The politicians of the great French revolution prepared a student presentation. Figures of the French Revolution Names of the Figures of the French Revolution
Mirabeau (leader of the French Revolution)
MIRABO (Mirabeau) Honore Gabriel Riqueti (1749-91), Comte de, leader of the French Revolution. He was elected a deputy to the States General in 1789 from the 3rd estate. Gained popularity with denunciations of absolutism. As the revolution progressed, Mirabeau, a supporter of constitutional monarchy, became the leader of the big bourgeoisie. Since 1790 secret agent of the royal court.
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Mirabeau (Mirabeau) Honore Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de (March 9, 1749, Bignon Castle, Provence - April 2, 1791, Paris), leader of the French Revolution, publicist, orator.
Youth Mirabeau
Mirabeau's parents were Marquis Victor Riqueti de Mirabeau, a famous economist and wealthy aristocrat, and Marie Geneviève, née de Vassan. The young years of Honore Gabriel were overshadowed by discord and property litigation between his parents.
Having received a thorough home education, Mirabeau continued his studies at a private military boarding school in Paris (1764-68).
Fast paced life
From a young age, Mirabeau showed adventurism, an unbridled character and a passion for pleasure. From place military service he fled, fleeing from the deceived girl and creditors. The marriage with the wealthy heiress Emilie de Marignan (1772) was unsuccessful, the couple soon parted (their son Victor died in childhood). Struggling with the prodigality of his son, the Marquis de Mirabeau achieved the house arrest of Honore Gabriel (1773), his exile, and then imprisonment in the Chateau d'If and the fortress of Joux (1775). From here, Mirabeau fled with the wife of a local lord, the Marquise Sophie de Monnier, who took with her a significant amount of money (1777). After his arrest and trial, Mirabeau was a prisoner of the Château de Vincennes for two years (1778-80). After his release, he protested his arrest and won the case; at the trial, Mirabeau defended himself, demonstrating a brilliant oratorical gift.
Literary creativity
Mirabeau owed his growing fame not only to adventurous adventures and magnificent speeches, but also to his writings. They showed his conviction in educational ideas, extensive erudition, and the light and sharp pen of a publicist. He wrote the pamphlets An Essay on Despotism (1776) and On Secret Orders and State Prisons (1778), where he exposed the arbitrariness of the authorities.
Mirabeau's fundamental book The Prussian Monarchy (1788), written in Prussia, where he was on a diplomatic mission from the government, gained fame. Peru Mirabeau owns many pamphlets, articles on economics, history, politics, diplomacy, translations from Homer, Tacitus, Boccaccio.
Tribune of the Revolution
Mirabeau was elected to the States General (1789) from the third estate of Provence, supporting his demands for the abolition of estate privileges. He immediately becomes one of the most authoritative leaders of the revolution. His voice is constantly heard in the Constituent Assembly, he participates in the development of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (cm. DECLARATION OF HUMAN AND CITIZEN RIGHTS) and the Constitution; his newspaper Letters to My Voters is one of the most widely read.
A staunch supporter of a constitutional monarchy, he saw in it a guarantee of stable power, property and freedom of citizens. At the same time, he enjoyed great popularity in the radical circles of the Parisian revolutionaries. Mirabeau sought to take a ministerial post in order to strengthen the power of the king and restrain the development of revolutionary anarchy. He established a secret relationship with the court (April 1790), regularly presenting notes to the king in which he proposed ways to save the monarchy (sincere recognition of the constitution, influence on public opinion through newspapers, strengthening the army). Being on the crest of glory, Mirabeau fell ill and soon died. With the greatest honors, his ashes were buried in the Pantheon. (cm. PANTHEON (tomb) in Paris. However, a year and a half later, Mirabeau's messages to the king became public. The revolutionaries branded Mirabeau as a traitor who played a "double game", and his remains were taken out of the tombs of great people.
encyclopedic Dictionary . 2009 .
See what "MIRABO (leader of the French Revolution)" is in other dictionaries:
Mirabeau (Honoré Gabriel Riqueti)- Mirabeau. Portrait bust of the sculptor J. A. Houdon. Marble. 1800 Mirabeau. Portrait bust of the sculptor J. A. Houdon. Marble. 1800 () Count, leader of the French Revolution of the 18th century. He was elected as a deputy to the States General in 1789 from the 3rd estate ... Encyclopedic Dictionary "World History"
Modern Encyclopedia
- (Honoré Gabriel Riqueti) (1749 1791), Count, leader of the French Revolution. He was elected a deputy to the States General in 1789 from the 3rd estate. Gained popularity with denunciations of absolutism. As the revolution developed, Mirabeau, a supporter of ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
Mirabeau- (Mirabeau) (Honoré Gabriel Riqueti) (1749-91), count, leader of the French Revolution of the late 18th century. He was elected a deputy to the States General in 1789 from the 3rd estate. Gained popularity with denunciations of absolutism. As the Mirabeau revolution unfolds,... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
Mirabeau Honore Gabriel Ricchetti, de, count (Mirabeau, 1749 1791) outstanding political figure, publicist, orator, poet. A native of the aristocracy, M. became the leader of the liberal big bourgeoisie during the Great French Revolution. In general... Literary Encyclopedia
- (Mirabeau) Mirabeau (Mirabeau), Honore Gabriel Riqueti de (Riqueti) (1749 1791) Count. Political figure during the French Revolution. He tried to save the constitutional monarchy, as the revolution developed, he became the leader of the big bourgeoisie. ... ... Consolidated encyclopedia of aphorisms
Mirabeau (Mirabeau) Honore Gabriel Riqueti (Riqueti) (03/09/1749, Bignon, near the city of Nemours, 04/2/1791, Paris), count, leader of the Great French Revolution. Born into a wealthy aristocratic family. In his youth, due to an extremely hectic lifestyle, ... ...
Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de Mirabeau Honoré Gabriel Riqueti de Mirabeau (fr. Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, March 9, 1749 (17490309) April 2, 1791) sy ... Wikipedia
Wikipedia has articles about other people with this last name, see Mirabeau. Honoré Mirabeau Honoré Gabriel Riquetti, comte de Mirabeau ... Wikipedia
I Mirabeau (Mirabeau) Victor Riqueti (Riqueti), Marquis de (October 5, 1715, Pertuis, Provence, July 13, 1789, Argenteuil), French economist. In his first works, he shared the ideas of Mercantilism, then joined the Physiocrats (See Physiocrats). ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
The French Revolution changed the course of history not only in France, but throughout Europe. Previously, the history of such precedents did not know.
The prerequisites are represented by a whole system of contradictions that took place in all areas, were of an objective nature.
The main result is the transition from a monarchy to a republic.
Causes of the French Revolution in the 18th century
There are quite a few reasons:
- Political: obvious lag of the country in social and economic development. Deficiencies in the system government controlled. Loss of confidence in the royal power of all three estates.
- Economic: financial problems, not enough high level market relations, the complex practice of tax collection. The commercial and industrial crisis of the 1780s, caused by lean years and the predominance of cheap English goods.
- Social: idea of the need to protect the rights of the people. public controversy. Lack of clear legislation. The outdated system of class privileges.
- Spiritual: the ideas of the European Enlightenment had a great influence on the change in consciousness, since the power of the monarch began to be evaluated as a usurpation of power.
The course of the revolution in France 1789-1799 - briefly about the main events
The reason is the king's attempt to cancel the decision of the representatives of the bourgeoisie to proclaim the National Assembly.
Storming of the Bastille
The following table shows the course of the revolution point by point:
| Stages | Periods | Events |
| The beginning of the revolution First stage |
July 14, 1789 | Taking of the Bastille. |
| Second phase | July–October 1789 |
|
| Third stage | November 1789 - July 1792 | Escape of the king and his family from the Tuileries Palace; Varennes crisis; the capture of the king and his return to the capital; the adoption of the decree "The Fatherland is in danger!". |
| Fourth stage | August 1792 - January 1793 |
|
| Fifth stage | February 1793 - July 1794 | War with Great Britain and the Netherlands; Jacobin dictatorship; removal from power of the Girondins; murder of Marat. |
| The end of the revolution | July 27, 1794 | Thermidorian revolution. |
The end of the revolution has no generally accepted date. Some scholars define the upper limit as November 9, 1799 (the coup of 18 Brumaire in the 8th year of the Republic) or 1815 (the decline of the Napoleonic empire).
Members
The driving forces are the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, the peasantry, the urban lower classes
Opponents - the nobility, the clergy.
The main figures of the French Revolution
Camille Desmoulins is a French lawyer, journalist and revolutionary. Initiator of the march on the Bastille.
Leaders, heroes of the French Revolution, as well as individuals who committed key actions who radically changed the course of history:
- Camille Desmoulins - called the people to arms;
- Maximilian Robespierre - the initiator of the Jacobin dictatorship and the removal of the Girondins from power;
- Gilbert Lafayette - developer of the first draft of the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen";
- Honore Mirabeau - developer of the final draft "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen";
- Jacques Pierre Brissot - leader of the Girondins faction;
- Jean-Paul Marat - leader of the Jacobins;
- Georges Jacques Danton - the first chairman of the Revolutionary Tribunal, a supporter of the execution of the king;
- Charlotte Corday - Girondist, murderer of Marat;
- Napoleon Bonaparte - leader of the coup d'état of 1797
Symbols of the French Revolution
The main symbols of revolutionary actions in France:
- Anthem of the Marseillaise is the national anthem of France, written in 1792.
- The flag initially had two colors - blue and red, a little later white was included. tricolor flag was designed by Lafayette in 1789. At the very beginning of the revolution, green was proposed, but it was not popular.
- The motto and slogan of the revolution - "Freedom equality Brotherhood!".
- Marianne- a collective image of a young woman, as an expression of the motto of the revolution.
Consequences of the French bourgeois revolution
Main results:
- the collapse of the Old Order in Europe due to the establishment of the republican system;
- demonstration of the weakness of the monarchical system;
- demonstration of the specifics of the instability of revolutionary changes;
- changing the political map of Europe;
- acquisition of a profitable route to the East (through Italian territories).
Impact of the French Revolution on Europe
The significance of the French Revolution for Europe was enormous.
It entailed changes not only in territorial terms, but, most importantly, in the minds of citizens of other countries where the monarchical system prevailed.
Russia also adopted these ideas, which were actively discussed in secret societies. On their basis draft constitutions were developed in these associations. In many ways, this initiated the Decembrist uprising, the development of the ideas of populism, and then the revolution of 1917.
The French Revolution, which ended with the election of Napoleon I as First Consul, became the basis for the formation of an empire pursuing predatory goals, including in the Russian direction.
The year 1789 began not only ... a new era of the human race, but also a new era of the entire European political system.
"Political Journal", 1790
France before the revolution. Causes of the revolution
Large-scale changes in society do not occur at someone's whim, and the causes of the French Revolution were ripe long before it began.
France was an absolute monarchy. At the same time, King Louis XVI did not have the character traits necessary for a ruler: he was not very smart and educated, he was distinguished by indecision. More than the leadership of the state, he was interested in plumbing. Councilors and Queen Marie Antoinette ruled in his place.
The queen was a headstrong woman who thought only of herself. She did not disdain even participating in the diamond scam, and when she heard that workers who had no bread were rioting in Paris, she asked: “Why don’t they eat cakes?”
The population of France was divided into 3 unequal groups, called estates:
1 estate - clergy
2 estate - nobility
3rd estate - all other French
At the same time, only representatives of the first two estates could participate in the political life of the country. They owned the land and paid no taxes. The nobles and the clergy led the country poorly, France became poorer and lagged behind economically from other states.
In the 18th century, the French Enlightenment developed teachings about more reasonable forms of government. They insisted on the equalization of all people in rights and the restriction or complete destruction of royal power.
Thus, we can single out the main causes of the French Revolution:
- maintaining an absolute monarchy;
- lawlessness of the 3rd estate;
- mismanagement of nobles and clergy;
- economic backwardness from other countries.
In such conditions, a minor occasion was required for society to begin to change rapidly.
A participant in the revolution, Abbé Sieyes, described the situation before it began: What is the third class? All. What was he in political life? Nothing. What does he want? Be something!
The beginning of the revolution and the constitutional monarchy
The prerequisites were linked into the logical chain of reasons for the start of the French Revolution - special conditions that helped to start important events. The prerequisite was the convocation in the spring of 1789 of a recommendatory elected body of representatives of the estates - the States General.
Creation of the Constituent Assembly
The estates were unequally represented, and the king did not intend to give the States the right to make laws, but the elections spurred civic activity of the population.
On May 5, 1789, the States began work, and they were warned "against innovation." But the people were waiting for innovations, and the king suddenly encountered the disobedience of the deputies. He did not dare to dissolve the States, but on June 20, the deputies found the hall intended for meetings locked up.
Then they found an empty ballroom, held a meeting there and promised that they would not disperse and would not allow themselves to be dispersed until they created a constitution for France. Unexpectedly for the authorities, the third estate received the support of many deputies with more high position. In particular, the idea was supported by the already mentioned Abbé Sieyes, Count Gabriel Mirabeau and the war hero in the United States, Marquis Lafayette. There were no more States General - there was a Constituent Assembly.
Later similar bodies appeared in many countries.
The Constituent Assembly is a provisional legislative body designed to write the constitution of the state and other important laws.
The constitution is a set of the most important laws of the state, on which all other legislation is based.
Constituent Assembly ()
Storming of the Bastille
Meanwhile, the creation of the Constituent Assembly became known in Paris. At the same time, rumors spread around the French capital about the king's intention to disperse the deputies by force. They caused a general outrage.
The symbol of the despotism of power in Paris was the Bastille. It was a fortress that lost military value and used as a prison for those whom the monarchy decided to punish especially severely. They ended up in the Bastille without a sentence, without a term of imprisonment, often the prisoners were not even registered there, and they remained nameless.
On July 14, 1789, the outraged Parisians, almost without resistance, stormed the Bastille. Almost immediately, the fortress-prison began to be destroyed, and some joker wrote on the wall “they are dancing here!”, Alluding to the final destruction of lawlessness and arbitrariness.
The Duke de Liancourt, the keeper of the royal wardrobe, brought the news to Louis XVI. "Yes, it's a riot!" exclaimed the king. "This is not a riot, but a revolution!" answered the wise duke.
Scholars consider Bastille Day to be the start of the French Revolution. In modern France, it is a public holiday.
An obligatory event on this day is dancing on the square built where a terrible fortress once stood.
Taking of the Bastille. ()
Documents of the first stage of the revolution
During the French Revolution, several important legal documents were created that had a strong impact on the further development of ideas about the correct state structure. In them, the French talentedly reworked the legacy of the Enlightenment figures and the "founding fathers" of the United States.
On August 26, 1789, the deputies of the Constituent Assembly voted for the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen". It recorded the opinion of the enlighteners and simply smart people of that time about human rights and a decent life. These ideas were so universal that the Declaration, in fact, to this day is the basis of all legal norms aimed at protecting the individual.
The first article of the Declaration stated: "All human beings are born free and equal in rights." The first article of a modern international declaration of a similar purpose, adopted by the UN, is worded in exactly the same way.
September 3, 1791 was born the first constitution of France. But it was easy to notice contradictions with the norms of the declaration.
- The form of government was a constitutional monarchy. The monarch was recognized as the head of the executive branch;
- The right to legislate was transferred to the Legislative Assembly. The courts also became independent;
- The Legislative Assembly was elected by the citizens. Adult males with a certain level of income could vote;
- The division into estates was abolished;
- The church was placed under the control of the state;
- Nobles were deprived of privileges in paying taxes and exclusive rights to own land;
- The law secured certain human rights (primarily to life, property, and protection from persecution).
We see that the norms of the Declaration are violated here - women, workers, servants did not receive voting rights, the poorest peasants were excluded from political life. But the first constitution was a giant step towards the transformation of France.
First anti-French coalition
The ideas of the revolution spread rapidly in Europe. But this did not please the European monarchs and the nobility - they did not want to face this themselves, they were afraid of the revolution as a “dictatorship of the sans-culottes” (“sans culottes” - “without short pants fashionable among the nobles”, a contemptuous nickname for a representative of the third estate, which turned into a revolutionary designation) . The reactionaries united against the revolution with the nobles who fled from France.
On April 20, 1792, a coalition of Austria and Prussia declared war on France. This was not the last attempt to stop the transformation by force, so the coalition is called the First.
Political forces and leaders of the revolution
To understand what happened next, you need to know the ideas that owned the minds of the French at that time. Although the Great French Revolution was bourgeois in nature, representatives of all social strata took part in it. They had their own views on the tasks of the revolution and put forward bright leaders from their ranks.
Many participants in the French Revolution believed that the equalization of rights and the restriction of the monarchy was a sufficient result. Among them were the already well-known Count Mirabeau and the Marquis Lafayette. They believed that caring for the interests of the poor was superfluous.
There were those who were convinced that the king of France was not needed at all. They were supporters of the republican form of government. There were no parties in our understanding then, they were replaced by political clubs. Most of the republicans belonged to the club at the monastery of St. Jacob, for which they were nicknamed "Jacobins."
But at the same time, some of them expressed the interests of the wealthy bourgeoisie. They believed that the rich should rule the republic, and its main task was to protect property. Many representatives of this group represented the Gironde department in the Legislative Assembly, for which they were called Girondins. Prominent Girondins were Pierre Brissot, Pierre Vergniaud, Antoine Condorcet.
The other part believed that formal equality was not enough, social justice was needed, which did not allow the rich to freely rob the poor. Emphasizing their "poverty", the representatives of this group in the Legislative Assembly had the habit of sitting in the last rows, on top of the amphitheater hall (like losers on the last desk). For this they were nicknamed the Mountain or the Montagnards (in translation - "highlanders"). The Montagnards included such prominent figures of the French Revolution as Maximilian Robespierre, Georges Danton, Camille Desmoulins, Jacques Hebert.
Of course, some Frenchmen remained monarchists. But most of them soon either died (cases of massacres of the rebels against the nobles were not rare), or emigrated. The German city of Koblenz became the center of emigration, and its name immediately turned into a symbol of French monarchism.
Maximilien Robespierre () and Georges Danton ()
Proclamation of the First Republic
The French fought bravely, but the beginning of the war was unsuccessful for them. The enemy often knew the campaign plans, noble officers deserted en masse. Under these conditions, a minor event again led to a massive shock:
A locksmith, who taught his craft to the king, turned to the doctors for help. He stated that he felt unwell after classes with a "student". Together they set up a secret safe. After that, the queen treated the worker with sweets, and he fell ill. The locksmith suspected poisoning and told the authorities where the safe was and how to open it.
The safe contained the Queen's correspondence with her brother, the King of Austria! By all accounts, it was a betrayal of the state during the war.
When the news of this leaked out to the people, the French were indignant. On August 10, 1792, the Parisians revolted. The king was deposed and arrested, the Legislative Assembly decided to convene a National Convention to draft a new constitution for the country.
The convention was elected on the basis of the universal right to vote for adult men. It included all the famous Jacobins. He met for the first meeting on September 21, 1792, and his first decision was to proclaim the republican structure of France. The republican phase of the French Revolution began. But the adoption of the new constitution was delayed by almost a year and took place in fundamentally different circumstances.
Significance of the first stage of the revolution
The proclamation of the republic was not the end of the French Revolution. It was just a good start. But already at this stage, the achievements of the revolutionaries are obvious.
- The royal power was limited and then destroyed;
- All the French were equal in rights, and this fact is enshrined in law;
- The ideological dominance of the church ceased;
- A significant part of the population received the right to elect and be elected to the legislature;
- Political life became more active, citizens began to take part in solving state problems;
- France received the first constitution.
There have been other changes as well. In particular, such words as "sans-culotte" and "Jacobin" entered all European languages. Some considered them curses, others compliments, but all educated people they were known.
And the revolution continued, and its second stage began - the republican one.
Mazarin, J-Baptiste Colbert, regent Duke of Orleans, John Lowe, Cardinal Fleury, Mopu, Terre, J. Necker, P. Beaumarchais.
Cardinal Mazarin- church and politician and the first minister of France in 1643-1650 and 1651-1661. He took up the post under the patronage (patronage) of Queen Anne of Austria. He pursued Richelieu's policy: he increased centralized rent by raising taxes.
J.-B. Colbert- since 1665 comptroller general of finances, tsn government figure at L.14. settled the distribution of taxes, contributed to the growth of trade and industry (mercantilism).
Regent Duke of Orleans - regent of the French kingdom under the infant king Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, nephew of Louis XIV.
John Low - general controller fnl. since 1716 - bank, state. bankruptcy (L.15)
Cardinal Fleury- French statesman 1726- 1743 "Au century Fr" (L.15)
mopu- French political and judicial figure; chancellor (head of the judiciary) and keeper of the seals (appointed by Louis XV, 1768-1774). He pursued a policy of strengthening the power of the king and limiting the rights of parliaments.
Abbe of Terre- general controller fn 1769-1774. An immoral official who became synonymous for contemporaries with a man without shame and conscience.
J. Necker - general controller fn 1776-1781 under L.16, Calvinist, did not have civil rights, but b. banker.
P. Beaumarchais- the famous French playwright and publicist. "The Marriage of Figaro", "The Barber of Seville".
WFR figures
Abbé Sieyes, O. Mirabeau, J. Lafayette, Le Chapelier, J. R. de Lisle; A. Barnave, M. Robespierre, J. P. Marat, J. J. Danton, Saint-Just, Jacques Roux, Charlotte Corday, P. Chaumette, J. Hébert, Joseph Fouchet, Barras, Babeuf; Duke of Enghien, Talleyrand.
Abbe Sieyes- French politician. He was one of the most active members of the National Assembly. He drew up an oath given by the deputies on June 20, 1789, not to disperse until a new constitution was given to France; After the fall of Robespierre, he became a member of the Committee of Public Safety. During the preparations for the coup of 18, Brumaire stood on the side of Bonaparte, became one of the three temporary consuls, but had no real power.
O. Mirabeau- one of the most famous orators and politicians of France, a freemason. "I know only three ways of being in modern society: one must either be a beggar, or a thief, or receive a salary. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was composed by Mirabeau
J. Lafayette- French politician. Member of three revolutions: the American War of Independence
the French Revolution and the July Revolution of 1830. Member of the Society of Feuillants. His polit. persuasion most often characterized as moderate, constitutional-monarchist.
Le Chapelier- a prominent speaker, a member of the constitutional committee, the initiator of many draft laws - the law on the prohibition of shoplifting
J. R. de Lisle- French poet and composer, author of the revolution. songs of the Marseillaise.
A. Barnav- a French politician of the era of the Great French Revolution, a supporter of a constitutional monarchy, - a society of Feuillants, a member of the National Assembly in 1789-91.
M. Robespierre- one of the leaders of the French Revolution, the head of perhaps the most radical revolutionary movement- Jacobins. Member of the Legislative Assembly since 1789 and the Convention since 1792. In fact, having headed the revolutionary government in 1793, he contributed to the execution of King Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette, the creation of a revolutionary tribunal, the execution of the leaders of the Girondins, Ebertists and Dantonists
.J. P. Marat - a politician of the era of the French Revolution, a doctor, a radical journalist, one of the leaders of the Jacobins. Known by the nickname "Friend of the People".
J. Danton - French revolutionary, one of the founding fathers of the First French Republic, co-chairman of the Cordeliers Club, Minister of Justice during the French Revolution, the first chairman of the Committee of Public Safety.
Jacques Roux - one of the leaders of the "mad", Joined the Cordeliers Club. Implacable opponent of the Girondins.
Charlotte Corday - French noblewoman, murderer of Jean Paul Marat.
P. Chaumette - took part in the revolutionary press and played a certain role in the Cordeliers club. After August 10, 1792, Chaumette was a member and Attorney General of the Paris Commune.
J. Hébert is an extreme leftist among the Jacobins, the "leader" of the Hébertists and the defender of the sans-culottes.
J. Fouche - French politician and statesman. Shortly before the execution of Danton, he was elected chairman of the Jacobin club. However, unexpectedly for many, he began to condemn the extremes of terror and was an opponent of Robespierre.
Barras is one of the leaders of the Thermidorian coup, the director of all the compositions of the Directory and its actual leader in 1795-1799.
Babeuf - French revolutionary utopian communist, leader of the movement "in the name of equality" during the Directory.
Duke of Enghien - French prince of the blood, the only son of the last Prince of Condé. Little known during his lifetime, the Duke of Enghien went down in history by being shot in the moat of the Castle of Vincennes on the orders of Napoleon I.
Talleyrand is a French politician and diplomat who served as Minister of Foreign Affairs under three regimes, starting with the Directory and ending with the government of Louis Philippe. A well-known master of political intrigue. The name "Talleyrand" has become almost a household name to denote cunning, dexterity and unscrupulousness.
The era of the Napoleonic wars
Murat, Jourdan, M. Ney, Eugene Beauharnais, Joseph Bonaparte, Louis Bonaparte, Josephine; G. Nelson, A. Wellington.
Joachim Murat - the famous Napoleonic marshal, king of the Kingdom of Naples (1808-1815).
Jourdan - Marshal of France (1804), From 1797 a member of the Council of Five Hundred, proposed and passed the law on scripture ( conscription). During the coup of 18, Brumaire first opposed Napoleon Bonaparte, but then joined him.
Michel Ney - Marshal of France during the Napoleonic Wars, Duke of Elchingen and Prince of Moscow. Napoleon called him "the bravest of the brave".
Eugene Beauharnais - Viceroy of Italy, divisional general. The only son of Napoleon's first wife, Josephine Beauharnais.
Joseph Bonaparte - the elder brother of Napoleon I, participated in his brother's campaigns and concluded treaties on behalf of the Republic. In 1808-1813. was the king of Spain.
Louis Bonaparte - one of the brothers of Napoleon I, father of Napoleon III. In 1806-1810. - King of the vassal in relation to the French Empire of the Kingdom of Holland under the name of Louis I.
Josephine - Empress of France in 1804 - 1809, the first wife of Napoleon I.
Horatio Nelson - English naval commander, vice admiral. On August 1-2, 1798, he defeated the French fleet at Abukir, and on October 21, 1805, in the Battle of Trafalgar, in which Nelson was mortally wounded.
Arthur Wellesley Wellington - English commander, field marshal, participant in the Napoleonic Wars, winner at Waterloo 06/18/1815, 25th and 28th Prime Minister of Great Britain.
MIRABO(March 9, 1749 - April 2, 1791). The name of Count Honore Gabriel Ricchetti de Mirabeau was widely known long before the start of the French Revolution. The reputation of the young aristocrat was scandalous. He became famous for his dizzying love affairs, flight-mi from creditors, riotous lifestyle. In secular circles, he was nicknamed "Don Juan of the century."
The life of the French nobility of the XVIII century. was, of course, very far from the ideals of humility and renunciation of the joys of life. But few have challenged conventional hypocrisy and prudish norms as boldly as the Comte de Mirabeau. And it didn't go unpunished.
In those days, any Frenchman, aristocrat or commoner, could be thrown into prison without any trial for many years. One decree of the king was enough, not even a public one, but a secret one.
The secret decrees of the king again and again pursued Mirabeau. Several years of imprisonment, exile, arrests instilled in him a deep hatred for tyranny and lawlessness.
In 1774, 25-year-old Mirabeau wrote An Essay on Despotism. In this serious political work, he called on fellow citizens to fight boldly against arbitrariness. Two years later, Mirabeau published this work without a signature in London (in France, a publication of this kind was not possible at that time).
Comte de Mirabeau entered the whirlpool of events of the French Revolution as a mature, mature person. He was 40 years old.
Announced by the king in 1788, the elections to the States General came from three estates - the nobility, the clergy and the so-called "third estate". At first, Mirabeau tried to nominate himself for the nobility of Provence, to which he belonged. He was received very coldly. Then he decided to be elected from the third estate. In order to enter the ranks of this estate, he even had to open a trading shop. In his speeches, Mirabeau demanded decisive reforms, the adoption of a constitution. With his speeches, the candidate for deputies Mirabeau was gaining more and more popularity in Provence. In this he was helped by an amazing gift of eloquence and a powerful voice. People were especially struck by the fact that this passionate exposer of the vices of the nobility belongs to one of the most noble families of Provence. In Marseilles, the crowd threw flowers at him, exclaiming: "Glory to Mi-rabo - the father of the fatherland!" People unharnessed the horses from his carriage and drove him through the streets themselves. After his election, an honorary escort with torches accompanied him to the very border of Provence.
And here is Mirabeau at Versailles. He is a deputate of the Estates General of France. But here he is almost unknown, lost in a crowd of 600 chosen ones of the third estate. Two weeks after the start of the work of the Estates General, Deputy Maximilien Robespierre, also still unknown to anyone and also the future leader of the revolution, spoke of Mirabeau in a letter like this: “Count Mirabeau has no influence, because his moral character is not gives him confidence."
A turning point in relation to Mirabeau has occurred
June 23, 1789 For a month and a half now, the Estates General have been in session. All this time, painful disagreements between the estates continued (see the article “French Revolution”).
On June 23, the king decided to intervene in the conflict. He demanded that the deputies disperse into three chambers. The deputies of the third estate were at an impasse. Submit to the king? But that meant total surrender. Don't follow the order? But this, too, seemed unthinkable: the royal power had colossal authority. The chosen ones of the people were at a loss, but did not disperse. The chief master of ceremonies of the court, the Marquis de Breze, turned to them: “You heard the king’s command, didn’t you?” At this decisive moment, the indignant voice of Mirabeau thundered: “You who have neither a place here nor the right to speak, go tell your master that we are here by the will of the people and we cannot be removed from here except by force of bayonets.” Mirabeau's short remark restored the assembly's confidence and was met with cheers of approval.
From that moment Mirabeau became one of the leaders of the revolutionary movement. Until June 23, the common people of the capital had not heard anything about Mirabeau. After that day, a rumor spread among the people of Paris about a count of enormous growth and with such a powerful voice that candles go out in the hall where he speaks.
A few days later, even before the first revolutionary bloodshed - the capture of the Bastille prison by the Parisians, Mirabeau formulated his ideal of revolution as follows: “This great revolution will not cost mankind neither atrocities nor tears! The smallest states often managed to achieve some freedom only at the cost of blood. And we, gentlemen, will see how our revolution will be accomplished solely by the power of enlightenment and patriotic intentions ... History too often told us only about the actions of wild animals, among which it was occasionally possible to discern heroes. We are allowed to hope that it is given to us to lay the foundation for the history of men.
Meanwhile, the revolution deepened and seized more and more new sections of society. In October 1789 crowds of Parisians came to Versailles. Women from the common people crowded the hall of the National Assembly. They loudly shouted their demands: “Bread! Of bread! Enough long talk! With a menacing look, Mirabeau got up: “I would like to know who takes the liberty of dictating our will ?!” Women answered Mirabeau with applause, love for him among ordinary people was still very strong. Perhaps the only one among the deputies, he could curb the noisy crowd with his powerful voice.
Mirabeau was not at all afraid to go against the general current. What others wouldn't get away with only increased his popularity. The assembly abolished all estate privileges, and titles of nobility were also abolished. Former nobles I had to remember my half-forgotten family names. Comte de Mirabeau was to become a citizen of Ricetti.
But he refused to accept this name, proudly declaring: "Europe knows only the Comte de Mirabeau!" - and continued to sign everywhere with his noble name.
Mirabeau firmly defended royal power, its preservation and strengthening. Without hesitation, he declared that he considered the most terrible power of 600 persons: "Tomorrow they will declare themselves irremovable, the day after tomorrow - hereditary, in order to finish by appropriating unlimited power to themselves."
Mirabeau dreamed of a fusion of royalty and revolution. In October 1789, he submitted a secret note to the king, in which he proposed that Louis XVI form a government of leading revolutionary figures and declare his support for the revolutionary nation. In fact, he wanted Louis XVI to take the lead in the revolution.
But Mirabeau tried in vain to combine the incompatible: the monarchy and the revolution. A thousand threads connected the monarchy with the nobility, the church, with the traditions of the past. His plan was, of course, indignantly rejected by the king. Queen Marie Antoinette remarked: "I hope we will never be so unhappy as to resort to Mirabeau's advice." Nevertheless, Mirabeau did not lose hope for the success of his fantastic project.
Since the spring of 1790, Mirabeau began to surround himself with luxury, unusual even for a wealthy aristocrat. Numerous visitors to his house could not help but ask themselves where he got such wealth. But, probably, none of them would dare to assume the truth: Mirabeau agreed to receive money from the king for his secret advice. And a lot of money: more than a million livres. This was the source of his wealth. Mirabeau kept his relationship with the court a secret, but he was not at all ashamed of them: after all, he did not change his convictions. He even advised in a few years to publish his correspondence with the court, saying: "In it is my protection and my glory."
But by agreeing to receive money, he put himself under a double blow. Could the king respectfully listen to the man he secretly paid? For the revolutionaries, Mirabeau was still the living embodiment of the revolution. But if his connections with the king became known, all his authority would disappear in one minute and forever. Mirabeau's game was a risky bath.
In the autumn of 1790, Mirabeau's health began to deteriorate. He was treated by bloodletting. Feeling better, then getting worse again.
Meanwhile, Mirabeau's fame had reached its apogee. At the end of January 1791, he was unanimously elected head of the National Assembly for 15 days. His life was counting down the last months. In March 1791, it turned out that the initial diagnoses - a disease of the blood, dysentery - were not correct. Mirabeau had inflammation of the peritoneum, and was already in a hopeless, neglected state.
Mirabeau was dying. When this became known, crowds of citizens stood idle under his windows for hours. Uli-
the tsu was covered with a thick layer of sand so that the noise of the carriages would not disturb the dying.
On April 4, the funeral of the "father of the people", the leader of the revolution, Honore Gabriel Ricchetti de Mirabeau, took place. The entire National Assembly and tens of thousands of ordinary people walked in the funeral procession.
Mirabeau was given an exceptional honor: he became the first to be buried in the Pantheon, the tomb of the great people of France.
A year has passed. The grandiose and fantastic plan for the reconciliation of the monarchy and the revolution died with its author. In August 1792 the monarchy was abolished. In November 1792, secret connections between Mirabeau and the royal court became known. This revelation shocked the whole of France: the busts of Mirabeau were broken, his name was used as a synonym for venality.
On November 20, 1792, the French parliament - the Convention - decided to cover the statue of Mirabeau with a veil. In the autumn of 1793, the remains of Mirabeau, "offending republican virtue", were removed from the Pantheon.
One of Mirabeau's contemporaries bitterly exclaimed then: “If Mirabeau had died a year earlier, what great glory would forever surround his name!” Later, most historians, unlike the contemporaries of the tribune, highly appreciated the activities of Mirabeau. In particular, the socialist historian Jean Jaurès wrote that if Mirabeau's plan to reconcile the king and the revolution had been carried out, it might have saved France from decades of wars, upheavals and military despotism.
By the beginning of the French Revolution, Maximilien Marie Isidore de Robespierre, a lawyer from the city of Arras, was 30 years old. Restrained, virtuous, serious, always carefully dressed, the young lawyer commanded respect from his fellow citizens. What business did he do? Here is the most famous of them.
Some man installed a lightning rod over his house, then just invented. At the time, it was something shocking and unheard of. The lightning rod was demolished as "dangerous for public order." Robespierre made several vivid speeches in court, denouncing obscurantism, after which the decision to demolish the lightning rod was canceled. Robespierre's speeches were even published as a separate pamphlet and made his name known.
In addition, Robespierre was a fan of the freedom-loving ideas of the philosopher J.-J. Rousseau. At the age of 20, he visited Ermenonville, where he lived out his last years in seclusion, author of The Social Contract and Walks of the Lonely Dreamer. There is no exact information about that meeting. According to one of the legends, the philosopher is more
