The era later called the era of the Great geographical discoveries, began at the end of the 15th century, in fact it was a period of economic and political development of new lands by Europeans. Then the reconquest - the liberation of the Iberian Peninsula from the Arab conquest, could not stop, and grew into a conquest - the conquest of new lands.

In 1415, the Portuguese captured the first overseas territory - the city of Ceuta on the coast of modern Morocco (today - a city under the control of Spain), a rich port, the end point of the trans-Saharan trade route. Gold purchased by Arab merchants in exchange for fabrics and salt was brought to Ceuta. The riches of Ceuta stimulated the search for new treasures in West Africa.

There were two ways to get to them. The first lay across the Sahara, where heat, sands, lack of water, and warlike tribes of nomads lay in wait for the invaders. The second way - sea - was more preferable. This was facilitated by the success of the Portuguese in navigation, navigation, and shipbuilding.

By 1425, the Portuguese had reached Cape Green, the westernmost tip of Africa. In addition to purely economic goals, they were interested in searching for the proposed western tributary of the Nile, which was supposed to flow into the Atlantic Ocean. Another important reason for the expeditions was the search for the Christian king-priest John, who allegedly sent a letter to the Pope asking for help from an unknown eastern country.

Actually, the economic development and political domination of Europeans in Africa was preceded by exploration of the coasts and hinterlands of the mainland. At the end of the XV century. the Spaniards began sailing along the coast of West Africa, reaching the mouth of the Congo River, and then to the mouth of the Great Fish River in southern Africa. During these expeditions, astronomical research was carried out, observations of the weather, flora and fauna were made, the coast was mapped, and the life of the tribes of the coastal strip was studied.

In 1652, 90 Dutch landed in Table Bay and began building Cape Town as a stopping point on their way to India.

By the beginning of the XVII century. Africa was mostly discovered by Europeans. On the maps of that time, the outlines of the mainland already almost corresponded to modern ones, but the hinterland remained terra incognita (“unknown land”) for more than a century. The vague ideas of Europeans about Africa are evidenced by geographic Maps, in which most of the continent is occupied by scenes of battles of one-eyed cyclops with people. This, however, did not prevent the development of an intensive slave trade.

Europeans not found in Africa centralized states, as, for example, in Latin America. Before the arrival of Europeans, separate feudal states existed in Africa: in West Africa - Kano and Katsina, Mali, Songhai; in East Africa, Aksum; in the South-Eastern - Monomotapa. Some of them were fabulously wealthy and played a significant role in the world politics and economy of the Middle Ages. However, by the time the Europeans arrived, these states were experiencing a period of feudal fragmentation and could not resist the Europeans. Many of them fell apart due to civil strife even before the arrival of the colonialists.

Stages of formation of the political map of Africa. The modern political map of Africa was formed mainly under the influence of European colonization and decolonization.

In 1885, the spheres of influence in Africa were divided according to the decisions of the Berlin Conference. By the beginning of the XX century. 90% of the territory of the continent was in the possession of European powers. French colonies located mainly in Western and Central Africa (about 38% of the continent): Algeria, coastal regions of Somalia, Comoros, Madagascar, Western Sahara, Tunisia, French West Africa, French Congo. Eastern Sahara was also a sphere of French influence.

British colonies(about 30% of the continent's area) were located mainly in East Africa, Great Britain tried to control the entire space "from Cairo to Cape Town": Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Basutoland, Bechuanaland, British East Africa, British Central Africa, Ascension Island, Gambia, Egypt, Zanzibar and Pemba, Gold Coast, Cape Colony, Libyan Desert, Mauritius, Natal, Nigeria, Rhodesia, St. Helena, Seychelles, British Somalia, Sierra Leone, Tristan da Cunha, Uganda.

Portugal, despite the fact that she was the first to start colonization, only Angola, the Azores, Portuguese Guinea, the Cape Verde Islands, Madeira, Sao Tome and Principe, Mozambique belonged.

Germany(before its defeat in the First World War) belonged to the territory of the modern states of Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi, Togo, Ghana and Cameroon; Belgium- Zaire. Eritrea and part of Somalia were possessions Italy. Spain belonged to Spanish Guinea (Rio Muni), the Canary Islands, Presidios, Rio de Oro with Ifini.

In 1822, freed slaves from the United States were settled on the lands purchased by the American Colonization Society from local leaders, and in 1847 the Republic of Liberia was formed on this territory.

By the beginning of the 50s. 20th century there were only four legally independent states on the continent - Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia, South Africa. Decay colonial system began in the north of the continent. In 1951, Libya became independent, in 1956 - Morocco, Tunisia and Sudan. In 1957-1958. Ghana and Guinea gained independence.

In 1960, which went down in history as the "Year of Africa", 17 colonies achieved independence. In the mid 70s. 20th century All Portuguese colonies gained independence.

Namibia gained independence in 1990.

In 1993, after 30 years of struggle for self-determination, a new sovereign state appeared on the map of Africa - Eritrea (formerly a province of Ethiopia).

Forms state structure and boards. At the beginning of the XXI century. There were about 60 states and territories in Africa. Most of them - unitary republics. Federal republics- Nigeria, South Africa, Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros, Ethiopia.

Monarchies- Lesotho, Morocco, Swaziland.

Non-Self-Governing Territories- Reunion Island (French overseas department), Mayotte Island (territorial administrative unit of France), St. Helena (UK colony), Ceuta and Melilla (Spanish possessions), Western Sahara.

Independent member states of the Commonwealth- Botswana, Gambia, Ghana, Zambia, Zimbabwe (deleted in 2002), Kenya, Lesotho, Mauritius, Malawi, Mozambique (adopted in 1995), Namibia, Nigeria, Swaziland, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Uganda, Cameroon, South Africa.

The main events of the XX century.

1902- As a result of the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902), the former Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic of the Transvaal became the British colonies of the Orange Republic and the Transvaal.

1904- the so-called "cordial agreement" between France and Great Britain was concluded: Great Britain recognized France's rights to Morocco, ceded to France part of the territory in the Gambia River region and the border areas between the British and French colonies in Eastern Nigeria.

1906- the division of Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia) into spheres of influence: the north-western and western parts went to Great Britain; Italy - the northern part and territories west of Addis Ababa; France - areas adjacent to French Somalia.

Consolidation of the British possessions of Lagos and Southern Nigeria into the colony of Southern Nigeria.

1907- The British protectorate of Nyasaland (since 1893 it was called British Central Africa) adopted its former name.

1908- The French possession of the Comoros is included in the colony of Madagascar.

The Belgian Parliament declared the Congo Free State a colony of the Belgian Congo. In 1885-1908. Kongo was considered the personal possession of King Leopold II, who ruled it alone.

1910- the formation of the Union of South Africa (SA) as part of the British possessions: the Cape Colony, the colonies of Natal, Transvaal and the Orange Republic. South Africa received the status of a dominion of the British Empire.

French Congo renamed French Equatorial Africa.

1911- France handed over to Germany part of French Equatorial Africa (275 thousand km 2) as compensation for the establishment of a French protectorate in Morocco.

1912- Morocco declared a protectorate of France. The Spanish protectorate zone consisted of two parts in the north and south of Morocco. A “special regime” has been established in the city of Tangier and in the adjacent territories.

On the territory of the possessions of the Ottoman Empire Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, the colony of Italian Libya was formed.

1914- An English protectorate was established over Egypt (occupied by Great Britain in 1882, but considered a province of the Ottoman Empire). The unification of the British possessions of Northern and Southern Nigeria into a single Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.

Partition of the French Sudan colony, formation of the colony of Upper Volta as part of French West Africa.

Changes on the political map of Africa after the First World War associated with the loss of Germany's colonies and their transfer under the mandate of the League of Nations to the victorious powers. Great Britain transferred part of German East Africa - Tanganyika. Togoland and Cameroon (West Africa) were divided between France (Togo and East Cameroon) and Britain (Ghana and West Cameroon). South Africa was transferred to German South-West Africa (Namibia), Belgium - part of German East Africa (the territory of Ruanda-Urundi), Portugal - the "Kionga Triangle" (part of German East Africa in the Ruvuma River near the borders of Mozambique).

1920- part of British East Africa became known as the Colony and Protectorate of Kenya.

1921- formation of the Rif Republic (northern part of Spanish Morocco); defeated in 1926 by the combined forces of Spain and France.

1922- the abolition of the British protectorate over Egypt, the declaration of Egypt as an independent kingdom.

Formation of the Niger colony in French West Africa. The British possession of Ascension Island is included in the colony of St. Helena.

1923- The city of Tangier and its surrounding areas are declared an international zone.

1924- the transfer by Great Britain of part of Kenya (Jubaland) under the control of Italy.

The actual liquidation of the condominium (joint management) over the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, the establishment of the exclusive authority of Great Britain.

1932- Accession of the French colony of Upper Volta to the colony of the Ivory Coast.

Changes on the political map of Africa after the Second World War

1935- Italian capture of Ethiopia. The unification of Eritrea, Italian Somalia and captured Ethiopia into the colony of Italian East Africa.

1941- the liberation by the troops of the allies of Ethiopia and the return of her independence.

1945- French Sudan received the status of an overseas territory of France.

1946- The French government passed a law granting the status of overseas departments to the colonies, including Reunion, French Somalia.

The status of trust territories was given to the former mandated territories (colonies of Germany transferred after the First World War to the victorious powers).

The Comoros, previously administratively united with Madagascar, became an independent administrative unit (colony of France).

1949- South West Africa (Namibia) is included in the territory of the Union of South Africa.

1950- transfer of Somalia (formerly a UN Trust Territory) under the control of Italy for a period of 10 years.

1951- Declaration of Independence of the Kingdom of Libya.

Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Sao Tome and Principe have been granted the status of overseas provinces of Portugal.

1952- the overthrow of the monarchy in Egypt (in 1953 a republic was proclaimed).

The UN decision on the accession of the former Italian colony of Eritrea to Ethiopia as an autonomous state. Establishment of the Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea.

1953- formation of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland from three English possessions- Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland (disbanded in 1964). The Federation became part of the Commonwealth.

1956- the independence of the Republic of Sudan (formerly an Anglo-Egyptian possession, then a colony of Great Britain) and the French zone in Morocco was proclaimed, the formation of the Kingdom of Morocco. The Spanish-Moroccan declaration was signed on the independence of Spanish Morocco and its accession to the Kingdom of Morocco.

The abolition of the French protectorate over Tunisia, the formation of the Kingdom of Tunisia (since 1957 - a republic).

Declaration of French Togo as an autonomous republic within the French Union.

1957- the independence of the British colony of the Gold Coast was proclaimed, the state of Ghana was formed (since 1960 - a republic).

The international zone of Tangier became part of Morocco.

1958- Ifni and Spanish Sahara (formerly part of Spanish West Africa) received the status of Spanish provinces and were declared an integral part of Spain (now Ifni - administrative District in Marocco).

Creation of the United Arab Republic, including Egypt and Syria (Syria withdrew from the UAR in 1961).

French Guinea granted independence, Republic of Guinea formed.

The status of the republics-members of the French Union received: Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Dahomey, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, French Sudan (formerly - as part of the Middle Congo, Equatorial Africa), Gabon, Middle Congo, Ubangi-Shari, Chad (formerly - French Equatorial Africa), Madagascar. The middle Congo was renamed the Republic of the Congo, Ubangi-Shari - Central Africa, French Somalia received the status of an overseas territory.

1959- Equatorial Guinea became an overseas province of Spain.

1960- the former French colonies gained independence and were proclaimed republics: Togo (formerly a UN Trust Territory under France), the Federation of Mali as part of Senegal and French Sudan, the Malagasy Republic (Republic of Madagascar), Dahomey (Benin), Niger, Upper Volta (Burkina- Faso), Ivory Coast (Ivory Coast), Chad, Central Africa (CAR), Republic of the Congo, Mauritania, Gabon, Republic of Somalia (former British Protectorate of Somalia and Italian Trust Territory of Somalia reunited).

The British colonies of Nigeria and British Somalia gained independence; colony of Belgium - Congo (Zaire, since 1997 - Democratic Republic of the Congo); Cameroon (trust territory administered by France and the United Kingdom). There was a split in the Federation of Mali, the proclamation of the independence of Senegal and Mali.

1961- As a result of the referendum, the southern part of Western Cameroon joined Cameroon, and the northern part joined Nigeria.

Formation of the Federal Republic of Cameroon as part of East and West Cameroon.

The Comoros was granted the status of an overseas territory of France. Declaration of independence of Sierra Leone, Tanganyika.

1962- The independence of the Kingdom of Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Algeria was proclaimed.

1963- introduced internal self-government in the Gambia, Kenya, Nyasaland; Kenya granted independence.

Granted independence to the Sultanate of Zanzibar (formerly a colony of Great Britain).

1964- Granted the independence of Zambia (a state within the Commonwealth), Malawi (Nyasaland).

Unification of Tanganyika and Zanzibar into the United Republic of Tanzania. Introduced local self-government in Equatorial Guinea.

1965- declaration of independence of the Gambia (since 1970 - a republic). The islands of Aldabra, Farquhar and others were torn away from the Seychelles colony by Great Britain, which, together with the Chagos archipelago, became "British territory in the Indian Ocean."

1966- Granted independence to Botswana (formerly the British protectorate Bechuanaland), Lesotho (formerly the British protectorate Basutoland).

The overthrow of the monarchy in Burundi, the proclamation of the republic.

1967- The French Coast of Somalia (Overseas Territory of France) became known as the French Territory of the Afars and Issas.

1968- The Comoros received internal self-government (formerly an overseas territory of France).

Independence was granted to Mauritius (formally the head of state is the Queen of England, represented by the Governor General), Swaziland, Equatorial Guinea.

1972- The Portuguese colonies of Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, Sao Tome and Principe received the rights of local autonomy, Mozambique - the rights of the state. Formation of the unitary United Republic of Cameroon (since 1984 - the Republic of Cameroon).

1973 Guinea-Bissau granted independence.

1974- the fall of the monarchy in Ethiopia, the proclamation of the republic.

1975- Angola, Mozambique, Cape Verde, Comoros, Sao Tome and Principe gained independence.

1976- Spain transferred Western Sahara under the control of Morocco and Mauritania, which divided it among themselves. The Polisario Front proclaimed the creation of the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic (Western Sahara).

Independence was granted to the Seychelles, the territories seized in 1965 by Great Britain were returned.

The "independence" of the puppet national states - South Africa's bantustans, not recognized by the international community, was proclaimed: Transkei (1976), Bophuthatswana (1977), Venda (1979), Ciskei (1981).

The Central African Republic is transformed into an empire (the republic was restored in 1979).

1977- Declaration of Independence of Djibouti (formerly the French Territory of the Afars and Issas).

1980- Declaration of Independence of Zimbabwe.

1981- creation of the Senegambia confederation as part of Senegal and the Gambia (disintegrated in 1989).

1990- Declaration of Independence of Namibia.

1993- the separation of Eritrea from Ethiopia as a result of a referendum and the proclamation of an independent state of Eritrea.

1997- Renaming Zaire to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 1998 - change in the form of government of Ethiopia (became a federal republic).

Territorial disputes and ethnic conflicts. Today's state borders in Africa are the result of the policy of European powers. The colonial division and borders in Africa were approved by the mother countries at the Berlin Conference of 1885.

The causes of modern border conflicts in Africa are associated with the recognition (or non-recognition) by modern states of the borders drawn during the colonial period by agreement between the mother countries. The borders were drawn without taking into account the areas of tribal settlement: 44% of state borders run along meridians and parallels, 30% - along geometric boundaries - rivers, lakes, sparsely populated areas. African borders cut 177 cultural areas, this is especially acute where borders impede the usual ways of migration of people to markets, agricultural land. For example, the border of Nigeria and Cameroon cuts the areas of settlement of 14 tribes, and the border of Burkina Faso - 21.

This leads to frequent border conflicts. However, the colonial borders will remain the same for a long time, since the revision of them in one place will lead to a chain of conflicts throughout the continent. In addition, the borders that pass through deserted and sparsely populated areas are not actually demarcated. With the economic development of these territories, and especially if mineral reserves are discovered there, neighboring countries will put forward claims to disputed areas (for example, the dispute between Libya and Chad over the Oazu border strip).

Border problems are also connected with the general poverty and economic backwardness of the neighboring countries. In fact, many borders are not guarded, and residents of border villages still continue to visit relatives, violating state borders. A special place in the border problems is occupied by nomadic tribes, moving after seasonal precipitation, regardless of state borders. African borders are almost unhindered by the starving, ethnic groups who are persecuted in their countries, economic and labor migrants (from poor to rich countries), partisans.

It is conditionally possible to distinguish four stage of colonization criteria for which the directions and methods of colonization, forms of exploitation and changes in colonial policy serve.

1). Genesis (formation) of the colonial system. XVI-ser.XVII centuries.

In connection with the beginning of the great geographical discoveries, the picture of the world begins to change. This coincides with the reformation, which marked the beginning of modernization. The leaders of the colonial seizure are Spain and Portugal. The ideology of the Crusades is preserved - the spread of Christianity. The initiative in colonial expansion belongs to the crown. The main direction is the Americas, the Indian Ocean and South and Southeast Asia.

Main events: 1494 year. Spain and Portugal divided spheres of influence.

1498 year. Vasco da Gama opened the sea route to India. Control is established over the trade routes that connected the West and East. Many of these routes are under the control of the Ottoman Turks. In the struggle for trade routes, Portugal relied on the fleet and the system of trading posts on the coast.

1509 year. In a naval battle off Diu, Portugal defeated the Egyptian fleet.

1542 year. The Portuguese reached Japan.

Europe lived under the fear of an invasion by the Ottoman Turks. From them the Christian world suffered constant defeats. AT 1571 In the year there was a naval battle at Lepanto, which somewhat relieved this tension. According to Hegel, "the Battle of Lepanto saved Italy, and perhaps all of Europe, from being overrun by barbarians." At the end of the 17th century, the Islamic world was already suffering a final defeat. In 1699, the Peace of Karlowitz was concluded. Ottoman Empire renounces further claims to Europe.

AT mid-sixteenth century, Holland, England and France are connected to the colonial expansion. Naturally, this leads to clashes with Spain and Portugal, who did not want to give up their positions in the new lands. The means of struggle were piracy and trade wars. By the beginning of the 17th century, Holland came out on top in terms of the tonnage of the fleet and gradually ousted Portugal from the Indian Ocean. The Dutch also set up trading posts. Trading companies are also created. English East India Company. Private equity. It is headed by a board of directors. She had the rights to monopoly trade with the countries of the East, as well as the right to seize new colonies. The company had its own fleet, army and bureaucracy.

2). "French" stage. Ser. XVII-ser. XVIII centuries.

In England and Holland, the initiative for colonial conquests belongs to the East India Companies, in France, Spain and Portugal - to the crown.

Royal France gained spheres of influence in Africa, India and North America. After the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740–1748 years, during which France and England fought for influence on local rulers in India, the position of the former seemed preferable. Quite strong by the middle of the seventeenth century. Dutch overseas positions remained. In the hands of the first two colonial empires, 250 years after the start of overseas expansion, vast possessions remained in Central and South America. In Africa, Portugal controlled the coast in the west of the continent and retained small holdings in Asia. Spain held power over the Philippines.

3). "English" stage. Ser. XVIII - ser. 19th century.

It opened with the Seven Years' War 1756 – 1763 years., as a result of which France ceded to England its positions in the colonies - in North and Central America and in southern Asia, in India. The war opened the way for the British East India Company's monopoly in establishing colonial power in India. Already by the end of the eighteenth century. the British subjugated the entire north of India to their influence and financial control, although nominally the power remained with the representative of the Mughal dynasty.

Taking advantage of its naval superiority and the weakening of Holland, which fell under the rule of Napoleon, Great Britain established control over a number of important Dutch colonies in the Indian Ocean. AT 1795 d. she captured Malacca, in 1796 g. - about. Ceylon. Then she entered into a struggle with Holland for control of Indonesia (centered on the island of Java). AT 1811 d. the British, by direct invasion, asserted full authority over it, but with 1814 under the influence of the changed international situation in Europe, they gradually returned it to Holland. England finally withdrew from Indonesia in 1824 city, retaining control over Singapore, founded in 1819 , Malacca and the Malay Sultanates. AT 1820 -s. The British East India Company extended power and influence over almost all of India. As a result of the war 1814–1816 gg. Nepal fell into the sphere of control of the British authorities, with its then center in Calcutta. First Anglo-Burmese War 1824–1826 gg. marked the beginning of the transformation of Burma into a British colony. In the 1840s The company annexed to its possessions the north-west of the Indian subcontinent - the regions of Punjab and Sindh. Since that time, Afghanistan has also been included in its zone of influence, although an attempt to conquer it in 1838–1842 gg. turned out to be unsuccessful.

4). Exploitation of the colonies with the help of monopoly capital. Ser. XIX – early. XX centuries.

He was promoted by the economic upsurge that had begun in Europe and the completion of the struggle for the formation of nation-states-empires there (Italy in 1861 city, Austria-Hungary in 1867 and Germany in 1871 G.).

Under Emperor Napoleon III, France again joins the struggle for colonies and establishes its control over almost all of North Africa. As a result of the "opium wars", France managed to obtain trade privileges in China and subjugate part of Indochina (Vietnam).

Having intensified the offensive against local orders in India, the British in 1857–1859 gg. faced with an uprising of broad layers - from the nobility, predominantly Muslim, to peasants and ordinary townspeople. Assessing the seriousness of the challenge and crushing fierce resistance, London liquidated the East India Trading Company (long before this fate befell similar Dutch and French companies) and established direct control of India on behalf of the crown. After the defeat of France in Franco-Prussian War England achieved decisive control of the Suez Canal. After crushing the uprising, the Mahdi in Sudan takes control of it. 1899-1902. Anglo-Boer War. The British subjugate the former Cape Colony of Holland and organize the Union of South Africa as a dominion. Also, they actively interfere in Chinese affairs.

The colonial race includes Germany, Italy, the USA, Japan and Russia.

The modern political map is largely a reflection of the thousand-year history of human civilization.

In the ancient period, such countries as Egypt, Babylonia, Greece, India, China, and later the Roman Empire played a decisive role in the development of human civilization. Within the boundaries of modern Ukraine in this period was the Bosporan kingdom, the Scythian state.

The decline and collapse of the Roman and Parthian empires (V-VII centuries) begin the medieval period of the formation of the political map of the world.

The era of the great geographical discoveries, the emergence of the first democracies (XV-XVI centuries) marks the beginning of a new period in the formation of the political map.

Especially great changes took place in the XIX-beginning of the XX century. Total sovereign countries per the globe in 1900 there were 55. Completion of the full

division of the world at the beginning of the 20th century. also marked the end of a new period in the formation of the political map.

The defining events of the first stage (1914-1939) of the newest period were the emergence of a whole group of independent countries, as well as the split of the world into two systems according to an ideological principle. So, on the political map of Europe appeared such states as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Finland, Lithuania, for a short time the Ukrainian People's Republic, etc. In total, in 1939 there were 71 sovereigns per country. The split of the world was that after the end of the First World War, a huge state was formed with a totalitarian regime and a command-administrative type of economy - the USSR.

The end of the Second World War (1939-1945) The countdown of the second stage of a new period in the formation of the political map of the world began. As a result of the war alone, which led to significant territorial changes, in 1947 the number of states increased by 10 in comparison with the pre-war period.

A characteristic feature of the second stage was the creation of socialist countries in Europe and Asia. An economic rivalry began between the two systems, an ideological and political struggle for spheres of influence flared up, which went down in history as the Cold War.

The defining feature of the second stage of the new period of formation of the political map of the world was that dozens of countries in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean in the 1950s-1960s. They proclaimed independence, freeing themselves from colonial oppression. In the early 1960s The huge colonial system practically ceased to exist. In 1962 there were already 127 states in the world.

In the early 1990s the third stage of the newest period of formation of the political map of the world began. It was marked by the end of the Cold War, the unification of Germany into a single state. Its most important result was the emergence of almost 20 new nation-states.

Typology of countries

If the classification of countries, like any other geographical objects, is carried out mainly according to one quantitative attribute, then the typology involves their grouping according to several stable qualitative characteristics. These can be considered the type of economic system, the level of social economic development, political regime, etc.

Since the early 1990s Significant transformations have taken place in the former socialist countries, and therefore most of them (with the exception of Cuba and North Korea) could be called post-socialist. There are 33 of all sovereign post-socialist and socialist countries today. Taking into account the differences in the emergence and organization of state power, they are divided into two subtypes: post-socialist and socialist (18) and post-Soviet (15).

The first group includes Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Romania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Mongolia, China, North Korea, Vietnam, Cuba.

The second subtype includes countries that emerged during the collapse of the USSR: Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan.

Modern typologies propose to divide countries into two main types: economically developed countries and developing countries.

52 countries belong to economically developed countries. First of all, these are highly developed states with a market economy (24 in Europe - Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Ireland,

UK, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Germany, France, Monaco, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Andorra, Spain, Portugal, Italy, San Marino, Vatican City, Malta, Greece; two in Asia - Israel, Japan; two in America - USA and Canada; one in Africa - South Africa; Australia and New Zealand).

A special role among the market countries is played by the G7 countries (USA, Japan, Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy and Canada), which account for the majority of world production, and political events in the world also largely depend on them.

Countries such as Israel, Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand are called countries of "settlement capital".

Developing countries include 142 other states, of which three are post-socialist in Europe (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Moldova), in Asia - 42, Africa - 52, Latin America - 33, Oceania - 12. There are also significant differences between them in socio-economic development.

Among the developing countries, the group of newly industrialized countries, the "Asian Tigers * ( South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, as well as a city with a special status in China - Hong Kong) and Latin American countries (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Chile, Venezuela, Uruguay). Oil-exporting countries are noted for high incomes - Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, etc.

Among other typologies, the division according to the degree of development of society is interesting. Countries are divided into pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial.

The first group consists of developing ones, but they are still dominated by pre-industrial elements of production. The second group includes countries with a well-developed heavy industry (the post-socialist countries of Europe and the newly industrialized countries). Post-industrial days are the majority of states with a developed market economy, where a significant part of the economically active population is employed in the service sector, and computerization has penetrated into all spheres of society.

After the end of World War II, a new stage began in the life of the peoples of Asia and Africa. In countries that were still in colonial dependence, a powerful wave of liberation movement arose.

The events of World War II contributed to the weakening of the political dominance of European states in their colonies. They could no longer seriously influence the situation there. The colonies also changed during the war years. Many of them strengthened the national economy, which worked for the military needs of the metropolis, the positions of the national bourgeoisie strengthened, the working class increased, and new patriotic organizations arose.

In a number of countries in Southeast Asia, national armed forces were created, which fought against the Japanese invaders and gained experience in armed struggle. All this created the conditions for the collapse of colonialism. Decolonization was also accelerated by the confrontation that began between the two "superpowers" - the USSR and the USA, since each of them sought to strengthen its camp by attracting the peoples of the periphery.

The process of decolonization is conditionally divided into three stages (three waves). The first stage lasted from 1945 until the mid-1950s. During this stage, the countries of Asia freed themselves from colonial dependence. The countries of Southeast Asia and the Middle East were the first to declare independence.

Under the conditions of the collapse of the colonial system, the emerging metropolitan states behaved differently. England pursued a more flexible policy in the colonial question. Therefore, she managed to avoid a military confrontation with the countries that were being liberated. Even more - she managed to maintain control over her former colonies for a long time, forming the British Commonwealth of Nations.

The colonial policy of France was characterized by a lack of flexibility. The French government sought to restore the pre-war order of things, without stopping at the same time before using forceful measures, frank diktat. Such actions led to a confrontation with their former colonies. As a result, France was drawn into colonial wars. So, in 1946-1954, she waged a colonial war in Indochina. This war ended with the defeat of France.

The second stage of decolonization lasted from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s. During these years, the decolonization of North and Tropical Africa took place. 34 countries freed themselves from colonial dependence. The collapse of the British, French and Belgian colonial empires is coming to an end. 1960, during which 17 African states gained independence, went down in history as the "Year of Africa".

The third stage lasted from 1975 to 1990 and was characterized by the completion of decolonization South Africa. The main event of this stage was the collapse of the oldest Portuguese colonial empire. Its "survivability" was explained by the fact that Portugal, which did not have its own economic opportunities for the development natural resources its colonies, admitted foreign capital there. As a result, the Portuguese colonial empire turned into a "collective colony" of the West.

Western countries were interested in maintaining the Portuguese colonial regime in Africa. But in 1974, a democratic revolution took place in Portugal, which ended the former authoritarian regime. The Portuguese colonial empire was overthrown, and new states appeared on the political map of the world (Angola, Mozambique, etc.). In 1990, the last colony in Africa, Namibia, gained independence. This event ends global process elimination of colonialism.

The main result of decolonization is the emergence of about 100 independent states on the former colonial periphery. New states have become an important factor in world politics. The peoples of the liberated countries got the opportunity to choose the paths of development, taking into account national traditions and cultural and civilizational characteristics.

Features of the development of the countries of the East in the 40-90s

Serious tasks appeared before the young newly-liberated countries: strengthening their political independence, gaining economic independence, social transformation and cultural development. On questions about the way, methods and timing of solving these problems in many developing countries, a sharp confrontation unfolded between various political forces.

Many countries that have liberated and in which bourgeois relations are deeply and firmly rooted, went to the countries of the West and chose the path of capitalist development (India, Pakistan, South Korea, Nigeria, etc.). In these countries they staked on the parallel existence of various forms of ownership, development of market relations, political and ideological pluralism, strengthening of all-round ties with advanced capitalist countries.

A feature of the development of capitalism in the countries of Asia and especially Africa lies in the underdevelopment of the private sector, the weakness of large and medium-sized capital. Therefore, the state often showed great activity in the economic sphere: it created key industries and enterprises within the public sector, regulated and directed the development of the private sector in the right direction, promoted national entrepreneurship in its fight against foreign capital, etc.

A number of countries in Asia and Africa have chosen a non-capitalist path of development (or "socialist orientation"). As a rule, these countries were characterized by the presence of a significant (sometimes dominant) public sector, centralized regulation of the economy, agrarian reforms, which resulted in a strong cooperative sector, an openly authoritarian nature of political structures, a significant restriction of civil liberties, an orientation towards Soviet Union and other socialist countries.

The idea of ​​a non-capitalist path was especially popular in the 6070s. In the 1980s, almost all developing countries, along this path, found themselves in a deep economic and political crisis. With the growth of the crisis in the Soviet Union and after its collapse, many countries of "socialist orientation" (Angola, Mozambique, Somalia, Ethiopia, etc.). They changed their course and embarked on the path of economic and political liberalization.

Difficulties in the economic development of young states

Most of the independent states are in a difficult situation due to their socio-economic and cultural backwardness. For the vast majority of African countries, for example, there has been a trend towards a slowdown in economic development in recent decades. The problem of underdevelopment of these countries is increasing due to the increase in the growth rate of their population. As output growth does not keep pace with population growth, per capita income falls. By the beginning of the 21st century, economic backwardness had become the main problem of African countries.

The economic situation in some countries of Asia and Africa is getting worse because of the desire of the existing regimes there to enrich themselves at the expense of their own peoples. In Africa, for example, the policy of "Africanization" of government and administration, carried out by all independent countries, gives mixed results.

On the one hand, it has obvious positive consequences, since all leading positions in politics and the economy are passing into the hands of Africans. But on the other hand, this policy opened the way for the quick enrichment of dishonest people. Bribery, embezzlement, nepotism flourished.

An important economic problem that confronts many young states is the peculiar export specialization of these countries (cotton, citrus fruits, coffee, etc.) that developed during the colonial period and is difficult to overcome. Such one-sided development has narrowed their economic opportunities, made them directly dependent on the changing situation on world markets, on changes in world prices.

Huge external debt has been and remains an acute problem for most Asian and African states.

In a number of regions of the East, rapid population growth ("population explosion") caused agrarian overpopulation. In some areas, this led to a real disaster. An example of this is the zone of Africa north of the Sahara, where, due to the violation of the ecological balance (deforestation, plowing of all suitable lands, depletion of drinking water sources, etc.), a constant threat of famine has arisen since the 70s.

High population growth rates, characteristic of most Asian and African countries, complicate the solution of the problem of overcoming backwardness. Huge unemployment, a consequence of rapid population growth, keeps wages low and slows down technological progress.

The low level of the economy of many states has led to a sharp decrease in public spending on education, health care, vocational training. And this, in turn, has preserved the existing problems for a long time.

The process of forming the political map of the world has several millennia. Many historical eras have passed, so we can talk about the existence of periods in the formation of the political map of the world. Allocate: ancient, medieval, new and latest periods.

The ancient period (from the era of the emergence of the first forms of the state to the 5th century AD) covers the era of the slave system. It is characterized by the development and collapse of the first states on Earth: ancient egypt, Carthage, Ancient Greece, ancient rome and others. These states have made a great contribution to the development of world civilization. Even then, military operations were the main means of territorial change.

The medieval period (V-XV centuries) is associated in our minds with the era of feudalism. The political functions of the feudal state were already more complex and varied than those of the states under the slave system. The internal market was formed, the isolation of the regions was overcome. The desire of states to distant territorial conquests, to search for new (sea) routes to India, was manifested, since overland trade routes to the East (after the fall of Constantinople) were under the control of the Ottoman Empire.

During this period, there were states: Byzantium, the Holy Roman Empire, England, Spain, Portugal, Kievan Rus and others. The political map of the world changed dramatically during the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries.

Chronology:

1420s - the first colonial conquests of Portugal: Madeira, Azores, Slave Coast (Africa).

1453 - Fall of Constantinople.

1492-1502 - Discovery of America (4 travels of Columbus to Central America and the northern part of South America). The beginning of the Spanish colonization of America.

1494 - Treaty of Tordesillas - division of the world between Portugal and Spain.

1498 - voyage of Vasco da Gama (way from Europe around Africa to India).

1499-1504 - Amerigo Vespucci travels to South America.

1519-1522 - circumnavigation of the world by Magellan and his companions.

It was at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries that the New Period of History began (which lasted until World War I at the beginning of the 20th century). It was the era of the birth, rise and establishment of capitalist relations in the world. It marked the beginning of European colonial expansion and the spread of international economic relations throughout the world.

During the Age of Discovery, the largest colonial powers were Spain and Portugal. But with the development of manufactory production, England, France, the Netherlands, Germany, and later the USA come to the forefront of history. This period of history was characterized by large colonial conquests. The world has changed over and over again.

The political map of the world became especially unstable at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, when the struggle for the territorial division of the world sharply intensified between the leading countries. So, in 1876, only 10% of the territory of Africa belonged to Western European countries, while in 1900 - already 90%. And by the beginning of the 20th century. in fact, the division of the world turned out to be completely completed, i.e., only its forcible redistribution became possible.

The beginning of the newest period in the formation of the political map of the world is associated with the end of World War I ( first stage). The first stage was marked by the appearance on the world map of the first socialist state (the RSFSR, and later the USSR) and noticeable territorial changes on the political map, and not only in Europe.

Austria-Hungary collapsed, the borders of many states changed, new sovereign countries were formed: Poland, Finland, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Austria, Hungary, etc. The Ottoman Empire was divided. The colonial possessions of Great Britain, France, Belgium, and Japan expanded (due to the territories transferred to them under the mandate of the League of Nations - the former colonies of Germany and the territories of the Ottoman Empire).

Second phase(after World War II), in addition to territorial changes on the political map of Europe, is associated primarily with the collapse of the world colonial system and the formation a large number independent states in Asia, Africa, Oceania, Latin America.

Since the early 1990s, there have been third stage A recent history that continues to this day. Qualitatively new changes on the political map of the world, which had a great impact on the socio-economic and socio-political life of the entire world community during this period, include the following:

Breakup in 1991 USSR;

Formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS);

The implementation of predominantly peaceful ("velvet") people's democratic revolutions of 1989-90. in the countries of Eastern Europe (former socialist countries);

The unification of the Arab states of the YAR and the PDRY (May 1990) on a national-ethnic basis and the formation of the Republic of Yemen with its capital in the city of Sana'a;

The termination in 1991 of the activities of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO) and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), which seriously affected the political and economic situation not only in Europe, but throughout the world.

The collapse of the SFRY, the proclamation of the political independence of the republics of Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Croatia, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (as part of Serbia and Montenegro). The most acute political crisis of the former federation resulted in civil war and interethnic conflicts;

Continuation of the process of decolonization: Namibia gained independence - the last of the colonies in Africa; new sovereign states were formed in Oceania: the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (former “trust” territories of the United States);

The formation of two independent states - the Czech Republic and Slovakia (the collapse of Czechoslovakia, January 1, 1993);

1993 - declaration of independence of the state of Eritrea (formerly a province of Ethiopia on the Red Sea and fought for self-determination for about 30 years).

The scale of future changes on the political map of the world will be determined by the further course of ethno-cultural processes in multinational countries, the nature of economic, political and cultural relations between countries and peoples.