Franco-German war 1870 1871. Franco-Prussian war. Results F

The defeat of France with the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 took place unusually quickly. Three German armies, led by himself Wilhelm I, constantly having Bismarck, Moltke and the Minister of War Roon with them, moved to France, preventing its army, with Napoleon III at the head, from invading Germany. Already in the first days of August, the Germans victoriously entered Alsace and Lorraine, after which revolutionary fermentation began in Paris.

Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871: Battle of Mars-la-Tour, 16 August 1870. Painter P. J. Jangnot, 1886

Under the influence of dissatisfaction - both among the people and in the army - with the defeats that individual parts of the French army underwent, Napoleon III resigned his main command in the Franco-Prussian War and handed it over to Marshal Bazaine. It was necessary to retreat, but nothing was prepared for the retreat, and Bazaine had only one thing left - to lock himself in Metz, which was immediately surrounded by the enemy. Another French army under the command of a marshal McMahon she was heading towards Metz, but the Germans blocked her way, pushed her to the north and surrounded her from all sides near Sedan. Here, on September 2, the main catastrophe of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 took place - the surrender of the French army of more than 80 thousand people and the surrender of Napoleon III himself. Bazin's attempt, around this time, to break through to connect with MacMahon was repulsed, and Bazin was finally locked up in Metz.

Franco-Prussian War. Battle of Sedan. 1870

Sedan battle decided the outcome of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 and became a mortal blow for the second French empire. Napoleon III did not feel safe in his own army, left in a carriage to look for the Prussian king, but met with Bismarck and Moltke, and then with Wilhelm I. At their meeting, they talked about the causes of the Franco-Prussian war, and the captive emperor justified himself by that to start a war, which he himself did not want, made him the public opinion of France. “But this public opinion,” the Prussian king objected to him, “was created by your Majesty’s ministers.”

Captured Napoleon III talks with Bismarck after the Battle of Sedan

The news of the sedan disaster came to Paris the next day, and on the 4th revolution. In the morning, crowds of people walked through the streets of Paris, shouting about the deposition of Napoleon, and in the middle of the day people filled the legislative building. The meeting was adjourned, and the Parisian deputies, having gathered in the town hall, proclaimed a republic ( Third Republic) and organized, under the chairmanship of General Trochu, a "government of national defense". It included well-known opponents of Napoleon III: a Jew who took over internal affairs, and a journalist Rochefort, who had just been released from prison. This government was not averse to ending the Franco-Prussian war and making peace, but Bismarck demanded the cession of Alsace and the German part of Lorraine. “Not a single inch of our land, not a single stone of our fortresses,” Jules Favre, a member of the French government in charge of foreign affairs, resolutely declared in response to this demand.

On September 12, the “Government of National Defense” sent Thiers for help to the foreign courts, but his mission was not successful, and on September 19, 1870, exactly two months after the declaration of war, the Germans had already laid siege to Paris. At the end of September 1870, the capitulation of Strasbourg, besieged at the beginning of hostilities, followed, at the end of October, Bazaine was forced to starve the Germans to surrender Metz with an army of 173,000. (Public opinion biasedly accused the marshal of treason). Now in German captivity there were two French armies, in which there were about 250 thousand people - something unheard of in all military history, - and German troops from near Strasbourg and Metz could move further deep into France. During the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871, the Sedan, Strasbourg and Metz stocks went to the Germans, like everything that was still found by the Germans in other fortresses, which then surrendered one after another.

Franco-Prussian War. Map. The dotted line marks the border of the territory ceded to Germany by the Treaty of Frankfurt

On September 19, as was said, the siege of Paris began. Back in the forties, in view of the expected war with the Germans, the city was, on the initiative Thiers, fortified with a rampart and a moat 34 versts long and a number of forts at some distance from Paris, the line of which was 66 versts. When the enemy attacked Paris during the Franco-Prussian War, 60-70 thousand regular troops were gathered, a large amount of food was brought, as well as military supplies, etc. It was a difficult task for the Germans to surround Paris with its population exceeding 2 million souls to cut him and his forts off from all communication with the rest of the world. The headquarters of the German army was located in Versailles, the famous residence of the last three French kings old monarchy.

Siege of Paris, which lasted during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 19 weeks without one day (4 and a half months) in terms of the mass of the inhabitants of the besieged city and the mass of the besieging troops was something unprecedented in world history. Food supplies, in the end, were not enough, and they had to eat dogs, rats, etc. In addition to hunger, the Parisians also suffered from the winter cold. To top it off, in January 1871, when the Prussians brought heavy siege artillery to Paris, the city was bombarded for three weeks. Communication with the outside world was maintained only by carrier pigeons. Three members of the government of national defense, even before the start of the siege, withdrew to Tours in order to organize the defense of the country from there, and after the start of the siege, Gambetta, who took off from Paris in a balloon, joined them.

All attempts by the besieged to repulse the Germans ended extremely unsuccessfully; dissatisfaction with General Trochu reigned in the city, and attempts were even made to overthrow the government. Finally, on January 23, 1871, after a series of unsuccessful truce negotiations in the Franco-Prussian War, Jules Favre went to Versailles to sue for peace. On January 28, 1971, he and Bismarck signed an act of capitulation of Paris and an armistice for three weeks with the transfer of all external forts to the Germans, the issuance of weapons, the leaving of the Parisian army in the city as prisoners of war, the payment of 200 million francs of indemnity and the obligation to gather in Bordeaux in two weeks national assembly for the conclusion of peace.

Ten days before the surrender of Paris, on January 18, 1871, in one of the halls of Versailles, the allied German sovereigns, on the formal initiative of the Bavarian king, proclaimed the Prussian king as the German Emperor. This was preceded by a month's reception by Wilhelm I of a deputation from the North German Reichstag, asking him to accept a new title. It is curious that at the head of the deputation was the same person (Simsov), who in 1849 offered the imperial crown on behalf of the Frankfurt Parliament to the late brother of Wilhelm I. Thus ended the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership.

Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles, 1871. Painting by A. von Werner, 1885. In the center, at the steps of the throne - Bismarck in a white uniform. To his right, half-turned, Helmut von Moltke

During the siege of Paris, the "dictator of Tours", as Gambetta was nicknamed for the energy and authority he had shown, as now Minister of War, organized a massive militia from the remnants of the regular army and recruits (all men from 21 to 40 years old) and obtained weapons for him, secretly bought in England. Four armies were created, in which there were almost 600 thousand people, but the Germans defeated these untrained crowds thrown into battle by the French Republicans one after another. During the continuation of the Franco-Prussian war, they still captured thousands of soldiers and took cities already on the other side of Paris, by the way, having mastered Tours itself. The northeastern corner of France between Belgium and the English Channel, and a large territory southwest of Paris, were in the power of the Prussians, and one of the hastily recruited Gambett armies, defeated and losing up to 15 thousand prisoners, was forced to move to Switzerland, where it was disarmed . Despite all this, Gambetta resisted the conclusion of peace and, with a proclamation to the people on January 31, appealed to the patriotism of the French to wage the Franco-Prussian war to the last extreme.

Leon Michel Gambetta. Painting by L. Bonn, 1875

In essence, however, the outcome of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 was decided by the capitulation of Paris. Military operations in 1870-71. 180 days lasted, during which 800 thousand people left the French troops killed, wounded, taken prisoner, disarmed in Paris and crossed into Swiss territory - again something that could not have been imagined before.

At the beginning of February, elections took place throughout France, without any interference from the Germans, for the National Assembly, which then opened its meetings on February 12 in Bordeaux. The government of national defense resigned its powers, and Thiers became the head of the executive branch, who was instructed to negotiate peace. The preliminary treaty that ended the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 was held at Versailles on 26 February. On March 1, 1871, it was adopted by the national assembly (546 votes to 107), and on May 20 it was finally signed in Frankfurt am Main. By Peace of Frankfurt 1871 France lost Alsace and a large part of Lorraine with a population of one and a half million, two-thirds German, one-third French, undertook to pay 5 billion francs and had to undergo German occupation east of Paris before paying an indemnity. Germany released the French prisoners of war immediately, and at that moment there were more than 400 thousand of them.

He sought to unite all German lands under his rule, and the French emperor Napoleon III prevented this, not wanting to see another strong state in Europe, and even neighboring France.

Causes and reason for war

All that remained for the Prussian chancellor to create a united Germany was to annex the South German states. But Bismarck was not going to limit himself to this: the Prussians were attracted by the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, rich in coal and iron ore, which were so necessary for German industrialists.

Thus, the causes of the Franco-Prussian war were obvious, it only remained to find a reason. Both sides actively searched for him, and he was soon found. In July 1870, the Spanish government, concerned about finding a candidate for the royal throne, left without a master after another revolution, turned to a relative of the Prussian king, Prince Leopold. Napoleon III, who did not want to see another crowned representative next to France, began to negotiate with Prussia. The French ambassador was successful in this. But, as it turned out later, there was a provocation lurking here. Bismarck wrote a telegram to the French emperor about Prussia's renunciation of the Spanish throne in a rather insulting tone for the French, and even published it in the newspapers. The result was predictable - enraged Napoleon III declared war on Prussia.

balance of power

The international situation in which the Franco-Prussian war began was more favorable for Prussia than for France. On the side of Bismarck, the states that were part of the French emperor were left without allies. Russia adhered to a neutral position, diplomatic relations with Britain and Italy were hopelessly damaged due to the mediocre policy of Napoleon III. The only state that could enter the war on its side was Austria, but the Austrian government, not so long ago defeated in the war with Prussia, did not dare to get involved in a new battle with a recent enemy.

From the very first days, the Franco-Prussian war revealed the weaknesses of the French army. Firstly, its numbers were seriously inferior to the enemy - 570 thousand soldiers against 1 million in the North German Union. The weapons were also worse. The only thing the French could be proud of was faster-firing. But the most important thing is the absence of a clear plan of military operations. It was compiled hastily, and much in it was unrealistic: both the timing of mobilization and the calculations for a split between the allies.

As for Prussia, the Franco-Prussian war, of course, did not take either the king or the chancellor by surprise. Her army was distinguished by discipline and excellent weapons, was created on the basis of universal service. dense network railways in Germany, it made it possible to quickly transfer military units to the right place. And, of course, the Prussian command had a clear plan of action, developed long before the war.

War activities

In August 1870, the offensive began. The French corps were defeated one after another. On September 1, near the fortress of Sedan, in which Napoleon III was located, the battle began. The French command could not avoid the encirclement, on top of that, the army suffered huge losses from the cross shelling. As a result, the very next day Napoleon III was forced to surrender. Taking 84 thousand prisoners, the Prussians moved to the French capital.

The news of the defeat at Sedan caused an uprising in Paris. Already on September 4, the Republic was proclaimed in France. The new government began to form new armies. Thousands of volunteers became under arms, but the new authorities could not organize the defense of the country from the enemy. On October 27, the huge army of Marshal Bazin capitulated, numbering almost 200 thousand people. According to historians, the marshal could well have rebuffed the Prussians, but chose to surrender.

On other fronts, Bismarck was also lucky. As a result, on January 28, 1871, an armistice was signed at Versailles. The Franco-Prussian War is over. In the same place, in the palace of the French kings, it was proclaimed Half a century will pass, and the Germans will sign in the same hall after Germany is defeated in the First World War. But so far this was far away: in May of the same year, the parties signed a peace treaty, according to which France not only lost Alsace and Lorraine, but also a tidy sum of 5 billion francs. Thus, the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871. not only united Germany, but also significantly weakened France economically.

Franco-Prussian or Franco-German war 1870-1871 - Origin of war. Since 1866, Napoleon III was very afraid of Prussia and was annoyed that Bismarck, after the Austro-Prussian war, did not give France the "compensation" that the emperor had been counting on. For its part, Prussia was actively preparing for war; swarms of her agents roamed the eastern provinces of France. Under such conditions, all that was missing was a pretext for an armed clash - and the pretext was not slow to present itself. On July 2, 1870, the council of Spanish ministers decided to offer the Spanish crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, with whom negotiations had been conducted earlier by Spanish representatives who had come to Sigmaringen specifically for this purpose. On July 3, news of this was published in newspaper telegrams, and immediately a great excitement arose in official Parisian circles. On July 4, a representative of the French envoy Benedetti, who had left Berlin, appeared at the Prussian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and stated that the French government was dissatisfied with the acceptance of the Spanish crown by Prince Leopold, a relative of the Prussian king. Thiele, who received the French representative, replied that Prussia had nothing to do with this matter. As soon as Thiele's answer was telegraphed to Paris, when (on the same July 4) the Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Duke of Grammont, urgently invited Baron Werther, the Prussian envoy, to himself, and demanded that the Prussian king order Leopold to renounce the Spanish crown and not leave Germany; otherwise, said Grammon, catastrophe threatened. Werther asked whether war should be understood by "catastrophe"? He was given an affirmative answer, and the next day he left for Ems, where King William was then. On July 4, 5 and 6, a number of the most passionate and threatening articles against Prussia appeared in the Parisian newspapers, which had a rather clearly expressed semi-official character. On July 6, Ollivier, head of the cabinet, delivered a speech to the legislature in which he said, among other things: “We cannot allow a foreign power to put one of its princes on the throne of Charles V. We hope that this plan will not be carried out ; we rely on the wisdom of the German people and on the friendship of the Spanish people for us. Otherwise, we, strong with your support and the support of the entire French people, will fulfill our duty without the slightest hesitation and with due firmness. The semi-official press extolled to the skies the wisdom and firmness of Ollivier and Grammont, who did not want to give the "southern border of France to the eastern enemy." In vain did the Spanish ministers make a categorical statement to all courts that King Wilhelm had absolutely nothing to do with the whole story with the candidacy of Prince Hohenzollern. The Parisian press, with the exception of a few and unimportant organs, continued, under obvious official pressure, to prepare the public for a predetermined war. The fact is that although Napoleon III at the beginning still somewhat resisted a break with Prussia, the empress and ministers, firmly convinced of the need for war and completely unaware of the balance of real forces in both countries, already identified the war with victory in advance and demanded it. “War is needed for this child to reign,” said Eugenia, pointing to her son. Officials were already talking about the demands that the defeated Prussia, driven into the "Kavdinsky Gorge" (the words of Kassagnac), would have to obey. On July 8, the Duke of Grammont sent a circular to French envoys at foreign courts informing them of France's firm intention to oppose Hohenzollern's candidacy. The Left of the Legislative Corps has stated several times directly (through Jules Favre and Arago) that the government is only looking for a pretext for war, artificially inflating an empty political incident; but the ministry, with the full approval of the majority, evaded even the answer of the opposition. Defiantly hasty military preparations began in France. The English ambassador in Paris, Lord Lyons, tried to calm Grammon, but he announced that he needed to be ready for anything until there was a definite answer from the Prussian government. Extremely harsh and irritated articles also began to appear in many organs of the German press. Bismarck, Moltke, Roon desired war, for they were sure of the superiority of the military forces of Prussia; but the king was comparatively peaceful. On July 7, the French envoy to the Prussian court, Benedetti, received orders by telegraph from the Duke of Grammont to go to Ems and demand personal negotiations with King William there. On July 9, Benedetti was received by the king. Wilhelm treated him very cordially and said: "We will not quarrel over the Hohenzollern candidacy." Benedetti expressed the desire of the French government that the King order Prince Leopold to refuse his candidacy for the Spanish throne. Wilhelm replied that he could not do this, because the whole matter did not concern him at all. On July 11, Benedetti was again received by the king and again received an answer that everything depended on the decision of the Prince of Hohenzollern himself, whose residence was in this moment Wilhelm is unknown. At the same time, Baron Werther, the Prussian envoy, was ordered to return to Paris. On July 12, Werther arrived in Paris and was immediately invited to the Duke of Grammont. Just during this visit, the Spanish envoy (Olosaga) appeared to Grammon and handed him a copy from the telegram sent to Madrid from the father of the Prince of Hohenzollern; in this telegram, the father, on behalf of his son, refused the latter's candidacy for the Spanish throne. For those not privy to the mysteries of French (and partly Bismarckian) diplomacy, it seemed certain that the incident was over. At first, the French government was, indeed, somewhat embarrassed, for it kept repeating that it only wanted the prince to renounce the Spanish crown. Ollivier even announced (July 12) that the matter was settled. The semi-official newspaper Constitutionnel spoke in the same vein. Grammon, however, almost immediately expressed his dissatisfaction with the outcome of the case. He told Baron Werther that Emperor Napoleon would be pleased if the Prussian king now wrote him a letter in which he explained that he approved of the abdication of the prince and hoped that the cause of the quarrel between France and Prussia had been eliminated. Werther sent reports to Berlin about this new demand, but Grammon did not wait for an answer. On July 13, he declared in the legislative body that the incident was still ongoing, and when he was noticed that the day before Ollivier had called the incident settled, Grammon dryly remarked that he did not care about the talk on the sidelines (Ollivier did not make his statement from the podium). Upon receiving news of Grammon's new demand, Bismarck categorically told the English ambassador Lord Loftus (13 July) that no further concessions from Prussia were possible and that the French were clearly concocting pretexts for war. On the evening of July 12, Benedetti received instructions from Paris to demand from Wilhelm the public approval of the refusal of the Prince of Hohenzollern from the candidacy, as well as a promise that the prince would not accept this candidacy in the future either. On July 13, Benedetti, during the king's walk at the Ems sources, approached him and conveyed the Parisian demands. The king, referring to the refusal of the prince, said that he had stopped the whole business; as for guarantees for the future, the king noticed that the prince was not at all under his command, and he could not vouch for him. The king ended with a recommendation to contact the Prussian Foreign Office. Benedetti insisted that the king personally announce his final decision to him; the king refused and, finally, irritated, said to Count Lendorf, who was walking nearby: "Tell this gentleman that I have nothing more to convey to him." On the same day, the king sent his adjutant (Prince Radziwill) to Benedetti three times, repeating in a softened form the words spoken to him in the morning; but Benedetti kept seeking a new audience, which he was denied. When the king telegraphed to Bismarck about what had happened, the latter was in Berlin. As he himself later related, he, Moltke and Roon, after reading the dispatch, were somewhat discouraged, for they looked at the king's course of action as a concession to French claims. But Bismarck was not lost; he redid the dispatch in such a way that the meaning of the morning meeting, insulting to the French envoy, was emphasized (“His Majesty,” stood at the end of the Bismarckian alteration, “refused to receive the French envoy for the second time and ordered him to be informed through his adjutant on duty that he had nothing more to tell him” ). There was no mention at all of what changed the nature of the event: the King's words that negotiations would continue in Berlin, at the Foreign Office. It looked as if the king not only found it inconvenient to continue negotiations in Ems, where he had come to rest and be treated, but the French envoy was "shown to the door." The revised dispatch was communicated to the press, and on the 14th the French government received not only Benedetti's reports, but also telegrams about the document drawn up and published by Bismarck. As expected by Bismarck, Moltke and Roon, this falsification really turned out to be “a beautiful scarf for a Gallic bull” and made a stunning impression in Paris. The war was finally decided. The French ministers did not know anything about the complete unpreparedness of the army for the fight; the Minister of War (Marshal Leboeuf) declared that everything was ready, down to the buttons. Huge crowds walked around Paris, shouting: "à Berlin!". At one o'clock on July 15, the senate and the legislative body met. In the legislative body, Ollivier outlined the course of negotiations with Prussia, expressed "amazement" at the king's unwillingness to receive Benedetti, and declared that urgent measures would be taken to protect France and her honor. Ollivier also pressed on the fact that Baron Werther had suddenly gone on vacation. The opposition (especially Thiers) objected, calling the war unreasonable and all the pretexts for it empty and artificial; Favre, Arago, Grevy, Gambetta demanded at least the presentation of original documents relating to the "insult", but were refused. The war loan was voted by a majority of 245 votes to 10, and the government's other proposals by a majority. all against one (Gle-Bizouin). In the Senate the matter passed unanimously, with the most flattering greetings addressed to Grammon. At 2 pm a telegram was sent to Berlin announcing the declaration of war on Prussia by France. Mobilization in both countries proceeded feverishly. On July 19, a meeting of the North German Reichstag took place, at which Bismarck announced that he had received a formal declaration of war. The Reichstag burst into thunderous cries in honor of the king.

With regard to the attitude towards the war of the South German states , then Napoleon was mistaken in his calculations for the neutrality and even the union of the South German states. These calculations were based on the fact that the latter, after the war of 1866, were subjected to various restrictions by Prussia. Meanwhile, shortly before the war, documents were made public, from which it was clear that Napoleon offered an alliance to Prussia, to the detriment of Belgium and the South German states; the first was to become the prey of France, and the latter to come into the possession of Prussia. In addition, Napoleon III sought to round off his possessions from the side of the Rhine. When the South German population was imbued with the conviction that it was not a matter of Hohenzollern, but of the seizure of German soil, that war was declared not because of dynastic considerations, but because the French emperor opposed the unification of Germany and sought to turn the Rhine into a French river, then it was engulfed in general excitement. In Bavaria, only the ultramontane party tried to convince their compatriots that there was no German question at all in the dispute between France and Prussia. Irritation against the ultramontanes among the people reached such a point that the main representative of this party in journalism, Siegl, was forced to flee to Austria. The parliamentary leader of the Ultramontanes, Jerg, insisted on the declaration of armed neutrality by Bavaria, arguing that the war between France and Prussia arose from violations of court etiquette. The First Minister, Count Bray, pointed out that the treaty with the North German Confederation obliges Bavaria to go along with the North Germans whenever the enemy enters German soil, that is, when the war is waged for the interests of all Germany. The proposal of the ministry was accepted by a majority of 101 votes to 47. The decision of Bavaria had an impact on Württemberg, where enmity against the Prussians also prevailed. Here, the representative of the democratic "International Society" Becher proposed to transfer the ministry's emergency military budget to a special commission, but, yielding to the insistence of the head of government Varnbühler and the well-known publicist Karl Mayer at that time, editor of the democratic newspaper "Beobachter", Becher took back his proposal, and the project The ministry was approved unanimously. Hesse-Darmstadt, also hostile to Prussia, could not but proceed to general armament after the whole of Germany had declared itself against France. The Saxon government immediately recalled its ambassador from Paris and asked that the Saxon troops be allowed into the vanguard of the allied army (the Saxons really made up the vanguard of the corps of Prince Friedrich-Karl). Exactly where the French government expected to find supporters - in Hanover and Holstein - the student youth turned out to be inspired by patriotism: students from the Kiel and Göttingen universities became one and all in the ranks of volunteers. The students of the University of Erlangen in Bavaria and the University of Giessen in Hesse-Darmstadt did the same.

The attitude of the European powers towards the Franco-Prussian conflict from the very beginning remained quite neutral. The French ambassador in St. Petersburg, General Fleury, enjoyed the favor of Emperor Alexander II, but this could not influence Russian policy in terms of favorably intervention in the conflict for France. Firstly, the course of action of France and Prussia in the critical year 1863 determined for a long time the attitude of Alexander II towards both powers; Secondly, great importance had family ties between the Russian and Prussian courts; thirdly, Emperor Alexander II was irritated by the defiant behavior of French diplomacy regarding Prussia. "You think that only you have pride," he told Fleury, meeting with him after receiving a telegram about Benedetti's conversation with Wilhelm in Ems. The benevolent neutrality of Russia towards Prussia was also important because Russia conditioned it on the complete non-intervention of other powers in the war; otherwise, Russia threatened to take the side of Prussia. The Austrian government, which had dreamed since 1866 of revenge and the return of influence on Germany, was completely paralyzed by this statement; The reserve Prussian army, stationed at Glogau in the first months of the war, also made a very strong impression on Austria, and she remained completely neutral. Italy at the beginning of the conflict somewhat worried Bismarck with a sudden increase in its army and other preparations, but after the first victories of Prussia it became clear that the Italian government would take advantage of the withdrawal of the French detachment from Rome to occupy Rome. English policy, with some ambivalence during the critical days of July, very soon proved unfriendly to France. On July 18, in the House of Lords and the House of Commons, the Ministry declared that England would maintain the strictest neutrality. The Times called the war "criminal"; The Daily News talked about the "bloody-stained" French Emperor. This mood was even more intensified when (July 24) Bismarck showed Lord Loftus the draft F. Prussian treaty (drawn up by Benedetti in 1867), according to which Prussia pledged to help Napoleon "acquire" Luxembourg and Belgium. This project, which never gained momentum, Benedetti frivolously left in the hands of Bismarck, who now introduced it to foreign ambassadors in the original. Not only Benedetti, but also Napoleon III was placed in an extremely disadvantageous position by this exposure. Prussia was, as it were, the protector of Europe from the encroachments and greed of France. Ollivier and Benedetti tried to refute the direct meaning and authenticity of the document, but they failed. Nevertheless, the British government was, in general, more sympathetic to France than public opinion. As early as mid-August, Prussia complained to the British cabinet that English ships were carrying weapons, coal, and food to France, that is, they were engaged in military smuggling; but English cabinet at first he hesitated to ban this smuggling, and then, after the ban was issued (at the end of November), he turned a blind eye to its violations. The United States treated Germany with complete sympathy, because after the Mexican expedition of Napoleon III they did not like it there (and even during internecine war he tried to inflate and maintain dissension between the Northern States and the Southern States, which he patronized). As the Prussian victories progressed, however, the mood began to double, and when the French Republic was proclaimed, many who sympathized with Prussia only out of hatred for Napoleon went over to the side of France. The union government from the beginning to the end of the war maintained complete neutrality. The minor powers all, like the first-class ones, remained neutral. Most of all, fears were expressed in Prussia about Denmark, which could make an attempt to return the provinces taken from her, but she did not dare to do this. So, without stocking up on any ally, with an unprepared, much smaller and worse armed army, without decent military maps of his own country, Napoleon III began this fatal war for his dynasty and for France.

The course of hostilities. By August 1, five French corps (2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and Guards) concentrated in Lorraine, on the Saar River; behind them in Chalons, Soissons and Paris were the troops of the 6th corps; The 1st and 7th corps were in Alsace, near Strasbourg and Belfort, three reserve cavalry divisions were in Pont-a-Mousson and Luneville. The total number of French troops reached 200 thousand. The emperor himself assumed the main command over them, with Leboeuf as chief of staff. By the same time, the advanced German troops (about 330 thousand), divided into 3 armies, deployed on the Trier-Landau line. Already on July 28, at the military council in Metz, it became clear that the French army was completely unprepared; but public opinion demanded offensive actions, and the 2nd corps (of General Frossard) was moved to Saarbrücken, where the first unsuccessful battle followed (August 2) with the German detachment occupying this city. Meanwhile, on August 3, the transfer of German troops to the border was completed, and on the very next day the 3rd Army (of the Crown Prince of Prussia) invaded Alsace and defeated the French division of General Douai, located near Weissenburg. Following this, Napoleon, abandoning the general command of the troops and leaving only the guards and the 6th corps at his disposal, entrusted the defense of Alsace to three corps (1st, 5th and 7th), under the command of MacMahon, and the troops , who were at Metz, subordinated to Marshal Bazin. 2 days after the Weissenburg battle, MacMahon's corps, located at Werth, was again attacked by the Crown Prince of Prussia, utterly defeated and retreated to Chalon. At the same time (August 6), the French suffered another setback: the 2nd Corps (Frossard), which occupied a strong position on the heights of Schiihern-Forbach, south of Saarbrücken, was attacked by units of the 1st and 2nd German armies (Steinmetz and Prince Friedrich-Karl) and after a stubborn battle forced to retreat. The Germans, however, could not immediately take advantage of this last success, since the strategic deployment of their 2nd Army on the Saar was not yet completed; only patrols of their cavalry appeared on the left bank of the Moselle already on August 9th. Marshal Bazin, meanwhile, pulled his troops to Metz, where units of the 6th Corps from Chalons began to approach. On August 11, the Germans moved forward; On the 13th, their 1st Army came across French troops located in the circumference of Metz; On the 14th there was a battle at Colombe-Nully, and on the night of the 15th the French left for the Moselle. Bazin decided to retreat in a western direction, to Verdun, but at the same time fell into a big mistake, leading his entire army (up to 170 thousand people). ) on one road, while he had five of them at his disposal. Meanwhile, the German 2nd Army, which had captured the crossings on the Moselle, above Metz, was already crossing the left bank of the river; The cavalry division of Reinbaben, which was marching ahead of this army, stumbled upon the French troops moving towards Verdun and started a battle with them. On the morning of August 16, Emperor Napoleon, who was with Bazaine's army, left for Chalons; on the same day, French troops were attacked at Mars-la-Tour and Vionville by two corps of the 2nd German army. This battle, tactically indecisive, strategically was an important victory for the Germans: they intercepted the direct route of Bazaine's retreat to Verdun and further to Paris and threatened the northern road to Doncourt. Instead of using the temporary superiority of his forces to attack the enemy the very next day, Bazin on August 17 withdrew his troops to an impregnable, in his opinion, position near Metz itself. Meanwhile, the 1st and 2nd German armies (over 250 thousand) were quickly drawn to Mars-la-Tour; a special corps was sent to act against Tul. The location of Bazaine's troops became clear to the Germans only around noon on 18 August. On this day they moved in a northerly direction in the morning; there was a stubborn battle at Saint-Privat and Gravelotte; the right wing of the French was shot down, the last route of their retreat was intercepted. The next day, the German military forces were reorganized: from the guards, the 12th and 4th corps of the 2nd Army, with the 5th and 6th cavalry divisions, the 4th Army was formed - Maas, entrusted to the authorities of the Crown Prince of Saxony. This army, together with the 3rd (in total up to 245 thousand), was ordered to advance towards Paris. On the French side, meanwhile, a new army was formed near Chalons (about 140 thousand), under the command of MacMahon. The emperor himself came to this army. At first it was decided to take her to Paris, but public opinion rebelled against this, demanding Bazin's assistance, and, at the insistence of the new Minister of War, Cousin de Montauban (Count of Palicao), MacMahon decided to carry out such a risky operation. On August 23, his army moved to the Meuse River. This movement was delayed by food difficulties, and meanwhile, already on August 25, positive information about him was received in the German headquarters. The 3rd and 4th German armies were moved to the north, across from McMahon, and managed to warn the French at the crossings at Den and Stena. Repeated clashes with the German troops overtaking him (battles at Buzancy, Noir, Beaumont) pointed out to MacMahon the danger that threatened him; he still had the opportunity to withdraw his army to Mézières, but instead he led it to the fortress of Sedan, which did not at all represent a reliable stronghold and was surrounded on all sides by commanding heights. The result was the Sedan catastrophe that followed on September 1, expressed in the capture of the entire French army of MacMahon, along with the emperor Napoleon. Of the entire active French army, only the 13 Corps of General Vinoy remained free, which was sent by the Minister of War to reinforce McMahon and had already reached Mézières, but, having learned on the evening of September 1 about what had happened at Sedan, he immediately began to retreat to Paris, pursued by the 6th German Corps. Official news of the latest events was received in the capital of France on September 3, and on the very next day a coup took place there: Napoleon was declared deposed, a government of national defense was organized under the chairmanship of General Trochu, and General Le Flot was appointed Minister of War. The government of national defense offered peace to Germany, but, in view of the excessive demands of the victorious enemy, the agreement did not take place. Meanwhile, it was impossible to count on a happy turn of hostilities for the French. The Germans, during September and October, brought into France about 700 thousand people; the French, apart from Bazaine's army locked up in Metz, had comparatively insignificant reliable forces left. Together with the Vinois corps, which managed to reach Paris, up to 150 thousand people could be counted in this city, of which a significant part were of very dubious dignity; about 50 thousand were in various depots and marching regiments; in addition, there were up to 500 thousand people aged 20-40 years, who served as material for the formation of new buildings. This improvised army, in the struggle against the regular troops, animated by their brilliant victories, offered too little chance of success. Nevertheless, the national defense government decided to continue the fight to the last extremity. Meanwhile, the German army was spreading across the north-east of France, taking possession of the minor fortresses that were still in the power of the French. The 3rd and 4th armies, separating two corps for escorting sedan prisoners, moved towards Paris and from September 17 to 19 completed the imposition of this city (see Paris). Of the new French corps, the 15th was the first to be formed. He was immediately sent to Orleans to detain the Bavarians marching towards this city. Unsuccessful battles on October 10, 11 and 12 forced the 15th Corps to withdraw across the Soldr River. In Blois, the 16th Corps was formed by the French, which, together with the 15th, made up the 1st Loire Army, entrusted to the authorities of Orel de Paladin. He was instructed to drive the Bavarians out of Orleans. Due to various unfavorable circumstances (including the news of the capitulation of Bazaine that followed on October 27), the advance towards Orleans slowed down until early November: the Bavarians were driven out of the city. The French government, encouraged by this success, planned to use it for an offensive towards Paris. However, Aurel de Paladin, realizing that neither the size of his army nor its fighting qualities corresponded to such a brave enterprise, decided to take a wait and see position and took up a position in front of Orleans, where he was joined by the newly formed 17 Corps. Soon after, thanks to the tireless, energetic activity of Gambetta, another 18th corps was formed in Gien, and the 20th in Nevers. These two corps were moved to Pithiviers, in order to stop Prince Friedrich-Karl, who was approaching from Metz. On November 28, a stubborn battle took place at Bon-la-Roland, after which Orel de Paladin returned to his former positions. Following this, the members of the government of national defense, who were in the city of Tours, having learned about the sortie undertaken by the Parisian garrison in the direction of Champigny, decided a new offensive of the 16th and 17th corps. On December 1 and 2, these corps had unsuccessful clashes (at Vilnoine and Loigny-Pupry) with the right wing of the army of Prince Friedrich-Karl and were driven back to the west. After that, the prince resolutely moved to Orleans, on December 4 he captured the city and cut the French army into two parts: the 16th and 17th corps remained on the right bank of the Loire, under the command of General Chanzy, and the 15th, 18th and 20th - on the left, under the leadership of Orel de Paladin, who was soon replaced by General Bourbaki. The loss of Orleans, in connection with the surrender of Metz and the unsuccessful outcome of the sortie from Paris, greatly reduced the hopes for a happier turn of affairs; nevertheless, the government did not change its decision - to continue the defense until the final exhaustion of forces. Against the forces of Chanzy, called the 2nd Army of the Loire and reinforced by the newly formed 21st Corps, the entire army of Prince Friedrich-Karl moved. From December 7 to December 10, inclusive, a series of battles took place, and on the 11th Frederick Karl made a decisive attack on the center of the French. Convinced of the extreme fatigue of his troops and learning that the enemy had already penetrated as far as the Blois River, Chanzy began the same day with a retreat to Freteval and Vendôme. On December 14 and 15, the Germans attacked him, but did not win decisive successes; however, Shanzi himself, fearing that a new battle would not completely undermine the strength of his young army, retreated on December 16, maintaining full order and holding back those pursuing him. On December 19, the 2nd Army of the Loire stopped east of Le Mans. Meanwhile, the government national defense discussed a new plan of action to free Paris from the blockade. Chanzy proposed a simultaneous offensive: from the north - by the newly formed army there, led by General Federbom, from the south - by the 1st and 2nd Loire armies. This proposal was not accepted, and on January 6, 1871, the order was given: Federbu - to continue operations in the valley of the Somme River; Bourbaki - move east, liberate the besieged Belfort and begin operations against the messages of the German army; Shanzi was to be limited to defensive actions. On January 6, 1871, the army of Friedrich-Karl resumed the offensive. On the 11th and 12th there was a battle at Le Mans, after which Chanzy had to retreat still further to the west; his army managed to recover and by the time the armistice was concluded, it counted up to 160 thousand in its ranks. The theater of war in the north stretched from the Scheldt River to the sea, in the south reaching the Oise River. From a small number of free line troops, a mobile national guard and free riflemen, two French corps were formed by the end of October: the 22nd (about 17 thousand people), concentrated at Lille, and the 23rd (about 20 thousand) - at Rouen ; in addition, up to 8 thousand people were in Amiens. The general authorities in the north were entrusted to General Federbo, but the troops subordinate to him had almost no proper training at all, not even the same weapons. Meanwhile, after the capitulation of Metz, a detachment under the command of General Manteuffel was detached from the German 1st Army for operations in the north; one corps was first left in Metz, and then proceeded to besiege Thionville, Montmedy, and other secondary fortresses that remained in the rear. On November 20, 1870, the Germans opened operations in the northern theater of the war. On November 24, Manteuffel moved towards Amiens and, after a two-day battle (November 27 and 28), forced the French to retreat towards Arras. November 30 surrendered to Manteuffel and the citadel of Amiens, and the next day he moved to Rouen, leaving part of his troops on the Somme; On December 5, Rouen was occupied, after which only minor skirmishes took place in this sector of the northern theater of war. Meanwhile, General Federb, who arrived at the northern French army on December 4, immediately began to staff it and soon brought the forces of his two corps to 40,000. On December 8, one of the French divisions made a surprise attack on Fort Gam and captured it; Federb moved towards Amiens and took up a position near this city on December 23. Manteuffel attacked him, but without decisive success; nevertheless, the very next day, Federbus, convinced of the extreme fatigue of his young troops, led them across the Scarpe River and stationed himself between Arras and Douai. On January 1, he again went on the offensive to rescue the besieged fortress of Peronne, but, after the stubborn battles that took place on January 2 and 3 with the Prussian observation corps stationed at Bapom (see), he had to abandon his intention; On January 10, Peronne surrendered to the Germans. In order to divert the attention of the enemy, Federb headed for Saint-Quentin, near which, on January 19, he entered into battle with the German troops led by General Goeben, but failed and retreated to Cambrai. However, the enemy troops were so tired that only on January 21 did they move after the French and soon again retreated across the Somme River. Taking advantage of the enemy's temporary inaction, the northern French army managed to recover and in a few days was ready for new operations; but the armistice of 28 January suspended her further action. In the east, things had an even more unfortunate outcome for the French. When, in August 1870, General Douai's division left Belfort to join MacMahon's army of Chalons, eastern France remained for some time without any means of defense. Then, from spare and marching units, the 20 Corps was gradually formed, assigned to protect the passages through the Vosges; several detachments of free shooters acted with him; in addition, Garibaldi, who arrived in France, formed a legion of 12 thousand people in Autun, from several battalions of mobiles and from volunteers of various nationalities; finally, in the vicinity of the city of Bon, a division was formed under the command of General Kremer. All these militias did not pose a serious danger to the German line of operations, especially since the 20th Corps was soon drawn to Nevers to participate in attempts to relieve Paris. Meanwhile, after the capture of Strasbourg, the corps of General Werder began the siege of other Alsatian fortresses. For the siege of Belfort, the Germans had a special corps and, in addition, another observational one, in the city of Vesoul. The troops of this observation corps ousted the Garibaldians from Dijon, and on December 18 they withstood a stubborn battle with Kremer's division, near the city of Nuits. After the battles of December 3 and 4 at Orleans, the French government began to reorganize the three corps that had retreated to Bourges and Nevers, and in mid-December brought their numbers to 100,000. Their goal was to unblock Belfort. The leadership of all the troops intended for this purpose was entrusted to General Bourbaki, who was to be reinforced by another 24th corps, moved from Lyon to Besançon. Around December 20, the movement of the French 18th and 19th corps to the east began. The transportation of troops was very disorderly and with great delays; young, impatient soldiers had to suffer greatly from the onset of cold weather. Nevertheless, by December 29, the French were already in their assigned places. Having learned that Belfort was the real object of Bourbaki's actions, Werder decided to make a flank movement in order to block the enemy's path in a position across the Lisen River; at the same time, he occupied the village of Vilereksel, near which he detained the advancing enemy throughout the day on January 9, and then freely retreated to his chosen position on the Lizen River. From January 15 to January 17, the French tried in vain to drive the enemy out of this position. When news was received of the approach of German troops from the west, Bourbaki decided to retreat to Besançon, but this decision was too late. Two German corps, entrusted to the authorities of General Manteuffel and rapidly advancing to the east, managed to reach the Oak River by January 22 and 23; at the same time, Werder began to threaten Clerval and Baume-les-Dames. Surrounded on almost all sides, Bourbaki, in a fit of despair, attempted suicide. General Klenshant, who took his place, retreated to Pontarlier, where he arrived on January 28. From here he intended to go along the Swiss border to Mut, but this last road was intercepted by the enemy. Pressed to the border, the French army (about 80 thousand) on February 1 crossed from Verrieres to Switzerland, where it laid down its arms. The war in the provinces was closely connected with the events near Paris, which withstood the siege for 4½ months (see Paris). During the armistice, from January 28 to February 28, the terms of the Frankfurt peace were worked out, which ended the war.

Literature: Ferdinand Lecomte, "Relation historique et critique de la guerre franco-allemande en 1870-71" (Geneva and Basel 1872-74); "Der deutsch-französische Krieg 1870-71, redigirt von der Kriegsgeschichtlichen Abtheilung des grossen Generalstabes" (B., from 1872); Borstädt, "Der deutsch-französische Krieg, 1870" (B., 1871); Menzel, "Geschichte des französischen Krieges von 1870" (1871); Niemann, "Der französische Feldzug 1870-71" (Hildburghausen, 1871-72); Rüstow, "Der Krieg am die Rheingrenze 1870" (Zurich, 1871); L. Hahn, "Der Krieg Deutschlands gegen Frakreich und die Gründung des deutschen Kaiserreichs" (B., 1871); Hiltl, "Der französische Krieg von 1870 and 1871" (Bielefeld, 1876); Fontane, "Der Krieg gegen Frankreich 1870-71" (B., 1873); Junck, "Der deutsch-französischer Krieg 1870 and 1871" (Leipzig, 1876); Hirth und Gosen, "Tagebuch des deutsch-französischen Krieges 1870-71" (B., 1871-74); Fleury, La France et la Russie en 1870(Paris, 1902; interesting for the diplomatic history of the war); "La guerre de 1870-71"; published in editions (up to April 1902 there were 6 of them) par la section historique de l'état-major de l'armée (P.); Lehautcourt, "Histoire de la guerre de 1870-71" (vol. I: "Les origines"; vol. II: "Les deux adversaires", P., 1901-02); Palat, "Répertoire alphabétique et raisonné des publications de toute nature concernant la guerre franco-allemande, parues en France et á l'étranger" (P., 1897); Lehautcourt, "Campagne de Loire" (1893); his own, Campagne de l'Est (1896); his own, Campagne du Nord (1897); his own, "Siège de Paris" (1898; these three monographs are included in the second part of the above-mentioned general work of Lecourt); Amédée Brenet, "La France et l'Allemagne devant le droit international pendant les opérations militaires de la guerre 1870-71" (P., 1902); Berleux, La caricature politique en France pendant la guerre, le siège de Paris et la commune"(Paris, 1872); the diary of the heir of Prince Friedrich (later German Emperor), translated into all major European languages ​​(last edition - English, 1901); Eberstein, "Erlebtes aus den Kriegen 1864, 1866, 1870-71 mit Feldmarschall Graf Moltke" (Leipzig, 1899); Schmitz, "Aus dem Feldzuge 1870-1871" (Berlin, 1902); Verítas (pseudonym), "The German Empire of to day, outlines of its formation and development" (L., 1902); Annenkov, The War of 1870. Notes and impressions of a Russian officer” (St. Petersburg, 1871); Wagner, History of the Siege of Strasbourg in 1870. (St. Petersburg, 1874); Leer, "Public lectures on the war of 1870 between France and Germany up to and including Sedan" (St. Petersburg, 1871); Muller, Political history the latest time. 1870" (St. Petersburg, 1872); Sarse, The Siege of Paris 1870-71. Memories and Impressions (St. Petersburg, 1871); Ch. Romagny, "Guerre franco-allemande de 1870-71" (2nd ed., P., 1902).

Encyclopedia of Richard Ernest and Trevor Nevitt Dupuy is a comprehensive reference book that depicts the evolution of military art from Antiquity to the present day. In one volume, the richest material is collected and systematized: a colossal volume archival documents, rare maps, summaries of statistical data, excerpts from scientific papers and detailed descriptions greatest battles.

For the convenience of using the encyclopedia, the history of mankind is conditionally divided into twenty-two chapters, each of which is devoted to the time period from the 4th millennium BC to the end of the 20th century. The essays that precede the chapters contain information about the principles of tactics and strategy of a particular period, the characteristics of weapons, the development of military-theoretical thought and prominent military leaders era. The encyclopedia contains two indexes: names mentioned in the text, as well as wars and significant armed conflicts. All this will help the reader to recreate and perceive the historical canvas as a whole, to understand the causes of a particular war, to trace its course and evaluate the actions of the commanders.

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Franco-Prussian War

1870–1871

Bismarck's diplomatic unification of the German states around Prussia and the creation of a broad anti-French coalition came as a surprise to Napoleon III. Prussia's attempt to place Prince Hohenzollern on the Spanish throne threatened France with a war on two fronts. Napoleon, who mistakenly considered the French army invincible, decided to accelerate the inevitable (in his opinion) onset of war. Bismarck's diplomacy contributed to this hasty decision.

1870 July 15 France declares war. Then follows the hasty mobilization of the armies of both countries. The mobilization and concentration of troops in Germany is proceeding in an organized manner, according to a clear plan, with full use of the railroad for the transfer of troops. Mobilization in France is unsystematic and incomplete.

1870, July 31. The concentration of Prussian troops and their plan of military operations. Three well-equipped German armies, totaling 475,000, are concentrated on the frontier along the Rhine. The first, 85,000-strong army under the command of General Karl F. von Steinmetz, is located between Trier and Saarbrücken; the second, 210,000, under the command of Prince Friedrich-Karl, is stationed between Bingen and Mannheim; the third, 180,000th, under the command of Crown Prince Friedrich-Wilhelm, is located between Landau and Germersheim. The armies are nominally under the command of King Wilhelm I, but in fact they are commanded by General Moltke and his brilliant General Staff. Prussian intelligence learns the full plan of combat operations of the French army. The goal of the campaign is to defeat the French army in a general battle, followed by the capture of Paris.

1870, July 31. The concentration of French troops and their plan of military operations. In contrast to the Prussian army, the 114,000-strong French army, consisting of eight separate corps, is deployed along the border - from Thionville to Strasbourg - and is located in echelons based on the fortress chain of Metz - Nancy - Belfort. The transportation of troops is poorly organized, the supply is even worse; parts are incomplete. The headquarters of Napoleon III and his mediocre minister of war, Marshal Edmond Leboeuf, is located in Metz. The only plan of the campaign is the popular cry "To Berlin!". French military intelligence does not exist. The command operates in a fog. Napoleon gives the order for a general offensive.

1870, August, 2. Battle of Saarbrücken. The exchange of fire between units of the 1st German Army and the 2nd French Corps becomes an alarm signal for the French, announcing that the enemy is nearby. Napoleon belatedly forms two armies: Alsace (from three southern corps under the command of Marshal MacMahon) and Lorraine (from five northern corps under the command of Marshal Achille F. Bazin). There is no single headquarters; both commanders make decisions independently, relying on the headquarters of the corps.

1870, August, 4. Battle of Weissenburg. Early in the morning on the Leuther River, the Crown Prince's army, advancing in four columns, surprised and defeated the leading division of MacMahon's corps. The other two French corps had not yet arrived; one division approaches during the day. After a fierce battle with superior enemy forces, the loss of the French is 1600 killed and wounded and 700 prisoners; German losses -1550. McMahon retreats and concentrates troops on a plateau overgrown with forest, deploying positions to the river.

1870, August, 6. Battle of Froeschwiller (Wörth). McMahon's right flank beats off the German reconnaissance in force. The crown prince regroups, strikes simultaneously on both flanks of MacMahon and concentrates the main forces against the enemy's right flank, directing 150 guns at him. The French cavalry launches several suicidal counterattacks but fails to stop the advance. Under the cover of reserve artillery, MacMahon retreats to Fröschwiller. Here he holds out until dark, and then withdraws without hindrance to Châlons-on-Marne (August 7-14). The German army of 125,000 with 312 guns loses a total of 8,200 killed and wounded and 1,373 missing. The French 46.5 thousandth with 119 guns loses 10,760 killed and wounded and 6,200 prisoners. The defense in the area of ​​the Vosges mountains has been broken, the way to Paris is open. The Crown Prince's army is methodically advancing towards the Meuse (Meuse) River. The tactical pattern of operations is being clarified. The French rifles of the Chaspeau system are superior to the needle muskets of the Prussians in accuracy and quantity of fire, but due to the erroneous replacement of cannons with mitrailleuses (easel machine guns), which make up about one quarter of all French artillery, the latter is significantly inferior to the Prussian.

1870, August, 6. Battle of Spichern. The 1st and 2nd German armies advance on Lorraine. Bazaine's army is dispersed into three parts that have no connection with each other. The second French corps of General Charles Auguste Frossard, repelling the attacks of Steinmetz and the corps of the army of Friedrich-Karl, holds the height of Spichern (southeast of Saarbrücken) for a whole day, until there is a threat of encirclement from both flanks. No help is coming from Bazin. The French corps of 30,000 loses 1982 people killed and wounded, 1096 missing. The German corps of 45,000 loses 4491 killed and wounded and 372 missing. The German army, drained of blood by losses, does not pursue the retreating French.

1870, August, 6-15. German offensive. Moltke orders the 3rd Army to pursue the retreating MacMahon, while he himself, with the 1st and 2nd armies, rushes after Bazin on the most extensive sector of the front. The mobility of the German avant-garde gives the French no respite. The Prussians wedged between the two French armies and threatened to cut off Bazaine.

1870, August 12. Napoleon resigns as commander in chief. Shocked by the defeats of the French army, Napoleon refuses the post of commander in chief and goes to the fortress of Verdun. Leboeuf is removed, his place is taken by General Charles G.M. Cousin-Montauban, Count of Palicao. Bazaine, who has taken command of the reorganized Army of the Rhine, retreats to the fortress of Metz, while MacMahon regroups at Châlons.

1870, August, 15. Battle of Borin. The Prussian First Army forces Bazin to retreat across the Moselle River. Bazaine hopes to reach Verdun and link up with MacMahon's army. But the German Second Army cuts off his retreat by forcing the river at Pont-a-Mousson. Hoping to break through, Bazin concentrates troops between the Orne and the Moselle, turning south and leaving Metz on his left flank.

Mitraleza

1870, August 16. Battles of Mar-la-Tour, Vionville and Resonville. At dawn, Friedrich-Karl, moving north from Verdun to Metz, encounters French troops. His main body attacks; the rest, at the sound of the cannonade, rush forward. The attack of the French cavalry is repulsed with heavy losses for the latter. The Germans attack in their favorite way: they deliver a concentrated attack, then echelon after echelon bring new units into the battle until the climax of the battle arrives. Small cavalry skirmishes develop into a grand battle, and then into hand-to-hand combat, capturing infantry positions. The battle continues to exhaustion on both sides. Ultimately, Friedrich-Karl goes on the attack along the entire front and pushes the enemy back to Resonville. A series of battles merges into one protracted battle, the most difficult in the entire war. The losses of the Germans are 17,000, the French -16,000. The next day, Bazaine, having lost hope of a breakthrough, withdraws to Metz, deploys a 115,000th army across the flank and takes up a new position with a front of 10 km to the west, to the mountain range between the Moselle and Orna. main forces German troops numbering 200 thousand people, finding themselves between the army of Bazaine and Paris, they launch an offensive, leaving one reinforced corps east of Metz.

1870, August, 18. Battle of Gravelotte - Saint-Privat. Moltke, personally participating in the operation, attacks Bazaine, throwing the main forces of his Second Army onto the enemy's left flank. The key point of the battle is the fortified village of Saint-Privas-la-Montaigne. Friedrich-Karl throws the Prussian guard to storm the village (which is defended by the Sixth Corps of Marshal Canrobert). From early morning until dusk, Canrobert's 23,000-strong corps heroically repels the onslaught of a 100,000-strong German army. Meanwhile, Bazin does not respond to his requests to send reinforcements. Then the Saxon corps enters Roncourt (north of Saint-Prives), surrounds the French flank and threatens their rear. After the battle for every village house, Canrobert retreats to Metz with the remnants of the corps. Meanwhile, another battle is being fought on the right flank of the Germans. Two German corps, spread out, march along the road leading east from Gravelotte. Entering the gorge, they fall into the trap of the French. Attempts to break through are unsuccessful; panic starts. A disordered crowd of soldiers retreats west across Gravelot. The brilliant counterattack of the French was stopped only thanks to the timely artillery of Prince Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen and the personal leadership of Moltke, who brought up fresh troops and prevented the complete defeat of the retreating German army. At the end of the night, Moltke receives a message about the victory at Saint-Privat. If Bazin had launched a counterattack in time, being in the previous disposition, he would have been able to break through the Prussian orders. However, he continues to be inactive, having completely lost contact with the corps commanders. Moltke, who was waiting for the French counterattack, which never took place, surrounds the enemy positions along the entire perimeter.

1870, August, 21–18. MacMahon's advance. Meanwhile, MacMahon receives a categorical order from the government to march from Chalons to the aid of Bazaine with an army of 120,000 and 393 guns. All his actions are widely covered by the French press. Emperor Napoleon III himself is at his headquarters. McMahon foolishly chooses a northerly route, which then requires a turn to the east. Moltke accepts the challenge. While the German 1st Army and part of the 2nd under the command of Friedrich-Karl besiege Metz, the rest of the 2nd Army, called Meuse, under the command of the Saxon Crown Prince Albert, moves west to join with the 3rd Army of Friedrich-Wilhelm , which quickly crosses the Argon forest, blocking the path of McMahon.

1870, August 29-31. Battles on the Meuse. MacMahon transfers part of his army across the Meuse at Douzy. The Prussian Meuse army, advancing along both banks of the river, after fierce battles near Noir (August, 29) and Beaumont (August, 30), pushes the French north to Sedan. Another battle at Bazeya (August 31), in which MacMahon is wounded, drives the French into a bend in the river near Sedan. And this time the Prussians wedged between the French army and Sedan. The Crown Prince, who arrived from the southeast through Wadlincourt and Donchery on the left bank of the Meuse, crosses the river along pontoon bridges and moves deep into the plain north of Sedan, completing the flank bypass of the French army. Meanwhile, the army of Friedrich-Karl repels Bazaine's half-hearted attempts to break out of Metz (August 31).

1870, September, 1. Battle of Sedan. General Auguste Ducrot, who took command instead of McMahon, finds himself surrounded by the 200,000-strong army of Moltke, pushing him from the south, west and east; Ducrot's rear is deployed to the Belgian border. The French cavalry, which made an attempt to break through, was scattered by the fire of the Prussian infantry; meanwhile, 426 German guns, located in a semicircle on the heights in the vicinity of Sedan, bombard the French positions throughout the day. The attack of the German cavalry was repulsed by the fire of French machine guns (mitralise). Having failed in his attempt to break through to the northeast, Ducrot attempts to attack in a southerly direction in the afternoon, but fails. By five o'clock it's all over; the French army accumulates in the city and fortresses under heavy enemy fire. General Emmanuel F. de Wimpffen, who took over from Ducrot, tries to convince Napoleon to personally lead the last attack, but he refuses to sacrifice soldiers, goes out with a white flag and surrenders to the King of Prussia as a private individual. Then Wimpffen with the remnants of the army (83 thousand soldiers and 449 guns) capitulates. The loss of the French is 17 thousand, the Germans -9 thousand.

1870, September. German advance on Paris. It seemed the war was over. Half of the French army is in captivity, the rest is blockaded in Metz. The last stronghold of the French army are the fortresses located along the eastern border, of which the most important are Strasbourg, Verdun and Belfort. The German army is constantly replenished with reserves. While the 1st and 2nd armies are tightening the iron ring around Bazaine in Metz, the 3rd and Meuse armies are moving on Paris. However, in France there is an unprecedented patriotic upsurge.

1870 September 4. Third Republic. A popular uprising rises in Paris, overthrowing the empire. A provisional government is being formed, the ideological leader of which is Leon Gambetta, and the president and military governor of Paris is General Louis Jules Trochu. Trochu strengthens Paris and hastily recruits an army of 120,000 (from veterans, reservists and 20,000 marines), an 80,000-strong corps of the so-called flying guard (from young people up to 30 years old) and a 300,000-strong national guard (extremely excitable and anarchically tuned crowd of people from 30 to 50 years old).

1870, September 19. Beginning of the siege of Paris. Moltke is not going to destroy his soldiers by sending them to storm two belts of strong fortifications. The Germans carefully build their fortifications around the city. King Wilhelm of Prussia moves his headquarters to Versailles. Moltke is about to starve out the giant city, but to his amazement he finds that his lines of communication are constantly under attack. freelancers(partisans), and a new French army is being formed in the Loire Valley. Gambetta, who fled from the capital in a balloon (the only means of communication with the outside world), organizes a nationwide resistance centered in Tours (October 11), where the provisional government functions. Moltke is torn apart, commanding two sieges, field operations and fighting the partisans along the entire line of communication, which greatly reduces the effectiveness of the German war machine.

Krupp cannon

1870, October 27. Fall of Metz. The 173,000-strong French army of Bazaine, after a 54-day siege, capitulates more because of the indecision of the commander and hunger than because of hostilities. After the end of the war, Bazin is judged by a tribunal, found guilty of treason and imprisoned.

1870, October - December. French initiative. Moltke immediately sends the veterans released after the siege of Metz to a large-scale campaign against the untrained French army in the valley of the Loire and Sarthe rivers, which made several bold but unsuccessful attempts to break through to the besieged Paris. Fighting continues throughout the winter; German communications are subjected to constant attacks by partisans.

1870, October - December. Military operations around Paris. Despite the famine in besieged Paris, Trochu's detachments make sorties from time to time. The defense of Paris is complicated by the rebellion of the soldiers of the National Guard (October 31). Two major sorties to break the siege (November 29–30 and December 21) start out well but end up nowhere.

1870, November, 9. Battle of Kulmie. The victory of the French troops over the Bavarian corps forces the Germans to leave Orleans, but the further French offensive is choked after the introduction of the Prussian reserves.

1870, December, 2–4. Battle of Orleans. A two-day fierce battle between the French army of the Loire under the command of General Louis J.B. d'Orey de Paladin and the army of Frederick Charles ends with the victory of the Prussians and the re-capture of Orleans by them. Meanwhile, General Charles D.S. Bourbaki hurries east to the besieged Belfort, and General Antoine F.A. Chanzy with the remnants of the Loire army is engaged in protracted battles with significantly superior enemy forces.

1871, January. Campaign in the North. General Louis L.K. Faederbe holds back German attempts to pacify Northern France at the Battle of Alluet (December 23). Then, in a long battle at Bopom (January, 2-3), he defeats the corps of General August Carl von Goeben, but von Goeben takes revenge in the battle of Saint-Quentin (January, 19). Faderb retreats in an organized manner and breaks the vanguard pursuing him. He quickly regroups his troops and prepares for a new offensive. This worries the German command, already taken by surprise by the unexpected successes of the resistance in the outlying provinces.

1871, January, 10–12. Battle of Le Mans. In the Loire Valley, the Germans are repulsing a desperate attempt at an offensive from Chanzy. The unreliability of the troops forces Chanzy to retreat to the west, but not to lose his intention to launch a new offensive on the Loire.

1871, January, 15–17. Battle of Belfort. Far to the east, Belfort remains the last strong French stronghold whose garrison is still resisting. Bourbaki, with a completely unprepared 150,000th army, advances on the 60,000th corps of General Karl Wilhelm F.A.L. Werder to distract him from the siege of Belfort and force him to defend himself. He attacks Werder positions on the Lisena River, within cannon shot of the fortress. Due to the mediocrity of Bourbaki and the incompetence of his assistant Giuseppe Garibaldi (this time fighting for the independence of France), the French are defeated after a three-day fierce battle. The Germans lose 1900 soldiers, the French more than 6 thousand. Bourbaki commits failed attempt suicide, is removed from command and replaced by General Justin Clenchamp. With the arrival of the German reserve army under the command of General Edwin von Manteuffel, Klenschan, whose rear is facing the Swiss border, is sandwiched between the two armies. With an army of 83,000, he crosses the border of Switzerland at Pontarlier, where he receives a warm welcome (February 1).

January 26, 1871 Armistice in Paris. The third and last attempt by the garrison of Paris to break the siege ends in complete defeat when the National Guard begins to treacherously shoot their comrades in the back (January 19). The hopes of the defenders of Paris for liberation are crumbling, people are starving. At the suggestion of Trochu, a truce is concluded.

1871 January 28 Versailles Convention; capitulation of Paris. The regular units of the Parisian garrison and the flying guards are declared prisoners of war; the forts in the vicinity of Paris are occupied by the Prussians. At the request of the French (as it turns out later, unreasonable), the terms of the peace agreement do not include the disarmament of the national guard, which, in theory, should perform police functions and maintain order in the city. The victors enter Paris in triumph (March 1).

1871, January–February. Undefeated Belfort. The commandant of the fortress, Colonel Pierre M. P. A. Danfert-Rochereau, has been on the defensive since November 3, 1870. Being a military engineer, he served in the garrison of this ancient fortress for six years. Using existing installations, he strengthens the outer line of defense and successfully defends Belfort with the help of a garrison of 17.6 thousand, mainly consisting of flying and national guards. The Germans manage to break through the outer line of fortifications only at the end of January, but at the same time they find themselves under fire from the batteries of the citadel and advance extremely slowly. Danfert-Rochereau surrenders the fortress only by categorical order of the French General Assembly in Bordeaux (February 15). The garrison leaves with military honors - with weapons, artillery and banners. During the 105 days of the siege, the French lose 4,800 people (of which 336 civilians died during shelling). The losses of the Germans amount to 2 thousand. The defense of Belfort becomes a heroic event in the history of the French army.

1871, May 10. Peace of Frankfurt. France gives Germany Alsace and Northeast Lorraine, and also pays an indemnity of 5 billion francs (a billion dollars). The German occupation authorities remain in France until the indemnity is paid.

For the first decade and a half after the re-declaration of the empire in France in the 19th century, Napoleon lll sought to act as the father of all the French. By creating a luxurious court, bringing closer to him the aristocracy, industrialists who enriched themselves on military orders, Bonaparte's nephew secured the support of the nobility and the propertied strata of the population. The introduction of universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age, the abolition of laws prohibiting strikes, the permission to create workers' organizations, the increase in wages at state enterprises were met with satisfaction by the population.

The policy of Napoleon II gave rise to such a term as "Bonapartism", which was understood as a course based on concessions to the demands of all sections of society, including those with opposing interests. This made it possible to increase the influence and authority of the authorities without repression and terror. The implementation of such a policy required significant resources, which could be provided either by a prosperous economy or constant external conquest.

The economic crisis of the late 1860s led to the aggravation of the situation in the country. Strikes became more frequent, the representation of supporters of the republican form of government expanded at the next elections to the legislative body.

Internal difficulties were combined with the deterioration of the international position of France.

The ambitious plans of Napoleon lll to return France to the role of the first power in Europe did not suit the leading countries of the world. Russia was hostile to France, not forgiving her defeat in Crimean War. Italy, forced to cede Nice and Savoy to France for very limited support during the war of 1859, also did not have good feelings for her neighbor. In addition, the French troops occupying Rome prevented the final unification of the country, Austria, having lost its Italian possessions in the war with France, was not inclined to show solidarity with it. The influence of France in Egypt, which allowed her to build the Suez Canal in 1869, alarmed the ruling circles of England. They saw France's control of the shortest route from Europe to Asia as a threat to their possessions in India.

The diplomatic isolation of France was used by Prussia, where the influence of France on the southern German states (Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt) was seen as an obstacle to the completion of the unification of the German lands. The reason for the war was the question of succession to the throne in Spain.

The offer of King Wilhelm l of Prussia to occupy the vacant throne in Madrid by a prince from the house of Hohenzollern was rejected by Napoleon lll. He, in an ultimatum form, demanded that the king of Prussia be ready from his claims. Wilhelm l was inclined to yield, but Bismarck edited the king's answer in such a way that it acquired an offensive character for the emperor of France.

On July 14, 1870, Napoleon lll declared war on Prussia. Thus, Bismarck achieved his goal: in the eyes of other powers, France looked like an attacker. Napoleon lll hoped that the war with Prussia would consolidate the nation, restore the prestige of France and expand its borders. However, Prussia was much better prepared for the war, its army acted according to a clear plan developed by the chief of the general staff G. von Moltke (1800-1891).

The Prussian army managed to seize the initiative from the very beginning of hostilities and inflict significant damage on the French troops, who retreated in disorder along the entire front. On September 2, 1870, more than 100 thousand French soldiers and officers, surrounded in the Sedan area, surrendered, Emperor Napoleon II was also captured, on September 16, German troops approached Paris.

The news of the capture of the emperor put an end to the Second Empire. In Paris, a provisional government of national defense was formed and elections for a constituent assembly were called. The Parisians were armed, in a huge city with a population of more than 1.5 million people, a national guard was created to prevent the Prussians from capturing Paris.

Nevertheless, it was no longer possible to turn the tide of the war. On October 27, the French army surrendered, surrounded in the fortress of Metz. Paris held out under siege for more than four months, despite bombardments, famine, and food shortages.

The impotence of the government caused growing discontent among the Parisians, growing suspicions of treason. Repeatedly flaring up in the city unrest alarmed the authorities. Fears of establishing a dictatorship of the Jacobin type prompted the government to conclude a truce on January 28, 1871 on the terms dictated by Prussia - resistance ceased. Paris paid an indemnity, its forts and artillery were transferred to the Prussian troops. At the same time, they failed to disarm the National Guard.

In the National Assembly, the monarchists won the majority in the elections. However, the deputies spoke in favor of preserving the republic, on behalf of which peace was concluded. France undertook to pay Germany an indemnity of 5 billion francs in gold, yielding Alsace and Lorraine, rich in iron ore. These conditions laid the foundation for a long confrontation between France, which did not accept the loss of part of its territory, and the German Empire, the creation of which was declared on January 18, 1871.

The entry into force of the peace treaty and the withdrawal of German troops from France were delayed by the uprising that began in Paris on March 18, 1871. The pretext for it was an attempt by government troops to take away artillery from the National Guard. The rebellious guards took possession of the city. The government fled to the former royal residence - Versailles. In Paris, an organ of self-government was elected, which united the executive and legislative powers - the Commune. The uprisings also swept through other cities of France - Bordeaux, Lyon, Marseille, Toulouse and others, but the Communes created in them failed to establish themselves for more than a few days.

The Paris Commune held out for 72 days and attracted the attention of both the governments and the revolutionary democrats of Europe. On the side of the Communards, Polish and Belgian revolutionaries fought against the Versailles troops. The experience of the Commune was subsequently considered by Marxists, leaders revolutionary movements as a prototype of the future workers' government.

Meanwhile, the Commune was more like a debating club than a capable government. From the very beginning, its leaders lost the military initiative by refraining from attacking Versailles. There was no unanimity in their ranks as to whether the Commune should be regarded as the government of Paris alone or of the whole of France. The measures taken by the Commune were limited in nature, amounting to the establishment of workers' control over the enterprises abandoned by the owners, and the moving into the empty apartments of aristocrats and bourgeois of poor families from working-class districts.

Troops loyal to the government were drawn to Versailles, the Prussian army, which continued to blockade Paris, let them through to the city through their positions. Breaking into the city after stubborn fighting, the Versaillese achieved victory. The defenders of the Commune were shot without trial or investigation; on May 28, 1871, the fighting in Paris ended.

And so ... briefly about the main thing)) here:

Reunification of Italy:

1861 - the reunification of Italy around the Savoy dynasty.

By the second half of the 19th century, a significant part of Italy was part of the Austrian Habsburg Empire.

The most developed state is Sardinia.

The Prime Minister of Sardinia, Count C. Cavour, is an adherent liberal. views, believed that for the unit-I of the country under the auspices of Piedmont are favorable. conv.

Merging progress:

1) During the Crimea. War Sardinia took the side of England and France, sending troops to the Crimea. For this help, Cavour hoped for France's assistance in the reunification of Italy (+ in 1858, an agreement was concluded on the transfer of Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for participation in the war against Austria, which controlled most of Northern Italy);

2) In the war that began in 1859 (Austro-Italian-French War), Parmas created constituent assemblies that decided to unite with Sardinia;

3) France made peace with Austria (by betraying Italy + some lands, promised Italy, remained with Austria, etc.);

4) It provoked the rise of the patriot. movement in Italy;

5) In 1860, an uprising began in Sicily (Kingdom of Naples). The volunteer corps, headed by D. Garibaldi, opposed the Bourbons, who ruled in the south of the country;

6) The overthrow of the Bourbons;

7) In 1861, the 1st all-Italian. parliament proclaimed. occoed-e countries and the creation of the kingdom of Italy, led by a cat. became king of Piedmont, Victor Emmanuel.

The composition of the new The kingdoms did not include Venice and the Roman region, which remained an ecclesiastical state under the rule of the Pope.

Further. The united Italy is associated with the struggle of Prussia for the united Germany (Italy took the side of Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Italy received Venice).

German unification:

1871 - the unification of Germany (the creation around the kingdom of Prussia of a federal state of the German Empire from several dozen independent states with a German population, Austria and Luxembourg did not become part of Prussia).

United Germany is traditionally considered. as a polit. percent during 1864-70, during the cat. Prussia conducted a number of wars. campaigns against Denmark, Austria and France.

Conducted by Otto von Bismarck.

The unity of Germany is the result of the Franco-Prussian War.

1870-71 - Franco-Prussian War.

Franco-Prussian War:

1) The reason for the war was the desire of Prussia to unite other countries under its control. Germany, France resisted this;

2) The reason for the war was the Emma dispatch (claims to the Spanish throne, which were put forward by a relative of Wilhelm of Prussia, Leopold Hohenzollern. Leopold's claims were secretly supported by Otto von Bismarck. Paris was outraged by Leopold's claims. Napoleon III forced Hohenzollern to renounce the Spanish throne, and after that the ambassador Napoleon demanded that Wilhelm himself approve this refusal);

3) On July 14, 1870, Napoleon lll declared war on Prussia (Bismarck achieved his goal: in the eyes of other powers, France looked like an attacker);

4) Prussia with himself. won the beginning of the war (for example, in the autumn of 1870, Napoleon III was captured);

5) Jan 28 1871 - the conclusion of a truce, conditional cat. Prussia dictated (Paris paid an indemnity, its forts and artillery were transferred to the Prussian troops).

The results of F.-P. wars:

1) the South Germans supported Prussia throughout the war, and after the victory of Prussia over France, the idea of ​​German unity was revived, and then put into practice;

2) the rise of nat. self-consciousness in Germany;

3) After the victory at Sedan, the South German states began negotiations with Prussia on joining the North German Confederation;

4) Then another series of annexes to Prussia passed;

5) On December 10, 1870, the Reichstag of the North German Confederation, at the suggestion of Bismarck, Chancellor of the North German Confederation, renamed the North German Confederation into the German Empire;

6) On January 18, 1871, in the Palace of Versailles near Paris, Bismarck, in the presence of the German princes, read out the text of the proclamation of the Prussian king by the German emperor.

Polit. individuals:

1) 25 states had different rights and unequal influence within the empire.

2) department. lot. the monarchs kept their selves in place. level, had the influence of h / appointing representatives with the right of veto to the top. chamber of the German parliament.

Elections to the lower house (Reichstag) were held on a universal basis. Equal. elect. rights for men;

3) democrat. the nature of the elections to the Reichstag is inconsistent. possible lower classes to influence the management of the state; 4) real power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor.

Question #33

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