentieth century. number big cities in Russia has increased, large urban agglomerations have emerged. In demography, we understand migration as the movement of people within a country (internal migration) or across borders (external migration).
2 Tasks A22 in geography, practice, 3. Which of the statements contains information about population migrations? 1) Currently, the urban lifestyle is dominant, and in developed countries it has spread to rural areas. 2) The life expectancy of women is on average 5-8 years longer than that of men, so women predominate in older ages. 3) The population is growing rapidly in those countries where its natural increase is the highest. 4) At the end of the 20th century. the number of foreign workers arriving in Western Europe has decreased significantly. Migration refers to the movement of people. Migrations are internal (within the country) and external (from one country to another). In the twentieth century, the so-called "labor" migration arose, associated with the influx of labor into developed countries from developing ones. 4. Which of the statements contains information about the manifestation of population migration? 1) In many European countries, the death rate per thousand inhabitants exceeds the birth rate, as a result of which the population is declining. 2) As a result civil war in Liberia, 500,000 people were forced to leave their homes and another 800,000 people fled to neighboring countries. 3) Currently, developing countries account for more than 4/5 of the total annual growth of urban residents in the world. 4) The highest rates of life expectancy in Russia are observed in Moscow and the republics of the North Caucasus. Migration refers to the movement of people. Migrations are internal (within the country) and external (from one country to another). Migration is caused by both economic and other reasons. Economic migration causes an influx of people from the countryside to the city, the development of new territories, labor migration to developed countries from developing ones. Forced migration (refugees) occurs in places and countries of military conflicts.
3 Tasks A22 in geography, practice, 5. Which of the statements contains information about the process of urbanization? 1) From the end of the 20th century. The population of the Asian part of Russia was declining mainly due to the outflow of the population. 2) B last years seasonal movements of townspeople to the countryside have become massive. 3) In the US, the number of illegal immigrants from Latin America, Asia and Europe exceeds the number of legal ones. 4) Currently, developing countries account for more than 4/5 of the total annual growth of urban residents in the world. 6. Which of the statements contains information about the process of urbanization? 1) In some European countries, the death rate per thousand inhabitants exceeds the birth rate, as a result of which the population is declining. 2) Most of the Russian-speaking population (ethnic Russians) of Kazakhstan in the late 90s of the XX century. left this country. 3) In 1995, 45% of the world's population lived in cities, in 2010, half of the world's population. 4) In recent years, the flow of political refugees has increased in the number of labor migrants in Germany. Answer: 3.
4 Geography assignment A22, practice, 7. Which of the following sentences refers to urbanization? 1) Due to immigrants from other countries, the population of the United States increases annually by more than 1 million people. 2) The proportion of city dwellers in the total population of China is constantly increasing and is now close to 50%. 3) Most countries of the world have a multinational composition of the population. India is considered the most multinational country 4) The population is increasing annually by more than 80 million people. 8. Which of the statements contains information about the manifestation of international economic integration? 1) China ranks first in the world in coal production and second in the world in its proven reserves. 2) In terms of natural gas reserves in the world, two regions of foreign Asia and the CIS stand out. 3) In the countries of North America and Western Europe, the rate of economic growth at the end of the 20th century. were below the average. 4) In the last decade, the trend towards the formation of regional economic groupings of countries has intensified. International economic integration is a process of rapprochement, mutual adaptation and merging of national economic systems that have the ability of self-regulation and self-development on the basis of a coordinated interstate economy and policy. Integration processes cover primarily countries that are territorially included in one region. Economic association countries means the formation of regional economic blocs regionalization of the world economy. As a rule, not only geographical proximity is necessary, but also economic, cultural, religious, and ethnic similarities.
5 Tasks A22 in geography, practice, 9. Which of the statements contains information about the process of population reproduction? 1) Population is one of the important factors in the development of any country and of all mankind. 2) The socio-economic conditions of people's lives have a great influence on the birth rate, mortality, and natural increase. 3) On average in the world, about 50% of the total population can be attributed to the economically active population. 4) In 1990, there were about 960 million illiterates in the world, since then the total number of illiterates has decreased by 100 million. Population replacement is understood as the ratio of births and deaths per thousand inhabitants. The difference between birth and death rates is called natural increase if the birth rate is higher than the death rate, and natural decline if the death rate is higher than the birth rate. 10. Which of the following sentences contains information about urbanization in Russia? 1) The population of Russia increased in 2012 by 292.4 thousand people. 2) In 2012, 2554 people received the status of a forced migrant or refugee in the territorial bodies of the FMS of Russia. 3) In 2011 in Russia, the highest birth rate was observed in the Republics of Ingushetia, Tyva and the Chechen Republic. 4) The ratio of urban and rural residents in Russia in 2010 was 74% and 26%, respectively.
6 Geography assignment A22, practice, 11. Which of the following sentences contains information about urbanization in Russia? 1) The population of Russia increased in 2012 by 292.4 thousand people. 2) Every year, more qualified personnel leave Russia than they enter it. 3) In 2011 in Russia, the lowest birth rate was observed in the Leningrad and Tula regions and in the Republic of Mordovia. 4) The ratio of urban and rural residents in Russia in 2010 was 74% and 26%, respectively. 12. Which of the following sentences contains information about urbanization in Russia? 1) In several regions of Central Russia, the population is increasing due to its influx. 2) More than half of the urban population is concentrated in large urban agglomerations. 3) Most Russian cities are located in the main settlement zone. 4) The largest rural settlements are typical for the south of the European part of the country. Correct answer: More than half of the urban population is concentrated in large urban agglomerations.
7 Geography assignment A22, practice, 13. Which of the following sentences contains information about population migrations? 1) In 2006, the world population reached 6.5 billion people, and now it exceeds 7.1 billion. 2) According to the UN in 2010, the number of refugees forced to leave their countries exceeded 40 million people. 3) More than half of the world's population lives in urban areas. 4) The annual growth rate of the world population is approximately 1.2% per year. In demography, we understand migration as the movement of people within a country (internal migration) or across borders (external migration). The main migration flows are associated with: - the development of new territories, - flows from the village to the city, - forced flows (associated with conflicts - refugees). Correct answer: According to the UN in 2010, the number of refugees forced to leave their countries exceeded 40 million people. 14. Which of the following sentences contains information about the phenomenon of urbanization? 1) Between 2000 and 2010, an average of 2.6 million people moved to developed countries from developing countries annually. 2) In mid-2012, more than half of the world's population lived in urban areas. 3) Having become a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), Russia has committed itself to abolish or reduce duties on a number of goods it imports. 4) Up to 20% of the world's grain, mainly wheat and corn, enters the world market. region, the world, the emergence and development of increasingly complex networks and systems of cities, the spread of urban lifestyle.
8 Geography assignment A22, practice, 15. Which of the following sentences contains information about the process of urbanization? 1) In the 21st century, a large gap in fertility rates between the developed and developing countries of the world remains. 2) The growing proportion of older people in the total population in many countries of the world is causing serious economic problems. 3) Between 2000 and 2010, an average of 2.6 million people moved to developed countries from developing countries annually. 4) In the coming decades, the share of the urban population in the EU countries, according to the UN forecast, will continue to grow. region, the world, the emergence and development of increasingly complex networks and systems of cities, the spread of urban lifestyle. Answer: In the coming decades, the share of the urban population in the EU countries, according to the UN forecast, will continue to grow. 16. Which of the following sentences contains information about population migrations? 1) The population density of Russia is approximately 8.3 people per 1 sq. km. km. 2) In all regions of the Far Eastern Federal District, due to the outflow of the population, there is a decrease in its number. 3) In Russia, the lowest birth rate is observed in the Leningrad, Tambov and Tula regions. 4) According to the latest census, the share of city dwellers in the total population of Russia has changed insignificantly in recent years. Migration refers to the movement of people. AT this case: outflow in the regions of the Far East.
9 Geography assignment A22, practice, 17. Which of the following sentences contains information about the manifestation of international economic integration? 1) The largest share in the structure of Russia's imports falls on machinery, equipment and vehicles. 2) The role of Russia in world foreign trade is gradually growing, but so far it is small: 1.8% in world exports and 1.4% in world imports. 3) Russia, Kazakhstan and Belarus agreed to abolish customs control on their common borders from July 1, 2011. 4) Due to the economic crisis, economic growth in North America and Western Europe has slowed down significantly. International economic integration is a process of rapprochement, mutual adaptation and merging of national economic systems that have the ability of self-regulation and self-development on the basis of a coordinated interstate economy and policy. Integration processes cover primarily countries that are territorially included in one region. The economic unification of countries means the formation of regional economic blocs and the regionalization of the world economy. As a rule, not only geographical proximity is necessary, but also economic, cultural, religious, and ethnic similarities. Answer: 3.
10 Geography assignment A22, practice, 18. Which of the following sentences contains information about the manifestation of international economic integration? 1) Almost half of the volume of world foreign trade falls on highly developed countries. 2) Due to the economic crisis, the economic growth rates in the countries of North America and Western Europe have slowed down significantly. 3) Russia is the largest supplier of natural gas to Europe. 4) OPEC member countries agreed to limit the volume of oil production in order to maintain high prices for it. International economic integration is a process of rapprochement, mutual adaptation and merging of national economic systems that have the ability of self-regulation and self-development on the basis of a coordinated interstate economy and policy. Integration processes cover primarily countries that are territorially included in one region. The economic unification of countries means the formation of regional economic blocs and the regionalization of the world economy. As a rule, not only geographical proximity is necessary, but also economic, cultural, religious, and ethnic similarities. 19. Which of the statements contains information about the process of urbanization? 1) In 2006, the world population reached 6.5 billion people, in 2011 it exceeded 7 billion. 2) Every year in the world, millions of people move from Asia and Africa to the developed countries of Europe and America. 3) The annual growth rate of the world population is approximately 1.2% per year. 4) According to the latest census, the share of city dwellers in the total population of Russia has changed insignificantly in recent years.
11 Geography assignment A22, practice, 20. Which of the following sentences contains information about urbanization? 1) In 2010, the migration growth of the population in Russia decreased 2) In 2010, 3.5 billion people lived in urban areas, and 3.4 in rural areas. 3) Within the main zone of settlement of Russia, the average density 4) The annual rate of growth of the world population is approximately 1.2% per year.
Task 15. 1. Which of the statements contains information about population migrations? Write down 1) The formation of two independent states in the territory of the former British India led to the resettlement of a total
HOME CHECK WORK ON GEOGRAPHY Grade 9 1. Demographic warm-up 1. Which of the listed peoples is among the indigenous peoples of Western Siberia? 1) Bashkirs 2) Khanty 3) Komi 4) Chuvash
POPULATION OF SOUTHERN KAZAKHSTAN IN THE MODERN PERIOD NAIMANBAYEV B.R. A. A. KABDRAKHIMOVA Kazakhstan Engineering and Pedagogical University of Friendship of Peoples, RK International Kazakh-Turkish University named after. H.A. Yasawi,
2. Mirkin Ya. Oil in exchange for food? / Y. Mirkin // Arguments and Facts. 2016. 34. 3. Tikhonova N.E. The impact of the crisis on the life of the Russian middle class / N.E. Tikhonova // Social sciences and modernity.
Shigapova D.K. Candidate of Sociological Sciences, Associate Professor Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University Russia e-mail: [email protected] Trends in migration processes in the Republic of Tatarstan The article examines
Published in the Statistical Bulletin "Statistics of the CIS" 12 (543), 2014, pp. 11-30 On the demographic situation in the CIS countries in the year
Intrastate global population movements within one state. movements that are huge in volume, as a rule, occur between continents, cover several states,
Geography of migrations in the global world. DIDENKO OLGA.103 CONTENTS: 1. Definition of migration 2. History of migration 3. Types of migration 4. Factors influencing migration 5. Migrations Russian Federation 6. Scales
The Regional Committee of State Statistics announces the summary results of the 2002 All-Russian Population Census. 1. Population. According to the All-Russian population census, the number of permanent
Podkopayeva O.V. Far Eastern federal university, branch in Nakhodka, st. teacher Eleneva E.V. Far Eastern Federal University, branch in Nakhodka, st. teacher, Kuznetsov G.I.
IMPACT OF DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS ON ECONOMIC GROWTH: A REGIONAL ASPECT Author: T.A.
General geographical patterns Formation of the earth's crust and its heterogeneity. Stable and mobile parts of the earth's crust, associated landforms and minerals. Earth's climate. Circulation
POPULATION MIGRATION IN THE ROSTOV REGION IN 2014 E.A. Isaeva Territorial body of the Federal State Statistics Service for the Rostov Region, Rostov-on-Don, Russia [email protected]
4. POPULATION This section contains data on population, birth rate, mortality, and migration processes. Population censuses are the primary source of information about the population. Last
Podkopayeva O.V. Far Eastern Federal University, branch in Nakhodka, st. teacher Eleneva E.V. Far Eastern Federal University, branch in Nakhodka, st. teacher, Vilkov A.V.
1 TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION The World Bank estimates that 214 million people currently live outside their country of birth, which is about 3% of the world's population. Among
Section 1. Main demographic characteristics 1. KEY DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS According to Petrostat, the resident population of St. Petersburg as of 01.01.2018 was 5,352,092 people
LOGO studies the geographical features of the formation and development of the population and settlements in various social, economic and natural conditions. It establishes patterns, first of all
2. Population geography POPULATION GEOGRAPHY section of socio-economic geography that studies the patterns of population distribution across the territory in various social, economic and natural conditions
DEPARTMENT OF THE FEDERAL SERVICE OF STATE STATISTICS FOR THE STAVROPOL TERRITORY, THE KARACHAYEV-CHERKESS REPUBLIC AND THE KABARDINO-BALKARSKY REPUBLIC On demographic processes in the KBR Average population density
Materials on the topic: The population of the world. Number. Reproduction. Geography M3 profile level Grade 10. Teacher Shchekota L.V. Population. Number. Reproduction Population. Sex and age composition Change
Yu.K. Markov, Yu.R. Arkhipov, A.E. Yakovlev Structural changes in the migration of the population of Chuvashia In the mid-90s. Migration played a big role in changing the population of Chuvashia. However, in recent
World population Types of reproduction Demography is the science of population On the patterns of population reproduction, On its size and natural increase, On age and sex composition, etc.
Committee on Informatization and Communication St. Petersburg Information and Analytical Center MONITORING OF DEMOGRAPHIC PROCESSES IN ST. PETERSBURG: Q1 217 EXPRESS ANALYSIS St. Petersburg June
Committee for Informatization and Communication St. Petersburg Information and Analytical Center Monitoring of demographic processes in St. Petersburg 4th quarter 214 4th quarter 214 Express analysis St. Petersburg
Committee on Informatization and Communication St. Petersburg Information and Analytical Center MONITORING OF DEMOGRAPHIC PROCESSES IN ST. PETERSBURG: 2nd QUARTER 217 EXPRESS ANALYSIS St. Petersburg September
Population as an object of economic-geographical research Main questions: 1. Sources of information in the economic-geographical study of the population. 2. Plan-scheme of economic and geographical study of the population.
Committee for Informatization and Communication St. Petersburg Information and Analytical Center Monitoring of demographic processes in St. Petersburg 3rd quarter 215 3rd quarter 215 Express analysis St. Petersburg
On the predicted population for the period up to 2030, scenario options 268 264 263 263 264 268 273 273 280 279 288 286 297 294 308 1 387 1 393 1 398 1 403 1 407 1 410 1 412 1 413 1 414 1 413
Rostov region from census to census A little more than seven years have passed since the last population census. The All-Russian population census of 2002 made it possible to obtain a “portrait” of our country at the time
Economy foreign countries Zh.N.Komissarova Candidate of Economics, Senior Lecturer Evolution of Demographic Resources in France The article analyzes the demographic situation in France. There are also statistical data,
Population The population of the Commonwealth countries at the beginning of the year is estimated at one million people (at the beginning of 9 year 1 million). Permanent population (at the beginning of the year; thousand people) 7 9 * in %
Postavnin V.A. (President of the Migration XXI Century Foundation) Vlasova N.I. (Vice-President of the Migration XXI Century Foundation) Matveeva I.G. (Project coordinator of the Fund "Migration XXI century) Analysis of the processes of attracting foreign
National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic Demographic and migration situation in the Kyrgyz Republic and their forecasts for the near future Rimma Chynybaeva Head of the Department of Demographic
UDC 314.153(470.345) Loginova NN 1 DEMOGRAPHIC SITUATION IN THE REPUBLIC OF MORDOVIA The factors and manifestations of the demographic crisis in modern Russia are considered on the example of the Republic of Mordovia. In
Committee for Informatization and Communication St. Petersburg Information and Analytical Center Monitoring of demographic processes of processes in St. Petersburg St. Petersburg 1st 1st quarter of 216 Express analysis
Geography work for grade 10. 1. Type and purpose of work: administrative test goal: to test the knowledge of students in the course "Economic and social geography of the world" 2. List of students to be checked
Committee for Informatization and Communication St. Petersburg Information and Analytical Center Monitoring of demographic processes Monitoring of demographic processes in St. Petersburg St. Petersburg 3rd
68 ECO. 2. ¹5 Census data are unique and cannot be obtained from current enumeration or sample surveys. Keywords: All-Russian census, population dynamics Preliminary results of the All-Russian
Committee for Informatization and Communication St. Petersburg Information and Analytical Center Monitoring of demographic processes in St. Petersburg 1st quarter 215 1st quarter 215 Express analysis St. Petersburg
Migration processes in the northern region: specifics and features of management Mostakhova T.S. leading Researcher Yakutsk scientific center SB RAS, Doctor of Economics Migration processes are of particular importance
Specification of diagnostic work in geography for students of the 0th grade of educational institutions in Moscow. Appointment of diagnostic work Diagnostic work is carried out on March 5, 208 from
Lecture 3 Assessment of the demographic situation in Belarus Lecture plan 1. Assessment of the demographic situation in Belarus and forecast of its change. 2. Dynamics of population 3. Dynamics of demographic indicators
UDC: 332.1+314:312 42 E.Zh. Imashev GEODEMOGRAPHIC SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE WESTERN KAZAKHSTAN REGION State University them. M. Utemisova, Uralsk The article studies
Kemerovo region 19 districts 20 cities (including subordinate settlements) 1 urban-type settlement of regional subordination 164 rural areas 22 urban-type settlements 1065 rural settlements
Committee on Informatization and Communication St. Petersburg Information and Analytical Center MONITORING OF DEMOGRAPHIC PROCESSES IN ST. PETERSBURG: 4TH QUARTER 216 EXPRESS ANALYSIS St. Petersburg March
5. POPULATION This section contains data on population, birth rate, mortality, and migration processes. Population censuses are the primary source of information about the population. Last
QUANTITATIVE PARAMETERS OF URBANIZATION IN TYVA IN THE XX - BEGINNING OF THE XXI CENTURY Elena Evgenievna Tinikova Candidate historical sciences GBNIU RH "Khakass Research Institute of Language, Literature and History",
DEMOGRAPHIC SITUATION IN THE TAMBOV REGION I. POPULATION In 2015, the process of depopulation or population decline in the region continued. Permanent population of the region
"Migrating Russia" Modern trends in the number and migration of the population of the country Plan: 1. Dynamics of the population of Russia (according to data at the beginning of 2017) 2. Forecasts of the population of Russia 3.
Population of Russia: demographic forecasts by M.B. Denisenko National Research University Higher School of Economics, head. Department of Demography [email protected] Population of Russia by 2016 Indicator (year) Estimation Place in the world Population (01/01/2016):
Committee on Informatization and Communications St. Petersburg Information and Analytical Center of IP IAO MONITORING OF DEMOGRAPHIC PROCESSES IN ST. PETERSBURG: 1ST QUARTER 219 D.
Information on the dynamics of the main indicators characterizing the migration processes of the Khabarovsk Territory In the Khabarovsk Territory, the trend of population decline due to migration continues. Since 1991
DEMOGRAPHIC POTENTIAL UDC 314.18:332.1 (571.56+571.65/66) DEMOGRAPHIC FACTOR OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE NORTH-EAST OF RUSSIA S. A. SUKNEVA, Doctor of Economics, Associate Professor, Head
Belkovskaya N.G. The population of the Vitebsk region / N.G. Belkovskaya // Regions of Belarus: Enzik. in 7 vols., Vol. 2., Vitebsk region, book. 2; Minsk: Bel. Encycle. named after P. Broki, 2011. P. 170 As of January 1, 2009, the population
POPULATION The section contains data on the population, birth rate, mortality, and migration processes. Population censuses are the primary source of information about the population. Last
5. POPULATION This section contains data on population, birth rate, mortality, and migration processes. Population censuses are the primary source of information about the population. Last
Committee for Informatization and Communications St. Petersburg Information and Analytical Center of IP IAO MONITORING OF DEMOGRAPHIC PROCESSES IN ST. PETERSBURG: 1ST QUARTER 218
Population dynamics in Kazakhstan at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st century Over the last decade of the 20th century, the population dynamics of Kazakhstan has undergone repeated changes. Exactly
The territorial body of the Federal State Statistics Service presents the results of the 2010 All-Russian Population Census for the urban district of the Hero City of Volgograd, obtained as a result of an automated
THEMATIC PLANNING. GRADE 10. GEOGRAPHY. TEXTBOOK V.P. MAKSAKOVSKY "ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD" ED. EDUCATION. YEAR 2000. I half-year TOPIC OF THE TASK 1. Economic and social
DYNAMICS AND MAIN FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC POTENTIAL OF SARATOV REGION N.S. Samoilova Territorial body of the Federal State Statistics Service for the Saratov region, Saratov,
Geography. Grade 9 Training "Population of Russia" 1 Population of Russia Tasks for training 1 Which of the following republics has the highest average population density? 1) Tyva 2) Komi 3) Tatarstan 4) Sakha
5. POPULATION This section contains data on population, birth rate, mortality, and migration processes. Population censuses are the primary source of information about the population. Last
UDC 331.556 MIGRATION PROCESSES AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XXI CENTURY IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION Fokeeva L.V. Belarusian State University, Minsk Among driving forces economic globalization and at the same time
ABBREVIATIONS NWFD - Northwestern Federal District CIS - Commonwealth Independent States city - city of r.p. - work settlement km ² - square kilometer % - percentage - no phenomenon; data
Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus Belarusian State University Faculty of Geography Demographic risks of the 21st century (to international day population) Materials of the III Interuniversity
The U. process became the subject of research in the USSR in the 1920s. (surveys of migration, life and recreation of various social groups, etc.). This stage is marked by discussions between "urbanists" and "de-urbanists". However, during this period, U. was not yet identified to the necessary extent, technics were absolutized. sides of the process, which sometimes amounted to industrialization. The deepening of the study of W. is associated with the development of sociological. research since the late 1950s. The importance of U. in the development of society is shown, its consideration as an integral phenomenon in connection with the tasks of social management and planning.
Lit.: K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 46, part 1; Weber A., The growth of cities in the 19th century, trans. from English, St. Petersburg, 1903; Bucher K., Large cities in the past and present, trans. from German, St. Petersburg, 1905; Weber M., City, [transl. from German], St. Petersburg, 1923; Okhitovich M., On the problem of the city, "Modern architecture", 1929, No4; Sabsovich L. M., New ways in the construction of cities, "Construction of Moscow", 1930, No 1; Pchelintsev OS, Rational distribution of production and the problem of large cities, "VF", 1961, No 2; Urlanis B. Ts., Fertility and life expectancy in the USSR, M., 1963; Pokshishevsky VV, On the study of urbanization in developing countries and related ethn. processes, M., 1964; Kogan L. B., Loktev V. I., Some sociological. aspects of urban modeling, "VF", 1964, No 9; Sjoberg G., Comparative Urbanist, in: Sociology Today, trans. from English, M., 1965; Geography of cities. Sat. st., trans. from English, M., 1965; Sociological problems of the Polish city, trans. from Polish., M., 1966; Yanitsky O.N., Concrete sociological. research in urban planning, "Architecture of the USSR", 1967, No 2; Kogan L., Urbanization - - microdistrict, "Architecture of the USSR", 1967, No 4; Akhiezer A. S., Some questions of the methodology of urban planning science, "Architecture of the USSR", 1968, No 2; Akhiezer A. S. Kogan L. B., Yanitsky O. N., Urbanization, and scientific and agricultural. revolution, "VF", 1969, No 2; Listengurt Φ. Μ., Perspective changes in the mountains. of the population in the USSR, "Izv. AN SSSR. Geographic Series", 1969, No 1; Scientific forecasts of development and formation of owls. cities on the basis of social and scientific and technical. progress, vol. 1–3, M., 1968–69; Park R. E., Burgess E. W., Mac Κenzie R. D., The city, Chi., 1925; Mumford L., The culture of cities, L., 1938; Cities and society, Glencoe (Ill.), 1957; Le phénomène de l "urbanisation en Asie et en Extrême-Orient, Cale, 1959; Famille et habitation, t. 1–2, P., 1963; Dumazedier J., Contenu culturel du loisir ouvrier dans six villes d" Europe, " Revue française de sociology", 1963, v. 4, no 1; Hauser P. M., Schnore L. F., The study of urbanization, N. Y., 1965; Przecławski K., Miasto i człowiek, (bibl.); Wallis A., Socjologia wielkiegomiasta, Warsz., 1967. See also lit. at Art. Opposite between city and countryside.
L. Kogan. Moscow.
Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .
URBANIZATION (from Latin urbanus - urban, urbs - city) - the historical process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, causing changes in the socio-professional and demographic structure of the population, influencing its culture, lifestyle, psychology, etc. Main an indicator of urbanization is an increase in the proportion of the urban population.
The first urban-type settlements arose in 3-1 thousand BC. e. in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Syria, India, M. Asia, China. They arose as centers of crafts and trade, strongholds of defense against external enemies, centers of power and administration, service and culture. Almost all ancient cities were located in river valleys, which created favorable conditions for the development of trade and cultural ties with other peoples.
The ancient cities flourished during the Roman era, building and expanding from Britain to present-day Iraq, with majestic public buildings and improved water and sanitation systems.
Cities had a great impact on the life of medieval society. They stimulated the creation centralized states contributed to the development of commodity-money relations. In 16-17VV. many large cities were originally founded as ports: Boston, Cape Town, Bombay, Rio de Janeiro, New York. They served as central points for the distribution of goods and became centers of colonial administration.
The process of industrialization had a huge impact on the development of cities. The development of industry and the trend of its concentration in cities contributed to migration a large number villagers to urban centers in search of more high paying job. Three British cities - Manchester, Leeds and Birmingham - are classic examples of cities whose development has led to the growth of industry. The population of Manchester, the main center for the production of cotton fabrics in the country, increased from 1801 to 1811 by 22%, from 1811 to 1821 - by 40%, and from 1821 to 1831 by 47%, amounting to almost 228 thousand by 1831.
The intensification of the process of urbanization led in the 19th century. to the so-called. urban revolution, an increase in the concentration of a significant part of the population in cities, which became possible due to the development of industry, transport and communications, the intensification of agricultural production, the improvement of knowledge in the field of medicine, etc. The share of the urban population in the world during the period from 1800 to 1990 increased from 5.1 to 41.3%.
Urbanization was due to the need for spatial concentration and integration of various forms and types of spiritual and material activities of people, the strengthening of ties between various spheres of production, science and culture, which in turn stimulated the intensification of various social processes.
The process of urbanization has two phases. In the first phase, the concentration and accumulation of the cultural and economic potential of society in large cities takes place. Then, in the second phase, patterns of material and spiritual activity of urban centers are mastered by other, non-central cities and rural settlements, which gives impetus to the further development of the main centers.
The movement from the center to the periphery is effective only when the urban principle in social phenomena “inculcates” certain universal features in all cities. At the same time, each urban community has its own historical, regional, cultural and other features. Thus, the two-pronged urbanization is permeated with interaction and mutual enrichment of central and peripheral patterns of activity, culture, and behavior. The process of interaction between urban communities is the most important basis for the formation of national goals and interests.
The development of the urbanization process created the conditions for the emergence of the so-called. urban consciousness, which has become an integral part of personality development. The ability to harmonize and integrate the interests, goals and needs of various social strata, groups, organizations, tastes and preferences of hundreds of thousands and millions of people makes cities an essential element of a modern democratic society.
In the process of urbanization, an urban lifestyle is formed, which becomes an integral part of urban culture. It is characterized by special communication, a certain specificity of personality development, intra-group relations, etc. One of the signs of the urban lifestyle is the psychological mobility of a person, which in the conditions of the city manifests itself as a desire for constant updating of social information, intensification of contacts in various spheres of public and personal life , willingness to change social environment and spatial localization.
Increasing urbanization has led to the emergence of serious social and environmental issues such as air and water pollution, waste disposal, density and development, transport, energy consumption, harmful effects of noise, uneven development of central and peripheral cities, etc. There are also economic difficulties, for example. the problem of exorbitantly rising costs while reducing incomes, which the authorities of many modern cities face. The migration of people with middle and high incomes, as well as businesses to the suburbs, has been one of the reasons for the reduction in tax revenues and rising unemployment in cities.
A new trend in modern urbanization is the construction of improved quality residential buildings for high-income families inside the city. This leads to an increase in the cost of land in the city center or in certain areas that become inaccessible to the less affluent segments of the population, which is the reason for the division of the city into "poor" and "rich" areas.
The current stage of urbanization is characterized not only by its “pointy” form, i.e., the concentration of the population in large cities (over 100 thousand people), but also by the agglomerative form. Around the largest urban centers, a cluster of settlements is formed, mostly of an urban type, merging into a single one as a result of the intensification of economic and cultural ties. Some modern agglomerates extend for several hundred kilometers.
The scientific and technological revolution, the increasing importance of various social information (scientific, technical, cultural, etc.), the need to deepen the links between various fields of knowledge and activity have led to an increase in the concentration of the population in the largest urban centers. A special role in expanding the scope of urbanization is played by the development of means of communication, transport and mass communication, which contribute to the familiarization of residents of peripheral areas with the values and lifestyle of the population of large cities.
The main achievements of civilization are undoubtedly associated with the process of urbanization. The development of cities contributed to the growth of the welfare of society, the development of culture, and the increase in the diversity of social life. In the same time
Urbanization is a historical process of increasing the role of the city in the development of society, which embraces changes in the location of production and, above all, in the distribution of the population, its socio-professional structure, lifestyle, culture, etc. - a multilateral socio-economic, demographic and geographical process occurring on the basis of historically established forms of social and territorial division of labor. In a narrower, demographic and statistical understanding, urbanization is the growth of cities, especially large ones, an increase in the proportion of the urban population in a country, region, world (urbanization of the population).
The first cities appeared in the III-I millennium BC. in, Mesopotamia, China, as well as in some areas and adjacent to. In the Greco-Roman world, cities such as Athens, Rome, Carthage played a huge role. With the development of an industrial society, the objective necessity of concentration and integration of various forms and types of material and spiritual activity was the reason for the intensification of the process of urbanization, an increase in the concentration of the population in cities. At the present stage of urbanization in the economically developed, there is a predominance of large-town forms of settlements.
The development of the urbanization process is closely related to the peculiarities of the formation of the urban population and the growth of cities: the urban population itself; inclusion in the city limits or assignment to the administrative subordination of suburban areas (including cities, towns and villages); transformation of rural settlements into urban ones. The actual growth of cities is also due to the formation of more or less wide suburban areas and urbanized areas. The living conditions of the population in these areas are increasingly approaching the conditions of life in large cities, the centers of gravity of these zones.
A comparative analysis of the demographic aspects of the process of urbanization in various countries of the world is usually based on data on the growth of the urbanization of the population - the share of the urban, or urbanized, population. However, in the reports different countries there is no information given for one date (the amplitude of fluctuations is up to 10 years), the methods of counting the urban population and determining the boundaries of cities are not the same. In the countries of the world, there are three different types by which settlements are classified as urban:
- when settlements are subdivided according to a chosen criterion (for example, according to the type of local government, according to the number of inhabitants, according to the proportion of the population employed in);
- when the administrative center of a rural area is classified as a city, and the rest of it as a village;
- when clusters of a population of a certain size belong to cities, regardless of their administrative affiliation.
Since the criteria for identifying urban settlements vary considerably in individual countries, in order to obtain comparable data, the population of all settlements that have reached a certain population size is often included in the urban population. The values of 2, 5, 10 and 20 thousand inhabitants are proposed as the world statistical qualification of the population of the city (almost not connected with its definition in essence). Thus, the population of settlements with a population of at least 2,000 is often considered urbanized. But such a qualification, while suitable for certain countries, is still too low for the world standard. However, the actual scale of urbanization is so complex that it is preferable to use several criteria as steps. When using national criteria for the allocation of urban settlements, the dynamics of urbanization of the population is as follows. In 1800, the share of the urban population in the entire population of the globe was about 3%, in 1860 - 6.4%, in 1900 - 19.6%, by 1990 it increased to 43% (14 times).
The outpacing growth of the urban and non-agricultural population compared to the rural and agricultural population is the most feature modern urbanization. In three parts of the world - and, America, Europe, urban residents predominate, at the same time, the African population, and due to its large numbers, creates a preponderance of the village over the city on average in the world. The countries of Asia and Africa have the largest reserves of urban population growth, and it is here that its most rapid growth has recently taken place.
The highest percentage of the urban population is economically . In 1990 urban population was (in%): in — 74.3; c — 78.3; — 75; — 60; - 77.5; - 77.4; — 90; China - 26.2; - 25.7. When the proportion of the urban population exceeds 70%, the rate of its growth, as a rule, slows down and gradually (when approaching 80%) stops.
Urbanization is characterized by the concentration of the population in large and super-large cities. It is the growth of large cities (100 thousand people), the new forms of settlement associated with it, and the spread of the urban way of life that most clearly reflect the process of urbanization of the population. The share of large cities in the total population of the world has increased over more than 100 years (from 1860 to 1980) from 1.7 to 20%. No less remarkable is the development of the largest "millionaire" cities. If in 1800 there was only one city with a population of more than 1 million, then in 1990 there were over 300 such cities.
The modern type of urbanization in economically developed countries is no longer so much a rapid rate of growth in the proportion of the urban population as a particularly intensive development of suburbanization processes and the formation on this basis of new spatial forms of urban settlement - megacities. Under these conditions, the processes of territorial deconcentration of the population were clearly manifested. This refers not only to the movement of the population from large cities to their suburban areas - a process that was widely developed back in the 50s. XX century, but also the predominant growth of cities in peripheral areas compared to highly urbanized ones. In the 70s. For the first time in the United States, population growth rates were below the national average. Data for France confirm a general population shift from urban areas to small and medium-sized cities as a result of the change in direction. In , there was a decline in the population in the largest cities, and from the city centers the flows of migrants were directed mainly to their suburban areas. In many large urban agglomerations, the population has stopped increasing or even started to decline (often due to the decrease in the population of the city centers).
In the world, as already noted, the “population explosion” was accompanied by an “urban explosion”. With relatively low urbanization rates, many of these countries have relatively high rates of urbanization. The disproportionate growth of the capitals of a number of Asian and African states is associated with a special type of urbanization, which is distinguished by the mass attraction of peasants to large cities. The influx of the rural population into the cities, as a rule, far outstrips the growth in labor demand. In developing countries, multi-million urban agglomerations are being formed (for example, Buenos Aires, Sao Paulo, Calcutta, etc.). On the one hand, the process of urbanization contributes to the progress of these countries, raises the role of cities, on the other hand, it exacerbates the socio-economic problems generated by economic backwardness and associated with excessive “demographic” for large cities.
The impact of urbanization on demographic processes is manifested, to a large extent, depending on the differentiation of the urban environment, primarily on the differences in cities in size and economic profile (functional type). As the process of urbanization develops, the urban population decreases in comparison with the rural population, and in the future there is a drop in the birth rate in rural areas. Some developing countries (such as Egypt) have higher urban birth rates due to a range of socioeconomic, demographic and religious factors, in particular the more balanced sex ratios in cities. In almost all countries, the birth rate of urban residents who have recently moved from rural areas is higher than that of long-term residents of cities (if the adaptation of rural residents to cities is not very difficult).
As urbanization develops, the role of migration in the growth of the urban population is gradually decreasing. The intensity of the territorial mobility of the population as a whole is growing, especially the intensity of pendulum movements. The main role in the formation of the urban population of the Russian Federation for many years was played by migration from rural areas to cities and the transformation of villages into urban settlements. However, over time, the importance of natural increase in the formation of the population of cities increases. In conditions when the rate of natural growth is declining, the rate of growth of the urban population is also slowing down. In the early 90s. 20th century Population growth in many of Russia's largest cities has halted.
The profound impact of modern urbanization on many aspects of social life leads to the emergence of new theories that try to explain the role of urbanization in the development of society. This is, first of all, the socio-evolutionary theory of the "urban revolution", according to which, in the course of urbanization, its contradictions are gradually eliminated, significant antagonisms between the city and the countryside are removed. The urban revolution must eventually lead to a "post-urban society". According to M. Weber, the theorist of urbanization, it leads to the creation of a “post-urban society” - a “society outside the cities” - by including most of the population in the information production industry, the development of universal spatial mobility.
One of the most characteristic features of the development modern society is the rapid growth of cities and the continuous rate of increase in the number of their inhabitants, that is, there is urbanization, which entails significant social transformations in the life of mankind.
Urbanization (from the Latin "urbanus" - urban) is a historical process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, which covers the socio-professional, demographic structure of the population, its lifestyle, culture, production location, population resettlement, etc.
AT early XIX centuries, about 30 million people (3% of the world's population) lived in the cities of the world; by 1900 - almost 225 million (about 14%); by 1950 - mail 730 million (about 30%); by 1980 - 1 billion 820 million (more than 41%), by 2010 - more than 2 billion (more than 43%).
Nowadays, most of the world's citizens are born city dwellers. The share of the urban population in Europe is almost 70%, in Asia - about 40%, in Africa - 20%, in North America - 75%, Latin America- 65%, in Australia and Oceania - 76%. The proportion of the urban population is especially high in developed countries. A country is considered almost completely urbanized if 4/5 of its population lives in cities.
An example is the United Kingdom, where for decades there has been a relative stability of the urban and rural population. At the same time, in Africa and Asia, the processes of urbanization are currently particularly dynamic, which is associated with rapid development states of these continents. In developing countries, the process of urbanization is characterized not only by pace, but also by heterogeneity - the rapid growth of the largest cities occurs with a moderate growth of medium ones. We will dwell on the urbanization of developing countries, as well as its impact on the environment, later.
The prerequisites for urbanization are the growth of industry in cities, the development of cultural and political functions of the population. With the expansion of large cities, natural landscapes turn into urban asphalt-concrete areas, which are characterized by dense development of the territory with various buildings and structures inherent in the city, a change in the type of rivers and other water bodies located on its territory, the construction of new production and industrial facilities, the construction of new transport nodes, highways, etc.
Urbanization has a huge impact on the development of various socio-economic formations and states, because the main achievements of civilization are associated with cities. However, transformations can be either positive or negative.
Urbanization, on the one hand, improves the living conditions of the population, on the other hand, leads to the displacement of natural systems by artificial ones, pollution environment, increasing the chemical, physical and psychological, man-made load on the human body.
Cities change almost all components of the natural environment - the atmosphere, vegetation, soil, relief, hydrographic network, groundwater, soil, and even climate. The process of urbanization, due to the development of social production and the nature social relations, itself exerts an increasingly diversified influence on the development of another sphere of society's activity - ecological.
The relationship between urbanization and the state of the natural environment is due to a number of factors in a complex system of socio-economic development and interaction between society and nature. Understanding the general and specific features of the state of the natural environment in cities is important for developing the necessary measures to solve global problems of the population and the environment. Large centers of urbanization have become the focus of most of the global problems of mankind. They have the greatest impact on the environment.
The emergence and development of large cities-megalopolises leads to the reconstruction of large areas of the planet. At the same time, air and water basins, green areas suffer, transport links are disrupted, which leads to discomfort in all respects. Many cities are expanding so that they can no longer accommodate on land and begin to "slide into the sea." It is impossible not to mention the city-islands, urban structures on the water area or in its immediate vicinity. For example, in the United United Arab Emirates, or, to go far - the construction of a multi-storey building in Laspi Bay.
The process of population concentration in cities is inevitable and essentially positive. But the structure of the city, which must develop, its industrial, “city-forming” factor, which includes the construction and further operation of large industrial enterprises, comes into conflict with the historical purpose of the city and its role in raising the living standards of the population.
Modern large cities, especially megalopolises, expand spontaneously, include residential facilities, numerous scientific and public institutions, industrial enterprises and transport facilities, grow, expand, merge with each other, crowding and destroying wildlife. Modern large cities are in most cases a mass of concrete, asphalt, burning, poisonous emissions.
The city is the highest form of space organization for human society. The economic and social advantages of urban forms of settlement are indisputable. They have a significant potential for economic development, their residents have more opportunities for education, choice of profession, familiarization with cultural values. However, large-scale construction, concentration and intensification of industrial activities have a huge impact on the environment. In cities, almost all components of the natural environment change: the atmosphere, relief, hydrographic network and water regime of the territory, soil, vegetation, soils, groundwater, climate, and even geological structure. Moreover, such actions can lead both to an increase in the possibilities of satisfying the biological and social needs of a modern person, and to their decrease, that is, to an improvement or worsening of his living conditions. Gravitational, thermal, electrical, magnetic and other physical fields of the Earth change in cities. There is less solar radiation, especially ultraviolet rays, but more precipitation, more cloudy and foggy days and a slightly higher average annual temperature.
The randomness of urban development, the huge crowding of the population both in the central and peripheral parts of cities, the limitations of integrated urban planning and legislative regulation have a very unfavorable effect. There are very frequent cases of close proximity of built-up and densely populated residential areas and industrial enterprises with outdated technology and without treatment facilities. This further worsens the state of the environment.
In cities, people are more likely to develop various diseases, including infectious ones. A city dweller moves away from nature, in the city the population density is very high, the air is polluted, there are many different noises. In cities, 500-1500 kg of dust, soot and other substances fall per day per 1 km 2 of the area, while far from cities, in rural areas, they are only 5-15 kg per day.
During the work of industrial enterprises, a lot of energy is expended for lighting streets, heating apartments, buildings, institutions and other vital facilities. Energy is mainly generated at thermal power plants, so in cities it is warmer in winter than in rural areas, but burning coal, oil and gas pollutes the atmosphere with emissions of various harmful substances, thereby changing the ratio of gases in the atmosphere.
The city requires a huge amount of water. Some small part of it goes to direct consumption by residents, the rest - after being used in factories, in public utilities - turns into polluted wastewater. These waters contain impurities of heavy metals, oil, various organic compounds and other substances. Naturally, if you do not take measures to clean Wastewater, then they will pollute clean natural waters and eventually lead them to an unusable state.
The city throws thousands and thousands of tons of garbage into the environment every day. If they are simply piled up outside the city, they will require more and more areas, and the harmful substances concentrated in them, especially poisonous ones, will pollute and poison natural waters, and through them the soil and other components of the natural environment.
A very important ecological function is performed by urban vegetation, in particular trees. Their role in air purification is very great. They create a microclimate in the city, providing comfortable conditions for the human environment.
However, it is difficult to maintain ecological balance in cities. Here, all elements of the natural ecosystem change. In the urban environment, metabolism and energy flows are largely controlled by man, his activity is entirely devoted to maintaining dynamic balance in urban ecosystems.
In large cities, both positive and negative sides of scientific and technological progress and industrialization were intertwined. A new ecological environment is being created with a high concentration of anthropogenic factors, that is, the results of human activity, leading to a change in the habitat, the environment. The most famous of them, such as air pollution, high noise levels, electromagnetic radiation, are a direct product of urbanization.
Human health largely depends on the quality of both the natural and anthropogenic environment. In the conditions of a large city, the influence of the natural component on a person is weakened, and the effect of anthropogenic factors is sharply increased. Cities, in which a large number of people, vehicles and various enterprises are concentrated in relatively small areas, are centers of man-made impact on nature. Gas and dust emissions from industrial enterprises, their discharge into the surrounding water bodies of sewage, municipal and household waste from a large city pollute the environment with a variety of chemical elements. In most industrial wastes, the content of such elements as mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, tin, copper, tungsten, antimony, bismuth is tens of thousands of times higher than in natural soils.
Atmospheric pollution is responsible for up to 30% of the general diseases of the population of industrial centers. In connection with the development in cities of various types of industry, especially chemical, everything is emitted into the atmosphere. large quantity harmful substances.
Clouds of black smoke first enveloped many cities in Europe and America in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Leader of the Industrial Revolution - Great Britain ranked first in air pollution. London became famous for its dense fog, which gave a peculiar flavor to detective stories, but shortened the lives of many citizens. However, in the early days of industrialization, the extent of the health effects of air pollution was not determined, because during this period, as a result of improved sanitation and nutrition, there was a sharp decrease in deaths from infectious diseases, which masked the harm caused by polluted air. In 1943, residents of Los Angeles began to complain about the periodic appearance of an annoying light blue haze in the air. Experts have established its connection with the presence of sulfur dioxide.
The industrial release of this substance was reduced, but the haze over the city continued to appear. Studies have shown that carbohydrates contained in gasoline vapor, interacting with other pollutants, form new compounds under the action of sunlight. The city administration decided to eliminate the leakage of gases from the fuel storage facilities of numerous oil refineries, but the haze over the city still did not disappear. Then it became clear that air pollutants are cars. So the world was introduced to photochemical oxidizers - compounds of ozone with various substances, which are formed by the interaction of hydrocarbons with nitrogen oxides emitted by motor vehicles and energy enterprises in sunlight.
The term "smog" was first applied to a cloud looming over Los Angeles. With the increase in the number of cars, a similar phenomenon began to be observed over other cities.
Currently, the car is in first place in terms of absolute emissions of gases. It is the source of almost half of the air pollutants. Carbon monoxide causes the main harm, but carbohydrates, nitrogen oxides contained in exhaust gases, and photochemical oxidizers also negatively affect the human body.
In Ukraine, Kyiv is the leader in transport emissions. Nitrogen oxides, when in contact with the moist surface of the lungs, form acids, and those, in turn, form nitrates and nitrites. Both the acids themselves and their derivatives irritate the mucous membranes, especially the deep sections of the respiratory tract, which can lead to reflex respiratory disorders and even pulmonary edema.
Among the sources of pollution that adversely affect human health, the car plays a significant, but not the main role. Automobiles cause 10-25% of diseases, although, as we have said, they produce almost half of all air pollutants. Sulfur oxides and various fine particles (mixtures of soot, ash, dust, droplets of sulfuric acid, asbestos fibers, etc.) cause more diseases than car exhaust fumes. They enter the atmosphere from power plants, factories and residential buildings. Sulfur oxides and dust particles are usually concentrated in places where coal is burned most intensively, they are dangerous, mainly in winter, when more fuel is burned. It has been proven that a high concentration of sulfur oxides and fine particles aggravates the course of chronic respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
Environmental pollution also affects the occurrence of diseases such as lung cancer, although the main role in the pathogenesis of this disease belongs to smoking. For residents of large cities, the likelihood of this disease is about 20-30% higher than for people living in villages or small towns. A relationship has been established between the content of particulate matter in the air and the incidence of stomach and prostate cancer. It is assumed that nitrogen oxides in the air combine with other pollutants to form substances that are among the most active carcinogens.
Apparently, radioactive particles scattered around the world in connection with nuclear weapons testing and the operation of nuclear power plants also take part in the occurrence of lung cancer. Among the various radioactive substances, plutonium is the most dangerous, characterized by a very slow decay. After the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, extensive pollution zones formed on the territory of Ukraine, the Russian Federation and Belarus.
A connection between atmospheric air pollution and the growth of diseases of a genetic nature has been found, while the level of congenital malformations in industrial cities depends not only on the intensity of pollution, but also on the nature of atmospheric emissions. A number of chemicals have a mutagenic effect, which can manifest itself in an increase in the frequency of chromosomal changes in germ cells, which leads to neoplasms, spontaneous abortions, perinatal death of the fetus, developmental anomalies and infertility. In contaminated areas, adverse pregnancies and childbirth are more common.
Outdoor air pollution has aroused more concern in people than any other form of environmental destruction. Air pollution prevention programs in large cities were slow to implement, costly and often violated. However, they have brought some results. Currently, most developed countries are engaged in the elimination of the main sources of air pollution. The conversion of power plants to oil and natural gas has significantly reduced the emission of sulfur oxides. Improvements in the design of automobiles have reduced the emission of gases containing carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. Where measures are taken to combat air pollution, improvements in public health can also be noted.
An additional source of chemicals for the body of urban residents is agricultural products. Cultivated near cities, it is polluted with fertilizers and pesticides (often in excess of reasonable levels). Chemicals used in agriculture - pesticides, herbicides, which occupy the first place in environmental pollution, have a significant impact on soil pollution.
One of the most acute problems of a large city is water. Recently, most large cities are experiencing ever-increasing difficulties with water supply. Although 5 liters of water per day is enough to satisfy a person’s vital needs, he needs much more: only for personal hygiene and domestic needs, at least 40-50 liters must be spent. Water consumption in the city averages from 150 to 200 liters, and in a number of industrial centers - up to 500 liters per capita per day. In small towns, water is used to a greater extent for domestic needs, while in large centers the ratio between the amount of water for industrial and domestic needs is exactly the opposite.
Despite the fact that water consumption is steadily increasing due to the growth of the world's population, the main threat is not this, but the progressive pollution of rivers, lakes and groundwater. Water purity is a huge public health problem. The danger of diseases caused by bacteria transmitted through water (for example, diphtheria) lies in the fact that they have a high biological activity and are involved in many human life processes. Water pollution has become the subject of intensive study, as the number of people suffering from diseases transmitted through contaminated water. numbered in the millions. Now this problem is being intensively solved: treatment facilities are used more efficiently before it is supplied to residential buildings, the population has the opportunity to use a variety of water filters, or buy already purified water.
Noise plays a significant role in human life, especially in large cities. The negative impact of noise on the central nervous system human, blood pressure, activity of internal organs. High noise levels contribute to the increase of various diseases. The impact of noise and vibration on the human body will be discussed later.
Among the physical environmental factors that adversely affect the health of citizens, electromagnetic fields also play an increasingly important role. The human nervous and reproductive systems are most vulnerable to such influences.
More recently, in the 60s and 70s of the 20th century, it was widely believed that environmental problems (including in cities) are typical only for industrialized countries. A turning point in approaches to the problems of the state and quality of the natural environment in developing countries occurred in the early 1970s. In 1972, the United Nations Stockholm Conference on the Environment described the ecological state of cities as one of the most critical problems in a group of developing countries.
In the cities of developing countries, with their disorderly development, environmental problems are increasingly noted. The construction of various large structures leads to soil subsidence, sinkholes and a number of other unfavorable environmental consequences. The reasons for these phenomena are different, but among them is the increased pressure of the economy and the population on the built-up area. Of no small importance is the fact that new settlements are often created on sites that are unfavorable in engineering-geological and hydro-geological terms, “climb” the slopes of hills and high mountains, or “descend” into swampy areas.
For example, in the Mexico City agglomeration, located at an average altitude of 2240 m above sea level, temporary settlements are found at altitudes of more than 3000 m. Settling in these areas contributes to the spread of slope erosion. On the ecological situation in the Mexico City agglomeration, the subsidence of a significant part of its territory as a result of the continued use of groundwater to supply the multimillion-dollar capital of Mexico is having a huge and threatening impact. At the same time, despite the threatening hydrogeological situation in the central part of the city of Mexico City, intensive industrial and residential construction continues.
The situation is aggravated by the limitedness and remoteness of the Mexican capital from the high-mountain resources of surface water runoff. Many buildings and various transport structures are under threat of destruction due to the lowering of the territory. Drainage (drying) of the territory at the site of drained lakes causes frequent dust storms. Up to 7 such storms are observed annually, especially during the dry season. In the metropolitan area of Mexico, in no small part due to the deterioration of environmental conditions and environmental quality, there is an increase in cancer. Various allergic diseases affect 1/7 of the population of Mexico City.
In Calcutta, the only large river port complex in India, there is a violation of the lithological structure - the structure of sedimentary rocks. The same reason hinders the development of Bangkok, where there is also a subsidence of the territory due to the increasing use of groundwater in an unfavorable hydrogeological situation. Lowering territory in this largest industrial center In India and Southeast Asia, the danger of devastating floods is increasing.
The deterioration of the quality of the air basin of large cities in developing countries is associated with the growth of population and industry, the pace of production and consumption of energy. The basis for the development of the electric power industry in developing countries has been the construction of thermal power plants, as a rule, without expensive environmental protection devices.
The volume of solid waste in the cities of developing countries is on average 3-4 times less than in industrialized countries, however, the problems of collection, storage, transportation and disposal of solid waste pose considerable difficulties for cities in countries high level development. In Africa, only up to 1/3 of the urban population is served by municipal solid waste collection services. This has become an important factor in the instability of the health of citizens. Weakness in organized urban cleanup in cities in developing countries causes clogging and disables already inadequate drainage facilities. This complicates water supply and wastewater disposal. The problem of human waste disposal will also be considered later.
There are also important geographic factors that affect the state of the environment in cities. This, in particular, is the ability of the atmosphere to dilute pollutants entering it, depending on meteorological conditions at different latitudes. In the tropics, where most of the developing countries are located, the ability of the atmosphere to absorb and dilute the pollutants entering it is about 3 times lower than in the middle latitudes in Western Europe. Studies conducted in a number of developing countries have shown the presence of especially dangerous concentrations of pollutants in the atmosphere of their largest cities.
In the largest cities, a high, and often dangerous, degree of air pollution, to a certain extent, is due to a very significant concentration of industry.
Emissions of carbon monoxide lead to mass poisoning, which is accompanied by a drop in hemoglobin in the blood and a deterioration in the supply of oxygen to body tissues. The danger to the health of the urban population is also increasing because large capacities of the chemical industry and ferrous metallurgy are moving from industrial countries to the "third world" region. At the same time, large production complexes in these industries, especially those built by transnational corporations, often do not have modern and expensive treatment facilities to reduce the cost of projects.
A high degree of pollution of the air basin and water supply sources, unregulated development of industry and road transport contribute to the spread of cardiovascular, carcinogenic, respiratory, infectious, gastrointestinal diseases, as well as a number of other serious health disorders for large groups of the population.
A very important circumstance affecting the ecological state of vast territories and water areas outside large agglomerations should be considered the transfer of their pollution. In developing countries, cases of adverse environmental impact of the largest centers on the environment are not uncommon with ever-increasing radii of such impact. For example, traces of pollution of the air basin of the São Paulo agglomeration in Brazil are also found in river systems far from it in the interior regions of Brazil and over the Atlantic Ocean.
However, based on the understanding of the growing threat ecological disaster, in developing countries, the understanding of the special importance and priority of the problems of protecting and improving the natural environment, including in cities, is gradually growing. The necessary state regulations are being adopted, as well as resolutions of local authorities aimed at preserving natural resources, prevention of actions aimed at negative impact on the environment, conservation of nature.
Thus, it is undeniable that urbanization is accompanied by a negative impact on the state of the environment, which can lead to deterioration of the environment, health and life of the population.
URBANIZATION
URBANIZATION
the process of urban growth - an increase in the proportion of the urban population, as well as the emergence of increasingly complex networks and systems of cities. Common features W .: 1 - rapid growth of the urban population; 2 - the concentration of the population and households in large cities (there are already more than 200 "millionaire" cities); 3 - "spreading" of cities, expansion of their territory. Modern Ukraine is characterized by a transition from the city to urban agglomerations—territorial groupings of urban and rural settlements—and to megalopolises, the largest forms of settlement formed as a result of the coalescence of urban agglomerations. The largest urban agglomerations of the world are around Mexico City, Tokyo, Sao Paulo and New York (16-20 million people live in each of them). Urbanization is associated with 3/4 of the total volume of environmental pollution. Despite the fact that cities occupy only 1% of the earth's land area, almost half of the world's population and the bulk of industries are concentrated in them. Large cities and urban agglomerations have a particularly strong impact on the environment - the plume of polluting and thermal effects can be traced at a distance of up to 50 km.
Brief geographical dictionary. EdwART. 2008 .
Urbanization
a multifaceted process of increasing the role of cities, which leads to changes in the distribution of productive forces, socio-demographic structure, lifestyle and culture of the population, its settlement. In the broadest sense, urbanization is the spread of urban lifestyles. In a narrow (statistical) sense, urbanization is the outstripping growth of the urban population and the growth of cities, especially large ones (over 100 thousand inhabitants). The indicators of the share of the urban population in its total population and the share of the population of large cities in the urban population most often characterize the level of urbanization, which is called urbanization. The urban population is growing due to the natural growth of its own population, the migration of the population from rural to urban settlements, the inclusion of rural settlements within the city limits, adm. transformation of rural settlements into urban ones. According to estimates, the urban population in the world in 1800 accounted for 3%, in 1900 - 14%, in 1950 - 29%, in 2000 - almost 50%. In developed countries, this figure approaches 80-90%. In Russia, the urban population is 73%. In the 20th century the world's urban population grew very rapidly, and in the 2nd half. - at a rapid pace: in the 19th century. it grew by 190 million people, during the first 50 years of the 20th century. - by 520 million, and for the second - by almost 2.2 billion. The growth of the urban population in recent decades has many times exceeded the general growth of the world's population, large cities have grown especially rapidly (see Fig. City). At present, both in the world and in Russia, they concentrate 2
/3 of the urban population, with 40% (more than 25% in Russia) living in millionaire cities. It is in the predominant growth of large cities and emerging around them urban agglomerations and even larger forms of settlement is the essence of urbanization.
Urbanization has striking geographical features; it proceeds differently in different regions and countries. As a rule, the higher the proportion of the urban population, the lower its growth rate, and when approaching 80%, growth almost stops. In many developed countries, the size of the urban population itself has now stabilized. But the process of urbanization does not stop: the environment in the cities themselves is changing, their functions are deepening, ties between settlements are strengthening, urban agglomerations are being formed and megalopolises, there is a process suburbanization and urbanization. In developing countries, the rate of urbanization growth is very high: a population explosion (see Fig. natural movement of the population) causes rapid growth of the urban population. In some countries, there is an unbridled growth of capitals, the formation of multimillion-dollar urban agglomerations (in 1950, out of the 30 largest agglomerations of the world, 20 were located in developed countries, in 1990 - only 9; according to forecasts, only 5 will remain in 2015) - this is a different type of urbanization (cf. false urbanization) than in developed countries.
Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .
Synonyms:
See what "URBANIZATION" is in other dictionaries:
URBANIZATION- (from lat. urbanus urban), the process of increasing the number of urban settlements, especially characteristic of the 20th century. Urbanization is a powerful environmental factor, accompanied by the transformation of the landscape, land, water resources, mass production ... ... Ecological dictionary
- (French urbanisation, from Latin urba nus urban, urbs city), historical. the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, which covers social prof., demographic. the structure of the population, its way of life, culture, location ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
URBANIZATION- (French urbanization, English, urbanization, from Latin urbanus urban, urbs city), historical. the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, which embraces changes in the location of production. forces, primarily in the resettlement of us., its socially ... Demographic encyclopedic Dictionary
- [fr. urbanisation Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
URBANIZATION, urbanization, pl. no, female (from lat. urbanus urban) (sociological). The concentration of economic and cultural life in large urban centers, characteristic of the capitalist system. urbanization of the country. Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
Concentration Dictionary of Russian synonyms. urbanization noun, number of synonyms: 2 hyperurbanization (1) … Synonym dictionary
urbanization- and, well. urbanization f. lat. urbanus urban. 1. The concentration of economic and cultural life in large urban centers, characteristic of the capitalist social system. ALS 1. 2. Giving something to l. traits, features inherent in ... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language
The growth of cities, especially large ones, an increase in the proportion of urban residents, the concentration of population and economic life in large cities Dictionary of business terms. Akademik.ru. 2001 ... Glossary of business terms
- (from the Latin urbanus urban), the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society. The prerequisites for urbanization are the growth of industry in cities, the development of their cultural and political functions, and the deepening of the territorial division of labor. For urbanization ... ... Modern Encyclopedia
- (from lat. urbanus urban) the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society. The main social content of urbanization lies in special urban relations (K. Marx), covering the socio-professional and demographic structure ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Books
- Urbanization and ecological safety of the territory of new Moscow, R. G. Mamin, G. V. Orekhov, A. A. Bayrasheva. The main methodological problems and tasks of urbanization in terms of assessing the quality of the environment within the boundaries of the territories annexed to New Moscow are considered. Water, land,…
