Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Russian-Turkish wars. Partitions of Poland. Outstanding military leaders A.V. Suvorov and F.F. Ushakov Foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century table

Topic 18. Foreign policy Russia in the second half of the 18th century.

1. Russia in the system European relations. The main directions and goals of Russia's foreign policy.
2. "Eastern Question" in Russia's foreign policy. Russian-Turkish wars.
3. Russia and US education. "Declaration of Armed Neutrality".
4. Participation of Russia in the sections of the Commonwealth.
5. Russia and the events of the French Revolution.

Sources and literature

Anisimov E.V., Kamensky A.B. Russia in the 18th - the first half of the 19th century: History. Historian. Document. - M.: Science. 1994.
Bokhanov A.N. “Love service to the dear Fatherland...” (Prince G.A. Potemkin-Tavrichesky) // Sakharov A.N., Nazarov V.D., Bokhanov A.N. Russian followers. - M.: Russian word. 1999. -S. 319 - 330.
Kamensky A.B. Catherine II // Questions of History. - 1989. - No. 3. - S. 62 - 88.
Kamensky A.B. "Under the shadow of Catherine". Second half of the 18th century - St. Petersburg: Lenizdat, 1992.
Nazarov V.D. Raising the honor of the Russian flag (F.F. Ushakov) // Sakharov A.N., Nazarov V.D., Bokhanov A.N. Russian followers. - M.: Russian word. 1999. - S. 331 - 351.
Essays on the history of the USSR. XVIII century / Ed. B.B. Kafengauza. - M.: Uchpedgiz, 1962.
Rostunov I.P. Generalissimo Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov. - M.: Enlightenment, 1989.

In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia played an increasingly active role in international relations. It is part of the European military-political alliances and thanks to strong army has a significant impact on them.
Russian diplomacy, which used to have to deal with permanent allies and adversaries, by this time had learned to maneuver in the complex relations of the European powers. The ideal of state interests was associated with the spread of the ideas of rationalism to the field of foreign policy. The influence of foreign officers is falling. In their place come Russian officers and generals. Russian army increasingly becoming national. Who was at the head of the Russian Foreign Ministry in the second half of the 18th century? Consider the project of the "Northern System" by N.I. Panin.
The main tasks of foreign policy facing Russia in the second half of the 18th century were: the struggle for access to the southern seas - the Black and Azov; liberation from Polish domination of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus and the unification in one state of all the Eastern Slavs; a certain direction of the foreign policy actions of the Russian autocracy, including the struggle against revolutionary France, in connection with the Great French Revolution that began in 1789; asserting its interests in European politics, Russia sought to play the role of a guarantor of the independence of the English colonies in North America.
Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774 In the 60s of the XVIII century. There is a complex political game going on in Europe. The degree of convergence of certain countries was determined by the strength of the contradictions between them. The strongest contradictions in Russia were with France and Austria. Determine what they were.
The Russian government was prompted to take active steps in the south by the interests of the country's security, and the needs of the nobility, who sought to obtain the richest southern lands, and the developing industry and trade, which dictated the need for access to the Black Sea coast.
Turkey, instigated by France and England, in the autumn of 1768 declared war on Russia. After the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. Brilliant victories were won on land: in 1770 under the command of the talented commander P.A. Rumyantsev, in 1771 under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgoruky, in 1774 - Major General A.V. Suvorov. In the famous Chesme battle at sea under the command of Admiral G.A. Spiridonov, A.G. Orlov and S.K. Greig, a victory was also won. Track the course of hostilities in major companies by year.
Under the terms of the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace (1774), Russia received: access to the Black Sea; the steppes of the Black Sea region - Novorossia; the right to have its own fleet on the Black Sea; right of passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. In addition, Azov and Kerch, as well as the Kuban and Kabarda, passed to Russia; Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey; Turkey paid an indemnity in the amount of 4 million rubles; The Russian government won the right to act as a defender of the legitimate rights of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.
For brilliant victories in the Russian-Turkish war, Catherine II generously awarded her commanders with orders and nominal weapons. In addition, A.G. Orlov began to be called Chesmensky, V.M. Dolgorukov - Crimean, A.P. Rumyantsev - Zadanaisky. A.V. Suvorov received a golden sword with diamonds.
Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791. Since 1780, Russia began to draw closer to Austria on the basis of common interests in relation to Turkey and Poland.
Turkey did not want to come to terms with the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea. In response to Turkey's attempt to return Crimea under its rule, Russian troops occupied the Crimean peninsula, which became part of Russia. When and as a result of what events did Crimea become part of Russia? What were the consequences?
Sevastopol was founded as a support base for the fleet (1783). T.A. Potemkin for success in the annexation of the Crimea (the old name of Taurida) received a prefix to his title “Prince of Tauride”.
In 1787, Turkey presented an ultimatum with a number of unacceptable demands. The second Russian-Turkish war proceeded in a difficult international situation for Russia. At this time, an alliance between England, Prussia and Holland took shape, aimed at undermining Russia's positions in the Baltic. These countries provoked Sweden, and the war with it in 1788 - 1790 weakened the forces of Russia, although the peace treaty of 1790 did not introduce any territorial changes between Russia and Sweden. Russia was supported at that time only by Austria, and even then by insignificant forces. Nevertheless, this war also showed the superiority of the Russian army.
During these years, the military talent of A.V. Suvorov was especially manifested. In 1787, he defeats the Turks during their siege of Kinburn, then in 1788 he takes the powerful fortress of Ochakov, and in 1789 he wins two convincing victories over the many times superior enemy forces at Fokshanna and on the Rymnik River, for which he receives the title of count Rymniksky.
Of particular importance was the capture of Ishmael (1790) - the citadel of Turkish rule on the Danube. After careful preparation, A.V. Suvorov appointed the time of the assault. Wanting to avoid bloodshed, he sent a letter to the commandant of the fortress demanding surrender: “24 hours - will, the first shot is already captivity, assault is death.” The Turkish pasha refused: “The Danube will soon stop in its course, the sky will fall to the ground, than Ishmael will surrender.” After a 10-hour assault, Ishmael was taken. In battle, the student of A.V. Suvorov, the commander M.I. Kutuzov, glorified himself.
As well as ground forces the fleet commanded by Admiral F.F. Ushakov successfully operated. At the Battle of Cape Kaliakria in 1791 Turkish fleet was destroyed.
According to the Iasi peace treaty (signed in Iasi), Russia received the following acquisitions: Turkey recognized the Crimea as a possession of Russia; the Dniester River became the border between the two countries; Russia included the territory between the rivers Bug and Dniester; Turkey recognized the Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of St. George in 1783.
As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, the economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated. Russia's ties with the countries of the Mediterranean expanded. The Crimean Khanate, a constant hotbed of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands, was liquidated. Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1795), Yekaterinodar (1793, now Krasnodar) and others were founded in the south of Russia.
Russia and the formation of the USA. One of the significant international events was the struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - bourgeois revolution that led to the creation of the United States of America.
Disagreements between England and Russia had a favorable effect on the course of the American Revolution. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", supported by most European countries. The ships of neutral countries had the right of armed protection if they were attacked by the belligerent fleet. This caused England to abandon attempts to organize a naval blockade of the American coast and objectively contributed to the victory of the American Revolution.
At the same time, Russia participated in the colonization of North America. The movement of the Cossacks and Russian settlers in the XVI-XVII centuries. through Siberia and Far East led in 1784 to the landing of G.I. Shelekhov in Alaska and the emergence of “Russian America” - permanent Russian settlements in Alaska, and then in California.
Partitions of Poland. The strengthening of Prussia, Austria, Russia and the constant weakening of the Commonwealth led to its divisions.
According to the first section (1772) of the Commonwealth, a part of eastern Belarus went to Russia. According to the second (1793), Russia received the rest of eastern and central Belarus with Minsk, Volyn and Podolia. According to the third section (1795), western Belarus, western Volhynia, Lithuania, Courland were ceded to Russia.
under power Russian emperors almost all the lands of the Eastern Slavs, who were part of Kievan Rus, excluding the Galician lands with Lvov (Galicia), which became part of Austria. Give an assessment of these contradictory events.
War with revolutionary France. The new political situation in Europe was created by the Great French revolution 1789 and the execution of King Louis XVI. Relations between Russia and France were severed. Russia entered into an alliance with Prussia, England and Austria for a joint struggle against revolutionary France. Why did Russia support the counter-revolutionary forces of France? It was an alliance of the reactionary forces of Europe against the hearth of the ideas of freedom and democracy, which was France. At the same time, the aggressive policy of Napoleon Bonaparte, who seized power in the country in 1799, gave the actions of the allies a liberating character.
In 1789 - 1800 Russian fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov, he captured a number of Greek islands captured by the French. Russian landing troops entered Naples and Rome. In 1799, the offensive of the Russian army began under the command of A.V. Suvorov, acting together with the Austrian troops. The heroic transition of the Russian troops through the Alps to Switzerland ended with success. However, at this time, the contradictions between England, Austria and Russia intensified. The Russian army was returned to its homeland. Emperor Paul I began a political rapprochement with France, seeing in her an ally to fight against England. He sent Russian Cossacks to India, a former colony of England. However, his assassination in 1801 thwarted the plans of a coalition of France and Russia.
Thus, thanks to the active foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XVIII century. became a great European power. This was a victory for the policy of adaptation (adaptation) to Europe, begun by Peter the Great. However, Russia's political role in Europe far exceeded its economic position on the European market, similar to that of Prussia, Spain, Italy, Portugal, and the Commonwealth. Russia remained a backward country in socio-economic terms, which made its position in the system European civilization unstable, contradictory.

In 1783, the Treaty of St. George was signed, according to which Russia took Eastern Georgia under its protection. Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791 In the summer of 1787, Turkey demanded the return of the Crimea and opened hostilities. A. V. Suvorov defeated the enemy. Russia won a number of brilliant victories. The Black Sea became free for the Russian fleet. In 1791 the Turkish fleet was destroyed. Turkey turned to Russia with a proposal to make peace. The Yassy peace treaty was signed, according to which Turkey recognized the Crimea as a possession of Russia. Turkey recognized the Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of St. George in 1783. Russo-Swedish War 1788-1790 In 1788, Sweden decided to return the lands lost back in northern war . Military operations took place near St. Petersburg, when the main Russian armies fought in the south against Turkey. The offensive of the Swedes on land did not produce results, and soon the Swedish king and his troops left Russia. Moreover, Russian troops occupied a significant part of Swedish Finland. Battles at sea went on with varying success. In 1790, the Treaty of Verel was signed, which retained the former borders. Partitions of Poland. The Commonwealth was going through a severe crisis, the cause of which lay in the anti-national policy of the Polish magnates, who brought the country to collapse. The plight of Poland was taken advantage of by its neighbors: the monarchs of Prussia, Austria and Russia. In 1772, the first partition of Poland took place. Austria sent its troops to Western Ukraine (Galicia), Prussia - to Pomorie. Russia received the eastern part of Belarus up to Minsk and part of the Latvian lands. In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place. Central Belarus with Minsk, Right-Bank Ukraine went to Russia. Prussia received Gdansk, part of the land along the Warta and Vistula rivers. In 1794, Polish patriots led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko, who sought to preserve Poland's sovereignty, revolted. Catherine II suppressed it by sending troops under the command of A. V. Suvorov. This predetermined the third partition of Poland. In 1795, Prussia received Central Poland with Warsaw, Austria received Southern Poland with Lublin and Krakow. Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus went to Russia. As a result of the partitions, Poland lost its statehood and sovereignty for more than a century. The Polish king abdicated and moved to Russia. War with revolutionary France. Paul I continued the struggle with France, which sought to assert its dominance in Europe. In 1798, Russia found itself in an anti-French coalition of European powers led by England. The Russian fleet under the command of F. F. Ushakov entered the Mediterranean in the autumn of 1798, and then the Adriatic, where the Ionian Islands were liberated from the French troops. F. F. Ushakov stormed the main base of the French. The Greek population greeted the Russian sailors with enthusiasm. The following year, 1799, F.F. Ushakov liberated Naples and Rome from French troops. The Russian land army was headed by A. V. Suvorov. The troops under his command cleared Northern Italy of French soldiers within five weeks, triumphantly entering Milan and Turin (Italian campaign). However, the successful actions of A.V. Suvorov were dissatisfied with the Austrian allies, who claimed Northern Italy. Paul I ordered the transfer of the troops of A. V. Suvorov to Switzerland to join the corps of General A. M. Rimsky-Korsakov and Austrian army. Russian miracle heroes, led by a 70-year-old commander, accomplished an unprecedented feat. With difficult battles, especially for the St. Gotthard Pass and at the Devil's Bridge, where the French troops were defeated, the Russian army made its legendary crossing of the Alps (Swiss campaign). Soon, due to the aggravation of contradictions within the anti-French coalition, Russia withdrew from its composition. Russian troops were withdrawn.

Culture of Russia in the 18th century.

In 1701 in Moscow, in the building of the former Sukharev Tower (named after the Streltsy Regiment of Colonel Sukharev, who was stationed nearby), the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was founded. Following the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences, the Artillery, Engineering, and Medical Schools were opened. Peter forbade even marrying nobles who shied away from studies. A huge step forward in the development of education and the secular school was the introduction in 1708 of a civil printed type to replace the hard-to-read Church Slavonic and the transition from designating numbers using letters to Arabic numerals. In wartime conditions, there was a great need for specialists, so the first Peter's schools recruited "all sorts of small-timers, oprichnina (except) landlord peasants." However, from the second quarter of the XVIII century. the government moved to the creation of closed estates educational institutions. Soon, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens (1764), as well as noble boarding houses, opened in St. Petersburg. Noble children were also educated through the system of private education. The children of the clergy studied at theological academies. Recruited children were trained in soldier's schools, which prepared non-commissioned officers (sergeants) for the army. Thus, by the middle of the 18th century, a system of closed class schools had developed in Russia. Only at the end of the century (1786) formally classless four-class main public schools, and in each county - two-class small public schools. An outstanding event in the life of the country was the creation in 1755 of the first Moscow University in Russia on the initiative and project of M.V. Lomonosov. On the initiative of I.I. at Moscow University. Science and technology. The most important result of the activity of Peter I in the field of science was the opening in St. Petersburg in 1725 of the Academy of Sciences, the decree on the foundation of which was signed a year earlier. The Academy included a university and a gymnasium for personnel training. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. studies have been started natural conditions and country mapping. Russian explorers discovered the richest ore deposits in the Urals. The interior regions of Siberia, the coasts of the Caspian and Aral Seas, the Arctic Ocean, middle Asia. These works prepared an edition in the middle of the 18th century. geographer I. K. Kirillov “Atlas of Russia. The expeditions of V. Bering reached the strait between Asia and America, named after him. The names of S. Chelyuskin, cousins ​​D. and Kh. Laptev forever remained on the maps of the world as evidence of their geographical discoveries. In the 1960s and 1970s, Academic Expeditions of P. S. Pallas and S. G. Gmelin were organized. In the second half of the century, historians M.M. Shcherbatov and I.N. Boltin. A number of original machine tools and mechanisms were designed by the mechanic A.K. Nartov. In the second half of the century, the outstanding self-taught scientist I. I. Polzunov created a steam engine 20 years earlier than the Englishman D. Watt. However, in the conditions of serfdom, this invention did not receive practical use and was forgotten. In the time of Peter the Great, the first Russian natural history museum, the Kunstkamera, was opened (1719). At the end of the XVIII century. Catherine II's purchase of a number of private art collections in Europe laid the foundation for one of the largest and most significant museums in the world - the Hermitage. There were not enough own scientists in Russia, and at first foreign specialists were invited to the Academy of Sciences. Life and manners. After visiting the countries of Europe and returning from the Great Embassy, ​​Peter I, with his usual impatience, began to cut the beards of the boyars who met him with his own hands and cut off the long sleeves and skirts of boyar clothes. He ordered to cut his hair short and shave his face (the boyars complained that their faces were "barefoot"). Only the clergy and peasants were allowed to wear beards. Those who wanted to keep a beard had to pay a special tax, as evidenced by a special copper "beard sign". More practical European clothing was introduced everywhere. Smoking was allowed, which earlier, according to the Council Code of 1649, was regarded as a criminal offense. Architecture. In the XVIII century. architecture has evolved. In the field of construction, a transition was made from a radial-ring to a regular layout, which is characterized by geometric correctness, symmetry, the establishment of uniform rules and techniques in the development of streets, a certain ratio of the sizes and heights of buildings. All this was embodied in the construction of a new capital Russian Empire- St. Petersburg. The development of wooden architecture continued. AT early XVIII in. his highest achievement was the construction of the Kizhi Ensemble on one of the islands of Lake Onega with the 22-domed central Church of the Transfiguration. Following St. Petersburg, the principles of regular planning spread to the old Russian cities. The dominant architectural style in the first half of the XVIII century. was baroque. In the second half of the XVIII century. Strict and majestic classicism came to replace the lush, bright baroque. Classicism is characterized by clarity of forms, simplicity and at the same time monumentality. Petersburg took on a "strict, slender appearance." In the second half of the XVIII century. architect I. E. Staroe built the building of the Tauride Palace, the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, V. I. Bazhenov - the Kamennoostrovsky Palace and the Arsenal. As well as in other forms of art, in the sculpture of the first half of the XVIII century. baroque dominated, in the second half - classicism. Of the baroque masters, the largest was B. K. Rastrelli - the father of the famous architect. Among his the best works include busts of Peter I and A. D. Menshikov, a full-length portrait statue of Empress Anna Ioannovna with a black child. In painting, portraits are mainly dominated by representatives were Matveev, Nikitina and others.

Turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. is an important period in the history and foreign policy of Russia. The vast territory of Russia was actually deprived of convenient sea routes. Under these conditions, the struggle for access to the sea acquired paramount importance for the fate of the Russian state. Overcoming the economic backwardness of the country largely depended on its success. The Azov campaigns were the first foreign policy step towards the realization of this goal. In the summer of 1695, Russian troops arrived near Azov. However, the Russian troops failed to capture the fortress, since without a fleet, they could not block Azov from the sea. The siege was lifted. Throughout the winter, Russian troops were preparing for the second campaign, Azov was surrounded by land and sea, and on July 18, 1696, the garrison of the fortress surrendered. The capture of Azov did not yet provide sea routes to the west, since the Black Sea remained in the hands of the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, the Azov campaigns gave impetus to the program of building large warships.

An indicator of the increased influence of Russia on international life was its active participation in the all-European conflict of the second half of the 18th century. - in the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763.

Russia entered the war in 1757. In the very first battle near the village of Gross-Egersdorf on August 19, 1757, Russian troops inflicted a serious defeat on the Prussians.

At the beginning of 1758, Russian troops captured Koenigsberg. The population of East Prussia swore allegiance to the Empress of Russia - Elizabeth.

The culmination of the military campaign of 1760 was the capture of Berlin on September 28 by the Russian army under the command of 3. G. Chernyshev: Frederick II stood on the verge of death, but he was saved by a sharp turn in Russian foreign policy, caused by accession to the throne Peter III, who immediately broke off the military alliance with Austria, stopped hostilities against Prussia and even offered Frederick military assistance. Only the overthrow of Peter III prevented Russia's participation in the war against its former allies.

Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War did not give her any territorial gains. Nevertheless, the Russian victories over the Prussian army, which was considered the best in Europe, strengthened the prestige of Russia. The war became a useful school, which served as an impetus for the flourishing of Russian military art. After the Seven Years' War, France became one of Russia's main opponents in the international arena, which sought to create the so-called Eastern Barrier as part of Sweden, the Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. The Commonwealth becomes an arena for a clash of interests between these states.

In the conditions of the aggravated situation, Russia managed to conclude an alliance with Prussia. Catherine II preferred to have an integral Rzeczpospolita, while Frederick strove for its territorial division.

Ottoman Empire, closely following the events in the Commonwealth, demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from there. In 1768 the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia. During the first years of the war, Turkish troops were forced to leave Khotiy, Iasi, Bucharest, Izmail and other fortresses in the Danube theater of operations. It is necessary to especially note two major battles that ended in victory for the Russian troops.

The first happened on June 25-26, 1770, when the Russian squadron, having circled Europe, appeared in the Mediterranean Sea and won a brilliant victory near Chesma. A month later, the battle of Cahul took place, in which the talented commander P. A. Rumyantsev distinguished himself: the Russian troops under his command inflicted a serious defeat on the Turks. Russia's military actions did not stop there.

France continued to push the Ottoman Empire into war with Russia. On the other hand, Austria supported Turkey, pursuing its own goals in this war - to conquer part of the Danubian principalities, which were in the hands of Russian troops. Under these conditions, the Russian government was forced to agree to the division of the Commonwealth.

The convention of 1772 formalized the first division of the Commonwealth. Austria captured Galicia, Pomerania, as well as part of Greater Poland, went to Prussia. Russia received part of Eastern Belarus.

Now Turkey in 1772 agreed to conduct peace negotiations. The main point of contention in these negotiations was the fate of the Crimea - the Ottoman Empire refused to grant it independence, while Russia insisted on it.

Hostilities resumed. Russian troops under the command of A. V. Suvorov in June 1774 managed to defeat the troops of the Turks at Kozludzha. This forced the enemy to resume negotiations.

On July 10, 1774, negotiations in the Bulgarian village of Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi ended with the signing of a peace treaty. In this world, Kerch, Yenikale, and also Kabarda passed to Russia. At the same time, she received the right to build navy on the Black Sea, its merchant ships could freely pass through the straits.

However, already in 1775, the Turks violated the terms of the agreement, arbitrarily proclaiming their protege Devlet-Girey as the Crimean Khan. In response, the Russian government sent troops to the Crimea and approved its candidate, Shagin-Giray, on the khan's throne. The rivalry between the two powers in the struggle for the Crimea ended with the publication

Of the other foreign policy steps of Russia of that period, the Treaty of Georgievsky should be singled out. In 1783, an agreement was concluded with Eastern Georgia, which went down in history under the name "Treaty of St. George", which strengthened the position of the peoples of Transcaucasia in the struggle against the Iranian and Ottoman yoke.

The Ottoman Empire, although it recognized the annexation of Crimea to Russia, was intensively preparing for a war with it. It was supported by England, Prussia, France.

At the end of July 1787, the Sultan's court, through diplomatic channels, demanded the right to Georgia and the Crimea. Without waiting for a response from Russia, the Ottoman Empire began hostilities by attacking the Kinburg fortress, but its attempt was repulsed by troops led by A.V. Suvorov.

Generally foreign policy results second half of the 18th century. were positive for the further development of Russia and the peoples inhabiting it.

In Russia, unlike the colonial empires Western Europe, which had overseas territories, the Russian population lived side by side with the peoples attached to the empire. Joint work on the development of the country's wealth objectively contributed to the rapprochement of the peoples, allowed them to survive in the vast expanses of Eurasia. The ruling stratum of the annexed lands was an organic part of the Russian ruling elite. As a rule, the state almost did not interfere in the internal structure of small peoples.

1. In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia solved several foreign policy tasks:

> access to the shores of the Black and Azov Seas, the development and settlement of the southern black earth steppes, the establishment of trade through the ports of the Black Sea; this led to long wars with Turkey and the Crimean Khanate;

> the return of part of the ancient Russian lands (Ukrainian, Belarusian), captured by Poland (the Commonwealth);

> Russia's participation in the fight against revolutionary France;

> determination of the position of Russia in connection with the struggle of the North American colonies with England. The fact is that England was the main trading partner of Russia. But Catherine II rejected the requests of the English king to send Russian troops to help him. Russia issued a Declaration of Armed Neutrality and continued to trade with both England and America. Moreover, Russia has established diplomatic relations with America. Alaska and part of the Aleutian Islands became Russian, they were controlled by the Russian-American Company. In the Far East, the island of Sakhalin and the Kuriles passed to Russia, but relations with Japan were not established.

B. War with Poland. Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774

1. Died in 1763 polish king August III, immediately began the struggle between the candidates for the throne. With the support of Russia, Stanislav Poniatowski (formerly a favorite of Catherine) became the king of Poland, although this was actively opposed by France and Austria. The Polish Sejm, under pressure from the new king, equalized the rights of Catholics and dissidents. But the Polish magnates raised a rebellion against King Stanislav, which was suppressed by Russian troops in 1768.

2. In 1768, the Turkish Sultan demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Commonwealth. Having been refused, Turkey at the end of 1768 declared war on Russia. At the same time, the Crimean Tatars made a raid (the last!) on the southern outskirts of the country. Russia had to fight on two fronts - western and southern. Military operations 1768-1769 for the Russian army were unsuccessful. However, at this time, the Ottoman Empire was gradually declining, its economy, army, commanders were inferior to the Russians. Therefore, a decision was made - to wage war simultaneously on the Danube, in the Crimea, in Transcaucasia, where Russian troops entered at the invitation of Georgia.

3. In June 1770, on the tributaries of the Prut Larga and Cahul (Moldova), the 30,000-strong Russian army under the command of P. A. Rumyantsev defeated the 80,000-strong Turkish army. The Russian squadron under the command of Admiral G. A. Spiridov made the transition from the Baltic to the Mediterranean Sea. Here, in Chesme Bay there was a naval battle. The Russians numbered 30 ships against 70 Turkish. Abandoning stereotyped linear tactics, with the help of a cunning maneuver, they defeated the Turkish fleet. Turkish trade in the Mediterranean was undermined, which made it easier for the Russians to operate on land.

4. In 1771 Russian troops managed to capture all the main centers of the Crimea. The Turks were forced to negotiate, but, relying on the support of England and France, they refused to grant independence to the Crimea. In 1773, after a lull, the fighting resumed, and V. Suvorov defeated the Turkish army twice. In July 1774, a peace treaty was signed in the Bulgarian village of Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi, according to which:

> Russia received land between the Dnieper and the Southern Bug with Kinburn;

> Kerch went to Russia, she received the right to sail merchant ships in the Azov and Black Seas, the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles; Russia became a Black Sea power;

> Russia took patronage over Moldova and Wallachia;

> Crimea became independent from Turkey.

B. Russo-Turkish War 1787-1791

1. Turkey did not want to put up with the loss of its dominance in the Black Sea and was preparing for a new war. In 1777, Russian troops invaded the Crimea and installed Shahin Giray as the Crimean Khan. However, his power was fragile. In 1783, under pressure from G. A. Potemkin, Shagin-Giray abdicated, and the Crimea was annexed to Russia, as were the lands along the Kuban River. In 1783, at the request of the Georgian king Erekle II, a treaty was signed in Georgievsk, according to which Russia took Georgia under its protection. In 1787, Catherine II traveled to Novorossia and the Crimea. The queen saw prosperous villages, happy peasants, well-groomed fields. True, they said that Potemkin allegedly built theatrical scenery (“Potemkin villages”) along the route of Catherine, but historians believe that Potemkin’s success in the development of Novorossia was real.

2. In the summer of 1787, Turkey presented an ultimatum to Russia, demanding the return of the Crimea, the restoration of power over Georgia and the inspection of Russian ships passing through the Dardanelles. The ultimatum was rejected, and in August 1787 Turkey declared Russia new war. A. V. Suvorov destroyed the Turkish landing in the Kinburn area. At the same time, Russia had to be distracted by the war with Sweden (1788-1790), whose troops were defeated.

3. In the summer of 1788, the Turkish fleet was defeated in two naval battles, and in December 1788, Suvorov captured the Ochakov fortress, which was considered the "key" to the Black Sea. In 1789, two more major victories were won. First, Suvorov defeated the Turkish army at Focsani. Even more important was the victory on the Rymnik River. The Turks lost 17 thousand people, and the Russians only 45 people. For this victory, Suvorov was awarded the prefix to the surname - Count Rymniksky.

4. The main event of the 1790 campaign was the capture of the Izmail fortress at the mouth of the Danube, which was considered impregnable. The garrison of Ishmael was 35 thousand people with 250 guns, the Russians had 30 thousand people. Suvorov organized a thorough preparation of the assault, exercises were conducted at night, the soldiers stormed the fortifications, built like the Ishmael ones. After the rejection of the ultimatum to surrender the city, on December 11, 1790, 9 Russian columns moved to attack the fortress, one of the columns was commanded by M.I. Kutuzov. After a 9-hour battle, Ishmael was taken, his garrison was destroyed, the path to Istanbul was opened. In 1791 Kutuzov won a number of victories on the Danube. Young Black Sea Fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov twice in 1790 and 1791. inflicted a crushing defeat on the Turkish fleet. Turkey asked for peace.

> Russia moved the land between the Southern Bug and the Dniester;

> Turkey has recognized the accession to Russia of the Crimea, Georgia; the border was established along the Dniester;

> however, Bessarabia, Moldova and Wallachia had to be returned to Turkey.

The development of new southern regions began, cities were built - Kherson, Nikolaev, Odessa, Sevastopol, Stavropol, Rostov-on-Don.

D. Partitions of Poland (1772,1793,1795)

1. In the second half of the XVIII century. The Commonwealth was in deep crisis. Even the election of Stanisław Poniatowski as king (1764) did not eliminate internal contradictions. Prussia and Austria had long wanted to divide Poland, but Catherine II was not a supporter of the division, she wanted to keep a united Poland under Russian control. However, there was a danger that Austria and Prussia would support Turkey in the war against Russia. Then Catherine accepted Frederick II's plan for the division of Poland.

2. In 1772, Austria, Prussia, Russia committed aggression and divided part of the Polish lands. Austria annexed Western Ukraine and Galicia, Prussia - Pomorie, Russia - Eastern Belarus and part of Lithuania. The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the partition. The Commonwealth lost an area of ​​3800 sq. km with a population of 4 million people.

3. In 1791 A new constitution was adopted in Poland: the election of the king was abolished, the right of the “liberum veto” (prohibit) in the Sejm, when one vote was enough to reject any law, was abolished. Catherine II considered that the Polish reforms were the influence of the French Revolution and Poland should be taught a lesson. In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place. Prussia captured Gdansk, Torun, Poznan. Central Belarus with Minsk and Right-Bank Ukraine went to Russia. This caused a national uprising led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko for the independence of Poland, but it was crushed by Russian troops commanded by A.V. Suvorov.

4. The defeat of the uprising meant the death of Poland as an independent state. In 1795, the third partition of Poland was carried out. Austria captured the southern part with Lublin, the central part with Warsaw went to Prussia. Russia received Lithuania, Western Belarus, Volyn, Courland. Thus, most of the Ukrainian lands and all of Belarus became part of Russia. Here the religious persecution of the Orthodox stopped. The economic integration of Ukraine and Belarus into the Russian economy began, manufactories were built, cities grew, trade developed. The Ukrainian and Belarusian nations began to take shape. Serfdom was introduced in Ukraine.

In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia solved several foreign policy tasks:

1) the first direction is south. Russia fought for access to the shores of the Black and Azov Seas, the development and settlement of the southern black earth steppes. This led to long wars with Turkey and the Crimean Khanate;

2) the second direction - in the foreign policy of Russia, a significant place was occupied by the issue of liberation from foreign domination of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus, occupied by Poland;

3) the third direction. It was predetermined by the Great French Revolution that began in 1789. Russia waged an active struggle against revolutionary France. In the second half of the XVIII century. significantly intensified foreign policy of the Russian government in the south. To this he was pushed by the interests of the country's security and the needs of the nobility, which sought to seize the rich southern lands. Industry and trade, which were developing rapidly, also dictated the need for access to the Black Sea.

Russian-Turkish wars

In the southern direction, Russia repeatedly entered into confrontation with Turkey.

1. During the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. Russia managed to win back Azov and Taganrog from Turkey. In the Battle of Chesme, the Russian fleet defeated the Turkish squadron. Russian troops in the course of hostilities captured the Crimea and could move to Istanbul. At this time, Turkey asked for peace. In this war, Russian commanders showed their talent: P.A. Rumyantsev, A.V. Suvorov, V.M. Dolgorukov; the actions of the fleet were led by: L.G. Orlov, G.A. Spiridonov and I.S. Greig.

2. In 1787–1791 Russia again entered the war with Turkey. In military operations, Turkey demanded the return of Crimea from Russia. But the Russian army under the leadership of A.V. Suvorov defeated the Turkish military units at Kinbur, Focsani and on the Rymnik River. G.A. Potemkin occupied the Turkish fortress Ochakov on the Dnieper Estuary. Great importance also had the capture of Ishmael, the fortress, which was the citadel of Turkish rule on the Danube. In this battle, the future famous commander M.I. Kutuzov. Successful operations at sea were carried out by the Russian fleet, led by Admiral F.F. Ushakov.

As a result of this war:

- Crimea was annexed to the Russian Empire;

- the Crimean Khanate was liquidated, which was a constant center of aggression on the southern borders of Russia;

- Turkey also recognized Russian patronage of Georgia.

At the end of the 1780s. Russia waged military operations against Sweden, which sought to regain the lands lost in the Northern War.

Russia also participated in the solution of the Polish question. As a result of the partitions of Poland (1772–1795), Belarus, Right-bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Courland, and Volhynia were annexed to Russia.

Russia's participation in the active struggle against revolutionary France began under Catherine II and continued under Paul I. In 1799, Russian troops under the command of Suvorov successfully fought in northern Italy. Under the command of Ushakov, the Russian fleet occupied the Ionian Islands and the fortress of Corfu. It was during these hostilities that Suvorov made his unparalleled crossing of the Alps.