Introduction

In this paper, I would like to consider first general principles teaching vocabulary to foreign students in Russian universities, to explain the main and most important problems in the field of vocabulary, which cause the greatest difficulties for students who study Russian as a foreign language.

The second section of my work is devoted to the consideration of questions for lesson plans and their types, as well as the consideration of the levels of lexical competence of students and tasks for testing and consolidating the acquired knowledge.

The third section of my work will be devoted to the introduction of ICT and the method of media presentations in order to improve associative thinking in the concept of "Word>object>image>action".

General principles and provisions of the methodology of teaching vocabulary

Introduction to Section #1

In this section of this work, I will try to consider the main terms and concepts of modern lexicography through the prism of the general focus of my work, namely from the point of view of the specialization "Russian as a foreign language" and what is the reflection of the terms of the general theory of lexicography in a relatively young scientific field. We will consider the following terms and concepts, such as the semantic field and vocabulary categorizations, types of vocabulary in Russian as a foreign language, lexical levels of the Russian language, what is a basic level of lexical competence in RFL, what is an advanced level of lexical competence and at the end of the first section I will give a list of possible tasks to determine the level of a student's lexical competence.

Vocabulary as a section of linguistics

Vocabulary is inextricably linked with the no less important linguistic discipline "Lexicology". Let's define what they do and what these sections of science are responsible for, let's start with definitions of terms: Lexicology and Vocabulary.

Lexicology is multifaceted, that is, it studies the word from various angles:

1. The meaning of the word;

2. Relationships between words;

3. The origin of the word;

4. Scope of the word

5. Expressiveness and stylistic coloring of the word. The study of vocabulary in all these aspects reveals that a huge number of words in the Russian language is not a chaotic accumulation, but a completely defined system, since all words in one way or another correlate and connect with each other. Therefore, in general, lexicology studies the vocabulary, that is, the lexical system of the language.

Vocabulary (from the Greek Lexicos - dictionary) is the totality of all the words of the language, its vocabulary. The section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language is called lexicology (from the Greek Lexicos - vocabulary and logos - teaching). The terms "lexicon" and "lexicology" have a common root, but they express completely different concepts that should not be confused. Vocabulary is words;

And what is the word, we can immediately ask ourselves such a question.

A word is a unit that has a changing form, meanings (polysemic words exist in many languages) and cases of use, therefore vocabulary is inextricably linked with lexicology. When studying words, it is immediately necessary to single out their semantic fields and categorize them into groups in relation to a specific subject so that they can be learned not one by one, but in groups. Let's analyze the first concept "Semantic field" and then we will categorize the vocabulary by types.

“Lexicology as a branch of the science of language Lexicology (gr. lexikos - related to tin, logos - teaching) is a branch of the science of language that studies the vocabulary of a language, or vocabulary. ..."

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Lexicology as a branch of the science of language

Lexicology (gr. lexikos - related to tin, logos - teaching) is a branch of science

about the language, which studies the vocabulary of the language, or vocabulary.

The vocabulary of a language is an internally organized set of lexical

units interconnected, functioning and developing according to their characteristic

Russian language laws.

Lexicology studies 1) the word as an individual unit of language, its meaning;

2) the place of the word in the lexical system of the language; 3) the history of the formation of modern vocabulary; 4) the relationship of the word to the active or passive vocabulary; 5) the place of the word in the system of functional styles of the modern Russian language (neutral, scientific, business, etc.). Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language in its temporal development, since various changes occur in the vocabulary of a language over time, and also reveals the causes of these changes.

Synchronic (descriptive) lexicology (gr. sin - together and chronos - time) the current state of the lexical system. Diachronic (historical) lexicology (gr. dia - through, through and chronos) studies vocabulary in a historical aspect.

One of the main sections of lexicology is semasiology (rp. stasia - meaning, logos - teaching), or semantics (gr. sta - sign), which studies all issues related to the meaning of a word, as well as changes in the meaning of a word. Onomasiology (gr.

o noma - name and logos) studies the principles and patterns of naming phenomena and objects; etymology (gr. etymon - truth and logos) - the origin of words and turns of speech; lexicography (gr. lexicon - dictionary and graph - I write) - compiling dictionaries. In a broad sense, lexicology also includes the doctrine of stable combinations of words - phraseology.

The word as a unit of the lexical system of the Russian language. Word functions (nominative, generalizing).

The word is the smallest unit of speech. It has an external form - a sound shell: a sound or a complex of sounds, designed according to the laws of a given language, and an internal content - a lexical meaning. The meaning (or semantics) of a word relates it to a certain concept. Consequently, a word is a complex of sounds or one sound that has a certain meaning fixed by the language practice of society. The meaning of the word must be universally recognized and obligatory for the members of this society, only in this case mutual understanding of people is possible.

The word is a unity of lexical and grammatical meanings.

The grammatical meaning of a word is a meaning that expresses the relation of a word to other words in a phrase and sentence: relation to a person, reality, time, reported, for example, the meaning of gender, number, case, person, time, etc. (cf. I draw - I will draw: time value).

The main function of the word is its: (According to Luria)

1) denoting (nominative) role. The word denotes an object, action, quality or relation. Thanks to this, the human world doubles, and he can deal with objects that are not directly perceived and are not part of his own sensory experience.

2) The word helps to analyze the properties of objects, introduces it into the system of connections and relationships.

Compare, for example, the word-formation analysis of a word, which establishes known connections between objects, phenomena:

Table - lay - capital - capital.

3) Each word enriches things, refers them to a certain category, being an instrument of abstraction, which is the most important operation of consciousness.

Polysemy (polysemy of a word). Words are single and multiple. Direct and figurative meaning of the word. Types of figurative meanings (metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche) The meaning of a word can be direct and figurative. The direct meaning of a word is a lexical meaning in the proper sense, without emotionally expressive overlays, it is a direct nomination. A figurative meaning is a secondary, derivative, arising on the basis of the similarity of objects in shape, color, character, function performed, association by adjacency: donkey - “animal” and “stubborn person”. The figurative meaning is always motivated.

The meaning of the word changes during the functioning of the word in speech: 1) the word acquires a new (or new) meaning: mouse (computer);

2) the meaning of the word is expanding: ace (initially only about the pilot, now about other masters, for example, an ace football player);

3) narrowing the meaning of the word: stink (original meaning - smell, now - bad smell).

According to the presence of meanings, words are divided into single-valued and multi-valued.

An unambiguous word (monosemic) has one meaning: taxi, typhoon, whirlwind, grasshopper, etc. Nouns (taiga), adjectives (potayay), verbs (uncork), adverbs (at the ready), etc. can be unambiguous. The polysemantic word (polysemic) has several meanings: stream - 1) “rapidly flowing water mass, river, stream”; 2) "in-line production"; 3) "a group of students with whom some classes are conducted in a known queue with the same, similar groups."

The ability of a word to have several meanings is called polysemy, or polysemy (gr. Poly smos - polysemantic). Despite the ambiguity, the word is a semantic unity, which is called the semantic structure of the word.

At the moment of occurrence, the word is always unambiguous. A prerequisite for the use of a word in a figurative sense is the similarity of phenomena or their contiguity, as a result of which all the meanings of a polysemantic word are interconnected. There are two main types of figurative meaning of the word:

1) metaphorical transfer is carried out on the basis of the similarity of external features: in shape, location of objects, color, taste, as well as in the similarity of the functions of objects, etc. For example: caterpillar - 1) butterfly larva, usually worm-like with several pairs of legs; 2) a wide chain put on the wheels of a tractor, tank, etc. to increase the cross-country ability of the car;

2) metonymic transfer - this is the transfer of the name according to the adjacency of phenomena, their relationship (spatial, temporal, etc.): steel - 1) solid silver metal; 2) steel products. A variety of metonymy is synecdoche - the transfer of meaning when the name of the whole is used to name a part of the whole, and vice versa:

All flags will visit us (A. Pushkin).

Formation of figurative meanings of words By the similarity of objects By adjacency (proximity) or phenomena of objects or phenomena in form: a spruce needle, a smoke ring according to the material of products from it:

by color: gold hair, emerald steel tinkled, silverware darkened grass by action: airplane wing by action and result: got five for the essay by impression: evil wind, in whole and in part: put black thoughts in a vase jasmine a quick glance, by assessment : according to the personality of the author and his vague answer to the works: read Pushkin, bought by size: a sea of ​​​​flowers Tolstoy, saw Rembrandt head, etc.). New, unexpected variants of the use of words in a figurative sense are called individual-author's. Expressions based on the figurative meaning of words and giving figurativeness and expressiveness to speech are called tropes: The sunset splashed gray fields with liquid gilding (S. Yesenin) - a metaphor; ... a sickle and hammered Soviet passport (V. Mayakovsky) is an epithet.

Homonymy. Types of homonyms: homophones, homoforms, homographs.

Lexical homonyms (gr. homo s - the same, o puta - name) are words that have the same form (sound, spelling), but different meanings: pomegranate1 "southern tree, as well as its round fruit of sweet and sour taste"; garnet 2 "semi-precious stone, predominantly dark red".

Full lexical homonyms are words that coincide in all grammatical forms: kotik1 "sea pinniped mammal" and kotik2 "cat";

thrash 1 "peel off something, peel off" and thrash 2 "strongly beat, pound."

Incomplete (or partial) lexical homonyms belong to the same part of speech, but have a mismatch of some grammatical forms: mature1 (ripens) “sing, mature” and mature2 (sees) “look, look, see”.

Homonymous words do not have any associative connection inherent in the meanings of a polysemantic word.

Phonetic homonyms (or homophones) are words that have the same sound shell, but different spellings: genie (n.) - genie (n.); beg (ch.) - belittle (ch.), etc. Homophones can belong both to one and to different parts of speech:

drizzle (n.) - frost (n.), in a row (n.) - in a row (adv.). Homophones can conditionally include words and phrases that have a sound match: in place - instead, that brand - Tamarka, etc.

Grammatical homonyms (or homoforms) are words that coincide in sound and spelling only in separate grammatical forms: courts (noun ship in R.p. pl.) - courts (n. court in R.p. pl. .), oven (n.) - oven (ch. in n.f.), etc.

Graphic homonyms (or homographs) are words that have the same spelling, but differ in stress, due to which they are pronounced differently:

property (a distinctive feature of something) - property (relations of kinship by blood, but arising between relatives of spouses).

Ways to distinguish between homonyms and polysemantic words:

1) synonyms for words and comparison of synonyms with each other: platform1 - platform and platform2 - action program

2) selection of related (single-root) words and comparison of word forms: braid1 - pigtail, braid and braid2 - mow;

3) establishing the lexical compatibility of words, as well as their syntactic compatibility: clears up 1 - the sky and clears up 2 - question, situation;

4) the use of etymological information: tick1 "nervous disease" (from French), tick2 "tree species" (from English), tick3 "fabric" (from Dutch).

The existence of polysemy and homonymy creates certain difficulties in the use of words. The specific meaning of the word is revealed in the context, so the context must provide a correct understanding of the word, otherwise it may lead to ambiguity. For example, in the context The students listened to the teacher's explanations, the meaning of the word listened is not revealed (listened from beginning to end or passed by the ears).

Synonymy. The concept of synonyms and synonymic series. Single synonyms.

Types of differences between synonyms (synonyms are ideographic, stylistic, emotional-evaluative, etc.). Synonyms are linguistic and contextual.

Lexical synonyms (gr. synnymos - homonymous) are words that are close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing either in shades of meaning, or in stylistic coloring, or in both and sound differently: well-being, prosperity , prosperity, prosperity; shout, yell, yell, bawl, tear; unsure, indecisive, unsteady.

Synonyms are combined into rows. The dominant of the synonymic series is the stylistically neutral and semantically most capacious word, which is the main, pivotal word in the series: awkward, clumsy, clumsy, angular, awkward, awkward, clumsy; run, rush, rush, fly. The dominant determines the general interpretation of the dictionary synonymous entry and is a semantic reference point for other members of the series. The value of each synonym is matched against the value of the dominant. By the number of words, the synonymic rows are not the same: assembly - installation (2), evasive - indefinitely - diplomatically (3), sugary - sugary - unctuous - sweet - sweet - sugar - honey - honeydew - treacle (9), etc.

The following groups of synonyms are distinguished:

1. Semantic (ideographic) synonyms differ in shades of meaning:

hot, sultry, scorching express a different degree of intensity of the manifestation of a sign;

to explain, to broadcast, to orate emphasize different way performing an action.

2. Stylistic synonyms, denoting the same phenomenon of reality, have a different scope of use or different stylistic coloring: province (neutral), wilderness (colloquial), sad (neutral) - kruchinny (folk poetic); father (neutral, lit.) - father (obsolete)

3. Semantic-stylistic synonyms differ in lexical meanings and stylistic coloring: to lose weight - to grow thin; famous - notorious; demand is an ultimatum.

4. Absolute synonyms (doublets) - words that have neither semantic nor stylistic differences: because - since; hippopotamus - hippopotamus, etc.

According to the word-formation composition, single-root synonyms (investigation - investigation) and multi-root synonyms (blind - blind) are distinguished.

Synonyms may differ in lexical compatibility: a person works (works) - a machine works (but does not work!); spelling literacy - awareness of business.

Polysemantic words in different meanings are included in different synonymous series:

fresh - clean (handkerchief), cool (wind), peppy (person), new (magazine), unsalted (cucumber).

Reasons for the formation of synonyms in Russian:

1) the desire to fully comprehend the phenomenon of reality, to discover something new and give it a name: aerobics - shaping;

2) penetration into the language and mastering foreign vocabulary: saying - aphorism, enthusiastic - exalted;

3) replenishment of synonymous rows with dialect and vernacular vocabulary: recently

- Nadys, just now, the other day;

4) the development of the polysemy of the word: narrow-minded - close (path), limited (man);

5) the emergence of synonyms as a result of word-formation processes:

copy - photocopy;

6) the desire to give the statement a different emotional coloring: to die - to bend over, to hoard.

Contextual synonyms are words whose meaning converges only in a certain context (out of context they are not synonyms). In most cases, contextual synonyms are expressively colored, since their main task is not to name the phenomenon, but to characterize it. For example, in certain contexts, the verb to speak (to say) can have synonyms for throwing, dropping, dropping, blurting, chipping, freezing, giving out, bending, screwing, etc.

Functions of lexical synonyms:

1) semantic - serve to differentiate meanings (scream - cry);

2) style-distinctive - indicate the style, scope of use: to carry out (inter-style) - to materialize (bookish);

3) stylistic proper - they express emotionally expressive meanings:

cure (neutr.) - heal (book).

Lexical synonyms help to clarify, supplement ideas about objects, phenomena of reality, to characterize them more vividly and versatile. The richer the synonymic rows, the richer the language, the richer the opportunities for the creative use of the language.

The stringing of synonyms underlies gradation - a figure of speech in which synonyms are arranged so that the degree of expression of a feature in them increases (ascending gradation) or decreases (descending gradation): His voice, already weak and infirm, becomes barely audible, and then and completely indistinguishable (M. Alekseev) Anthony. The concept of antonyms. Antonyms are linguistic and contextual. Types of antonyms according to the semantic essence of the opposite and according to the structure (antonyms denoting opposite qualities, states, and antonyms denoting opposite actions, properties, signs;

antonyms are heterogeneous, single-root, intra-word).

Lexical antonyms (gr. anti... - against, o puta - name) - these are words that are opposite in meaning: straightness - curvature, dark - light, chill - keep warm, long - short, etc. The antonymic series is made up of words belonging to the same part of speech. Service relations can also enter into antonymic relations (for example, prepositions: to - from, to - from, with - without). However, the words enter into antonymous relations:

1) in the meaning of which there is a shade of quality: high - low, straight - curve;

2) naming emotions: smile - frown;

3) indicating the state: warm - cold;

4) denoting temporal and spatial relationships: yesterday - today, ahead - behind, there - here, north - south;

5) naming actions: speed up - slow down, get up - sit down;

Do not have an antonymous pair:

1) words with a concrete-objective meaning (in the literal sense): cat, closet, etc .;

2) proper names: Moscow, Taimyr;

3) numerals: one hundred, eleventh, two thirds;

4) most pronouns: me, they, ours, etc.

By structure, antonyms are divided into:

1) heterogeneous: poverty - luxury, active - passive, blame - protect, today - tomorrow;

2) single root: happiness - misfortune, gratifying - cheerless, fly in - fly away.

One-root antonyms arise as a result of word-formation processes, therefore they are also called lexico-grammatical or lexical word-formation. As a rule, they are formed as a result of attaching prefixes with the opposite meaning: in- - from-, for- - from-, on- - from-, over- - under-, under-re- and the first parts of compound words like easy- and heavy, micro- and macro-, mono- and poly others: undernourishment - overeat, microcosm - macrocosm, monologue - dialogue.

Sometimes, in the process of functioning in speech, the word changes its meaning to the opposite, this phenomenon is called enantiosemy, or intra-semantic antonymy (gr. enantios - opposite, opposite): to look at smth.-1) “look from beginning to end” 2) “not notice , do not perceive "; make a reservation - 1) “to say by accident”, 2) “specially note in advance”.

A polysemantic word, depending on the meaning and lexical compatibility, can enter into different antonyms: fresh - 1) warm (wind), 2) rotten (piece of meat), 3) old, yesterday (newspaper), 4) dirty (handkerchief) and etc.; runs - 1) crawls (about a person), 2) stretches (about time).

Antonyms are linguistic and contextual (or speech). Linguistic antonyms are based on semantic opposition, which manifests itself regularly and does not depend on the use (nomadic - settled, recognize - deny).

Contextual antonyms are an occasional phenomenon, limited by the context:

Soon from swallows to witches! Youth! Let's say goodbye the day before ... (Color.) Antonyms are most often used in the text in pairs, expressing the most diverse shades of meaning - comparison, opposition of opposite phenomena, properties, qualities, actions, etc.:

My faithful friend! my enemy is insidious!

My king! my slave! native language!

(V. Bryusov)

Such figurative and expressive means are based on antonymy, such as:

1) figurative comparison: My rudeness is much easier than yours, comrade Tumanov, so to speak, politeness. (N.A. Ostrovsky);

2) antithesis (opposition): Houses are new, but prejudices are old ... (A.S. Griboyedov);

3) oxymoron (connection of the incompatible): Only ominous darkness shone to us.

(A. Akhmatova) Paronymy.

Paronyms (gr. para - near, o puta - name) are words that are similar in sound, often the same root, but different in meaning or partially coinciding in meaning:

bony - bony, well-fed - satisfying, anniversary - hero of the day, diplomat - student - diploma student, etc. Paronyms can be of different roots: untalented - untalented, escalator - excavator. The reason for the appearance of heterogeneous paronyms is the accidental convergence of words in sound, which is more often observed in borrowed words: Indian - Indian, Korean - Korean.

One-root paronyms may differ:

1) meaning or shade of meaning: spectacular (catchy, bright) and effective (productive, effective);

2) lexical compatibility: spruce (cones, paws, forests) - Christmas tree (decorations, toys, bazaars); tenant (of a house) - a resident (of a city);

3) syntactic compatibility: certification (of relatives, administration - in what?) - certification (of documents);

4) lexical-syntactic compatibility; put on (what: hat, coat) - dress (whom: doll, child);

5) stylistic coloring: bold (neutral) - bold (high).

Often in speech there is a mixture of paronyms, which leads to speech errors: bony fish, put on a jacket, etc. To prevent such errors, you should compare paronymous pairs, find out the similarities and differences of paronyms.

The rules for the normative use of paronyms and their compatibility are enshrined in the dictionaries of paronyms.

Differentiation of vocabulary from an expressive-stylistic point of view. Vocabulary interstyle (stylistically neutral) and stylistically colored Modern Russian literary language It is characterized by stylistic diversity, that is, it has a wide system of means that ensure speech communication in various spheres of human activity. The style system of the literary language can be represented as a diagram.

Functional styles of language; book styles; colloquial style; scientific official-journalistic literary style. business style artistic style style Styles differ in the sphere of use, the leading function of speech (communication, message, impact, etc.), the main type of speech (description, narration, reasoning), type of speech (oral and written), but the most noticeable differences are in the use of vocabulary and phraseology . Depending on the scope of use, two groups of words can be distinguished; 1) stylistically neutral or interstyle vocabulary, and 2) stylistically colored (or marked) vocabulary, subdivided into book (scientific, business, journalistic) and colloquial vocabulary. Colloquial vocabulary is adjacent to colloquial vocabulary, but is outside the literary language.

Words can not only name objects, phenomena of reality, but also express attitudes towards these phenomena, give them an assessment. According to the presence or absence of an emotional or expressive assessment, words are divided into emotionally expressive (sophisticated, sophisticated, global, patriotism, grace, etc.) and neutral (earth, study, football, rainy, sometimes, etc.). The difference in the stylistic coloring of such words is revealed when comparing: life - vegetation, go - race, sculpture - sculpture, short - lapidary, etc. The scope of the use of words that have an emotionally expressive coloring is limited.

In explanatory dictionaries there are special marks indicating the stylistic characteristics of words:

book. - book word, used for written, book presentation:

manuscript, illness, unshakable, omen, etc.;

high - high, gives speech a touch of solemnity, elation, characteristic of journalistic, oratorical, poetic speech: take courage, inextinguishable, obstacle, year, life-giving, etc .;

official - official, peculiar to the speech of official relations:

unclaimed, non-payment, non-appearance, prescription, etc.;

unfold - colloquial, used in oral, colloquial speech: master, vixen, minister, slander, etc .;

simple. - colloquial, characteristic of oral urban colloquial speech, as well as used for stylization ("literary vernacular"): conscience, money, for nothing, natoret, etc .;

disapproved - disapproving: jump, mask, fool, etc .;

neglected - scornful: image, mess, miser, etc .;

joke. - playful: warrior, adorer, baptize (call);

iron. - ironic: muslin (young lady);

bran. - abusive: idiot, ugly, bastard, etc.

Consequently, the stylistic coloring of the word can, on the one hand, indicate the scope of use, on the other hand, the emotional and expressive content of the word, its evaluative function. All this creates a two-dimensional stylistic coloring of the word.

Ways of development and sources of formation of the lexical system of the modern Russian language.

The formation of the vocabulary of the Russian language is a long and complex process. There are words in the language that appeared in antiquity and are still functioning, there are words that have come into active use relatively recently, there are those that have ceased to be commonly used, but are found in the literature. Thus, constantly active processes take place in the lexical stock: something dies in it and something new is born.

As a result of the development of political, economic, cultural relations between peoples and states, words from other languages ​​constantly penetrate into our language.

From the point of view of origin, two layers can be distinguished in the Russian language: native Russian vocabulary and borrowed vocabulary. Borrowing of words is observed in all periods of development.

Reflection in the vocabulary of the processes taking place in society.

As a phenomenon, social language is the property of all people belonging to the same collective. In the vast majority of cases, a group of people who speak the same language (“linguistic community”) is an ethnic group (nation, nationality, tribe). Every human society is heterogeneous in its composition. It is divided into layers or classes, divided into small groups, within which people are united by some feature, for example, a common profession, the same age, level and nature of education, etc. This differentiation of society is reflected in the language in the form of certain features, socially conditioned subsystems.

Language is in close interaction with the development of society. The state of the language and its vocabulary depends on the state of society. Under feudalism, each possession of a feudal lord or monastery was a kind of state, and this contributed to the emergence of small territorial dialects, which are characterized by a lexical difference: the same objects can be called differently in dialects (kuren and hut). As the forms of the historical community of people (tribe, union of tribes, nationality, nation) consolidate, the internal organization of the language and its unity increase.

The question of the nature of the relationship between language and society is very complex, multifaceted, and there are different points of view on this matter. There is an opinion that the social character of a language is found only in the external conditions of its existence, depending on the conditions in which the native speakers of this language live. But the most profound look at this problem allows us to assert that the social nature of a language is found not only in the external conditions of its existence, but also in the very nature of the language (in its vocabulary, in grammatical possibilities, in the level of development of styles). So, for example, “the changing names of fantastic artificial people and real “smart” machines - homunculus - robot - computer - mark the stages in the development of science and technology from the mythical Pandora to the real computer with a special language marking. Under the influence of socio-political factors, forms plural, in such, for example, abstract nouns as initiative (peace initiatives), reality (post-war realities, new realities), agreement (partial agreements).

The influence of society on the language can be subject not only to laws of an objective nature, but be the result of the conscious activity of people, i.e. be the result of a certain language policy. Language policy as a conscious, active and organized influence on the language is manifested, for example, in the normalization activities of scientists (creation of normative dictionaries and grammars, reference books;

improvement of spelling; the use of media norms for propaganda, etc.).

Language reacts to all the changes taking place both in the public and in the individual consciousness, reflects them. First of all, this is manifested, of course, in the vocabulary of the most massive and large-circulation publications, i.e. newspapers and magazines.

An illustration of this can be the processes that characterized the vocabulary of the mass media in the 80-90s of the XX century - a time that was one of turning points in the development of our social consciousness.

During these years, previously extremely rare words that were, as it were, on the periphery of the language, became more active: charity, mercy, repentance, gymnasium, lyceum, stock exchange, action, market, etc.

The socio-economic and political transformations of the last decade have led to the replenishment of our vocabulary with many borrowings, mainly Anglicisms: broker, dealer, marketing, manager, speaker, sponsor, supermarket, etc.

Our lexicon has significantly expanded and due to the fact that all kinds of technical innovations have come into our life, our way of life from the West, and with them their names: display, cartridge, pager, player, printer, fax machine, etc.

In the last decade, many words of religious themes have returned to active word usage, which for a long time were used in the literary language, mostly in a figurative sense, as a means of expressing irony, disapproval of the signified, such as: lamb, anathema, gospel, fasting, righteous , rites, rites, etc. At present, the words of this group are increasingly acting as evaluative-neutral names, even when they are not used in their direct meaning.

The rethinking of historical experience, the reassessment of the former categories of consciousness led to changes in the evaluative properties of many words. These changes are taking place in three directions.

1. Words that were evaluatively neutral become evaluative words. So, basically, in sharply negative contexts after the start of perestroika, previously neutral words began to be used: apparatus (administrative apparatus), department, departmental (departmental interests), nomenklatura (nomenclature workers), privileges, elite.

2. Words that had evaluation lose it.

In completely neutral contexts, the words dissident, Sovietologist, which were previously negatively evaluative, are now used (see, for example, newspaper headlines:

"Meeting with Sovietologists", "On Sovietologists and Americanists"). Before our very eyes, the words opposition, faction have lost their former - sharply negative - appraisal.

3. The word changes its appraisal to the opposite. Such a fate has been experienced in our time by words associated with communist ideology and which were previously positively evaluative, but now more and more often used in negative evaluative contexts: Soviet, a bright future.

Old and new in vocabulary. Outdated vocabulary. Types obsolete words: historicisms, archaisms. New vocabulary (neologisms). Causes and ways of the emergence of new words.

Each period of language development is characterized by a certain ratio of active and passive vocabulary, since what was relevant for one era may lose its relevance in the future, and words can go into a passive vocabulary of the language.

For example, at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the following names of vehicles were common: horse-drawn carriage (railway in the city with horse-drawn traction), britzka (light semi-covered road wagon), drogi (long cart without a body, as well as a funeral wagon), span ( light open double carriage), etc., and today the vocabulary includes the words limousine, sedan, hatchback, convertible (types of cars depending on the body structure).

The active stock also includes words that have a limited scope (terms, professional vocabulary), but designate concepts and phenomena that are relevant for a given period of language development: ecology, computer, design, etc.

Some words that have become obsolete may become active again and become commonly used: governor, seminary, gymnasium, lyceum, police, etc. Others are actively used for a short time, and then immediately begin to become obsolete (perestroika, voucher) Historicisms and archaisms belong to obsolete words .

Obsolete words, historicisms, archaisms, words that have become obsolete, denoting concepts, objects, because objects, phenomena that exist at the present time have disappeared from life;

the phenomena they denoted; not ousted from active use have synonyms in modern language: in other words; have synonyms in a tavern (inn), a maid in modern language: kuafer (hairdresser), firewood sweets (sweets), karla (dwarf), daughter (room maid), (peasant sleigh). (daughter).

Thematic groups of historicisms:

1) the names of ancient clothes: undershirt, yarmulke, epancha, soul jacket, etc .; 2) names of monetary units: imperial, polushka, five-altynny;

3) ancient titles, titles, job titles: nobility, lordship, mayor, hussar, commuter, batman;

4) the name of weapons and military items: axe, flail, redoubt;

5) administrative names: volost, county, province;

6) the names of the phenomena of social life: laborer, kulak, Cominternist, selfish, duel;

7) the names of the letters of the old alphabet: izhitsa, az, yat, etc.

Archaisms

–  –  –

Reasons for the transition of words into a passive vocabulary of the language:

1) extralinguistic (extralinguistic) associated with changes in the cultural, economic, social spheres;

2) linguistic ones, associated with the presence of functional varieties of language and speech, synonymous connections (primarily with the presence of stylistic synonyms), etc.

The role of obsolete words in the Russian language is diverse. Historicisms in special, scientific literature are used to most accurately describe a certain period of a country's development. In works fiction they recreate the color of the era.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly updated with new words. New words - neologisms - appear in the language to designate some new concept, phenomenon. Examples of neologisms of our time are the words summit, valeology (teaching about a healthy lifestyle), casting, Internet, modem, tender, supermodel, capri (cropped trousers), flash mob (action "instant crowd"), fast food, etc.

Terminological systems are especially actively replenished with new words:

transfer, advice note, clearing (economics), lifting, scrub, phyto milk, peeling (cosmetology). Neologisms reflect the changes observed in various areas of life: moderator, tutor, distance learning, bachelor's degree, master's degree (education), security, presentation, monitoring, euro (social life), etc. Many of these words go into an active vocabulary. For example, the terins that arose in the 50-70s of the XX century, associated with the development of astronautics, astronaut, cosmodrome, space vision, telemetry, spaceship and others due to their relevance very quickly became commonly used.

Methods for the formation of neologisms:

1) from the elements available in the language: snowmobile, video-two;

2) borrowing: diving, rafting;

3) the formation of words in Russian based on borrowed ones: PR - PR, PR, PR;

4) semantic transformations, the development of ambiguity: a mole (a liquid that clears pipe blockages), a mouse (computer), a shuttle (a small trader in imported goods), etc.

Neologisms proper lexical lexico-semantic individual-author's

Words that arose for words, in which words created by writers, new names developed by publicists, public meaning: collapse (abrupt concepts, phenomena, actions: figures with a certain copier, botox, printer, depreciation of the stylistic goal of a laptop; national currency); (perform an expressive dog function): stihocrat (M.

Words formed by (@ sign);

stroke (a means for leaderism to normative models from Gorky), (E.

vulgarly already existing in the language: corrections of the record) and Yevtushenko), (V.

missile carrier, SUV etc. Mayakovsky), etc.

Individual author's neologisms (or occasionalisms) perform only an expressive function, rarely pass into the literary language and are used by the people. Like linguistic neologisms, occasionalisms are formed according to the laws of the language, according to models from the morphemes that are available in the language, therefore, even taken out of context, they are understandable: to rise high, to rise, to chamber (V. Mayakovsky.); prosin, fortune-telling (herbs), (S. Yesenin), etc.

In different periods, the activity of the appearance of neologisms of different thematic groups is not the same.

Periods of appearance of neologisms:

1) the post-October period: new words of social and political themes came into the language (Bolshevik, Leninist, party organizer, Komsomol, pioneer, October, factory committee, local committee, Red Navy, Nepman, etc.), new nomenclature names (USSR, Council of People's Commissars, CPSU, etc.) ;

2) during the period of industrialization and collectivization: words reflecting changes in the economic life of the country (GOELRO, food order, leveling, food appropriation, collective farm, state farm, VDNH, five-year plan, etc.) associated with the development of science and technology (milling machine, asphalt worker, nuclear power plant, ZIL, GAZidr.), words associated with the development of culture and education (workers' faculty, reading room, educational program, book lover, etc.);

3) The Great Patriotic War: words associated with wartime events and naming people by occupation (blockade, firefighter, medical officer, etc.), denoting the names of weapons and objects front-line life(lighter, fugaska, funeral, Annushka (airplane), igniters, etc.), names of actions (raid, buzzer, etc.);

4) post-war period: words related to the development of sciences, included in the terminological systems (narcologist, resuscitator, biogen, transplantation, etc.), associated with the process of space exploration (astronaut, lunar, lunar rover, spaceport, etc.), associated with the development of sports (badminton, biathlon, karting, etc.), naming household items, clothes (jeans, Pepsi, jewelry, etc.), new colloquial words (company, skate, three-ruble note, etc.);

5) late XIX - early XX centuries: words associated with computerization and the development of new information technologies (computer, printer, scanner, disk drive, browser, portal, etc.); economic terms(leasing, logistics, consulting, broker, barter, etc.); words of socio-political topics (GKChP, CIS, pressure, impeachment, inauguration, etc.).

The origin of the vocabulary of the Russian language. The concept of native Russian vocabulary. Originally Russian vocabulary from the point of view of the time of its occurrence. borrowed vocabulary.

Reasons for borrowing it from another language.

Native Russian vocabulary According to the similarity of words, roots, affixes, phonetic and grammatical features, proximity of origin, the relationship of languages ​​is established. A single early Slavic ethnic community used the common Slavic (proto-Slavic) language (approximately the 7th century AD), which dates back to an even earlier Indo-European proto-language, which gave rise to the modern Indo-European language family. The Indo-European family includes the Slavic group: East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian), West Slavic, South Slavic languages. In the Russian language, layers of native Russian vocabulary can be distinguished, different in origin and time of appearance: Indo-European, Common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian proper.

There are many words in the Russian language that appeared in antiquity and make up the layer of the original vocabulary.

Vocabulary of the Russian language Native Russian vocabulary Borrowed vocabulary

–  –  –

Common Slavic words Indo-European words Native Russian vocabulary (words that arose after the separation of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​in the 16th century)

Formed by suffixes -schik-, -chik- (drummer), Names

Hovk (a) (strike), -sh (a) (majorsha), -nost nouns (elevation), -schin (a) (corvee)

Compound abbreviated: head teacher, savings bank, physical education

On -ost-: impressionability, entertaining

Formed from verbs without the help of suffixes:

transition, cry

With suffixes -chat-, -chiv-: ciliated, accommodating Names sweet and sour, adjectives - compound adjectives:

Northern Russian Verbs - formed from verbs with the help of a prefix and a postfix -sya: burst into tears, see each other Adverbs - formed from adjectives with the help of a prefix in - and suffixes -i, -om, -him: in a comradely way, in English, in a summer way, in a to yours all derivative unions and prepositions: because, in the Service parts continued, instead of speech, Indo-European words were inherited by the ancient languages ​​​​of the Indo-European language family after the collapse of the Indo-European language community (before III - II centuries BC).

The similarity of such words is found in many Indo-European languages: Russian. three, Ukrainian three, s.-Chorov. three, Czech. ti, English, three, lat. tres, Spanish tres. This is the oldest layer in the original Russian vocabulary. Words of Indo-European origin include:

some kinship terms: brother, daughter, mother, sister, son;

animal names: bull, wolf, sheep;

names of plants, food products, various vital concepts: willow, water, meat, day, firewood, smoke, name, month;

numerals: two, three, ten;

names of actions: cherish, be (eat), carry, command, believe, turn, see, give, share, wait, live, have, carry;

names of signs and qualities: barefoot, dilapidated;

prepositions: without, before, etc.

Common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) vocabulary is words inherited by the Old Russian language from the language of the Slavic tribes (the period from the 3rd - 2nd centuries BC, when the Indo-European proto-language, or the base language, disintegrates, until the 6th century AD) .

Common Slavic words reveal phonetic and semantic similarities in the South, West and East Slavic languages: Russian. banner, Bulgarian banner, Czech, zname, Polish. znami.

Common Slavic words make up a relatively small part of the modern dictionary, but they form its core, since they are the most commonly used. Common Slavic vocabulary includes:

names of agricultural labor tools and other tools of production: harrow, rake, scythe, hoe, sickle, plow; needle, hammer, knife, saw, axe, awl, as well as a spear, bow, arrow, bowstring;

names of products of rural labor, plants, etc.: rye, cereals, flour; birch, tree, viburnum, cabbage, maple, cranberry, flax, linden, wheat, rye, apple, barley;

names of animals, fish, birds, insects: otter, hare, mare, cow, fox, elk;

snake, snake, lizard; tench, eel; woodpecker, magpie, swift; mosquito;

names of parts of the human body: thigh, eyebrow, head, tooth, hand, skin, knee, face, forehead, leg, nose, shoulder, arm, body, ear;

kinship terms: grandson, godfather, mother-in-law, father-in-law, aunt;

the names of dwellings, utensils and many other vital concepts: door, house, road, hut, porch, shop, stove, floor, ceiling, canopy; spring, winter, summer, autumn; clay, iron, gold; kalach, porridge, jelly; evening, night, morning; century, hour; oak forest, hoarfrost, spark, forest, pit;

abstract vocabulary: excitement, grief, deed, good, evil, thought, happiness, etc.

East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary is words that appeared approximately from the 6th to the 14th - 15th centuries. only in the language of the Eastern Slavs. These are words common to Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian. East Slavic include the names of various qualities, properties, actions: lively, brown, sharp-sighted, dark;

buzz, wander, excite, sway, excuse, beckon;

kinship terms: uncle, nephew;

household names: strap, samovar, hook, twine, basket;

animal names: squirrel, viper, bullfinch, cat, finch;

counting units: forty, ninety; thirteen;

words with a temporary meaning: today, now.

Actually, Russian vocabulary is words that have arisen since the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) people (since the 14th century) and are born (and not appear, because words can also appear by borrowing) in the language and at the present time. The names of actions belong to the Russian proper: to shine, fawn, thin out, swagger, somersault, fasten, clownish, make mistakes;

names of household items, food products: tub, wallpaper, tiles, pendulum, cabbage rolls, jacket;

natural phenomena, plants, birds, fish, animals: ice, rooster, honey agaric, dodder, seal, reed;

names of signs of objects, signs of actions, states: ordinary, shy, cloudy, cautious, wholesale, headlong, poke;

names of persons by type of activity: boyfriend, pilot, fireman, racer;

names of abstract concepts: pleasure, caution, result;

expressive-evaluative names of a person: pigalitsa, okhalnik, gollyba, mutt;

abbreviations: GOST, KPSS, university, etc.

As part of the Russian vocabulary itself, new words appear in the following ways:

1) in the process of word formation: to navigate - from the word landmark (borrowed);

2) as a result of semantic transformations of words that already existed in the language (the emergence of homonyms as a result of the collapse of polysemy, the formation of a new, figurative meaning): class, party, pioneer, etc.

At any stage of the development of a language, vocabulary from other languages ​​inevitably gets into it. Borrowing is one of the ways to develop the lexical system of the Russian language. The borrowing of foreign language vocabulary occurs as a result of the development of political, economic, cultural, scientific ties between peoples and states. A morpheme can also be borrowed: prefixes a-, super-, counter-, post-, etc .;

suffixes -izm, -ist, -tion, etc.

Getting into the Russian language, foreign words can undergo complete assimilation, so that they are perceived by native speakers as Russian: croutons, school, beets, etc. Dutch (German:

curtain, standard, assault, fitting; Dutch: storm, steering wheel); combination j - from English (jam, jumper, jeans). If in the process of borrowing foreign vocabulary is assimilated, Russified, then the foreign word undergoes graphic, phonetic, grammatical, semantic changes. This process is called development. Graphic development - the transfer of a foreign word in writing by means of the Russian alphabet - is observed in words borrowed from languages ​​that have a different graphic system: English. feetness - Russian. fitness. Phonetic development is a change in the sound image of a word as a result of its adaptation to new phonetic conditions: overcoat - pronounced [n'e] like Russian words. Grammar development

- this is an adaptation of a foreign word to the grammatical system of the Russian language:

for example, in English language cakes - plural, and in Russian cake - singular. When borrowing, it is possible to change the part of speech: Russian. out (n.) - English. out (adv.).

Borrowings are divided into two groups: 1) from Slavic languages ​​(Old Slavic, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Czech, Polish, etc.); 2) from non-Slavic languages ​​(Greek and Latin, Western European, Turkic, etc.

languages). According to the time of appearance in the Russian language, borrowings are divided into early ones (the period of existence of the common Slavic and Old Russian languages) and later ones (borrowings that supplemented and supplemented the proper Russian vocabulary). The oldest borrowings include words that came into the Russian language, in particular, from the Old Slavonic, Finnish, Tatar and Greek languages. In different periods, borrowings from different languages ​​​​are active: after the adoption of Christianity - from the Old Slavonic language, in the Petrine era - from German and Dutch); single borrowings are also possible (jap. geisha, sakura, etc.).

From the Scandinavian languages, a few words related to business and everyday vocabulary have entered Russian: brand, hook, tiun, sneak, anchor; fish names: shark, herring, stingray;

personal names: Askold, Igor, Oleg, Rurik, etc.

The names of fishes, natural phenomena and flora, national dishes, etc. are borrowed from the Finno-Ugric languages: flounder, sprat, smelt, saffron cod, herring, salmon; snowstorm, tundra; fir; dumplings; sleds, etc.; geographical names:

Kandalaksha, Kineshma, Klyazma, Kostroma, Totma, Sheksna (the word-building element -ma indicates the Finnish origin of the toponym).

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Lexicology (gr. lexis - word + logos - teaching) is a section of linguistics that studies the word as a unit of the vocabulary of the language (lexicon) and the entire lexical system (lexicon) of the language.

The term lexicon (gr. lexikos - verbal, dictionary) is used to denote the vocabulary of the language. This term is also used in narrower meanings: to determine the totality of words used in one or another functional variety of the language (book vocabulary), in a separate work (the vocabulary of "The Words about Igor's Campaign"); you can talk about the vocabulary of the writer (Pushkin's vocabulary) and even one person (The speaker has a rich vocabulary).

Vocabulary is the central level of organization of the language system, reflecting in the most detail and massively changes in the semantic areas of society, as well as system-wide changes in the language. Of particular importance are lexical data for building a systematic picture of the functioning and development of languages, incl. identifying the processes of formation of their systems.

Exploring vocabulary as a system, lexicology has in mind the interaction between the meanings of words and concepts. In lexicology, the word is considered, first of all, from the point of view of the meaning, meaning and connections of this word with other words. Concepts are most often international, while the meanings of words are national.

Lexicology studies the patterns of functioning and development of the vocabulary of a language, develops the principles of the stylistic classification of words, the norms of literary word usage in its relation to vernacular, questions of professionalism, dialectisms, archaisms, neologisms, normalization of lexicalized phrases.

Lexicology considers the vocabulary of a language (lexicon) from the point of view of what a word is, how and what it expresses, how it changes. Phraseology adjoins lexicology, which is often included in lexicology as a special section.

Lexicology is divided into general, particular, historical and comparative. General lexicology deals with general patterns structure of the lexical system, issues of functioning and development of the vocabulary of the languages ​​of the world.

Private lexicology studies the vocabulary of a particular language. Historical lexicology traces changes in the meanings (semantics) of an individual word or a whole group of words, and also explores changes in the names of objects of reality (see below for etymology). Comparative lexicology reveals similarities and differences in the division of objective reality by lexical means of different languages. Both individual words and groups of words can be matched.

The vocabulary of a language can be considered from the semasiological and onomasiological points of view. A special branch of lexicology that deals with the study of the content side of vocabulary is called semasiology. This section considers the relationship between the word, the concept and the designated object, the semantic structure of a polysemantic word, the ways of development of meanings, the types of meanings of words.

The onomasiological approach involves the description of vocabulary in terms of ways of naming any concepts with a word. The onomasiological approach to vocabulary is most fully manifested in a special section of the science of language - in word formation.

Semasiological and onomasiological approaches to the study of vocabulary include lexicology in broader sections of linguistics. Semasiology is part of such a section as semantics. Semantics explores the content side of all signs of a language - morphemes, words, sentences. The onomasiological approach includes questions of lexicology in a number of problems of the theory of nomination (naming). The theory of nomination is considered in such a section as onomasiology.

In lexicology, lexicography and onomastics are traditionally distinguished. Onomastics is a branch of lexicology that studies proper names. Depending on the category of objects that have their own names, onomastics is divided into anthroponymy, which studies the names of people, toponymy, which describes the names of geographical objects, zoonymy, which considers the names of animals, etc.

Lexicography is the field of lexicology that studies the principles of compiling dictionaries.

Lexicology can be descriptive, or synchronic (gr. syn - together + chronos - time), then it explores the vocabulary of the language in its current state, and historical, or diachronic (gr. dia - through + chronos - time), then its subject is the development of the vocabulary of a given language.

All sections of lexicology are interconnected: the data of general lexicology is necessary when studying the vocabulary of a particular language in order to understand the deep essence of lexical units, their connection with the cognitive structures of consciousness; many lexical phenomena need historical commentary, clarifying the features of their semantics and use; information from comparative lexicology helps to understand many features and patterns of functioning of the vocabulary of a particular language, such as, for example, the common lexical composition, borrowing, interference, and others.

Lexicology is closely related to other linguistic disciplines and other sciences.

The choice of a word for transmitting information is the result of complex cognitive processes - all this connects lexicology with history, philosophy, logic, cultural studies, and psychology.

Lexicology relies on the data of historical disciplines - the study of written monuments helps to understand the development of the lexical composition of the language, the relationship of the language with the development of society; associated with stylistics, in which the stylistic resources of the language, including lexical ones, are studied in more detail; with linguistic analysis of the text, since, first of all, lexemes are directly connotatively marked units, they act as the main text-forming means.

Lexicology (from the Greek lexikos - related to the word and logos - teaching) is a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of the language, its vocabulary. The subject of lexicology is the word. And its object is the definition of the word as the basic unit of the language.
The main tasks of lexicology are:
- clarification of the connection between the meaning of the word and the concept, the allocation of different types of meanings of words;
- characteristics of the lexical-semantic system, i.e. detection internal organization linguistic units and analysis of their connections (the semantic structure of the word, the specifics of distinctive semantic features, the patterns of its relations with other words, etc.);
In lexicology, stable combinations of words are also studied, which are dissected names of individual objects and phenomena of reality and are the equivalent of a word. These combinations refer to phraseology, which is included in lexicology as one of its sections (some researchers, however, consider it an independent section of the science of language). Lexicology is divided into general, particular, historical and comparative. The first is the section general linguistics who study the vocabulary of any language, what belongs to lexical universals. General lexicology deals with the general laws of the structure of the lexical system, the issues of the functioning and development of the vocabulary of the languages ​​of the world. Private lexicology studies the vocabulary of a particular language. So, general lexicology can consider, for example, the principles of synonymous or antonymic relations in a language, while particular lexicology will deal with the peculiarities of English, Russian, German, etc. synonyms or antonyms.
Both general and particular problems of vocabulary can be analyzed in various aspects. First of all, any phenomenon can be approached from a synchronic or diachronic point of view. The synchronic approach assumes that the characteristics of a word are considered within a certain period or any one historical stage of their development. Such a study of vocabulary is also called descriptive, or descriptive. Diachronic, or historical, lexicology is the study of the historical development of the meanings and structure of words. The subject of the study of historical lexicology is the history of words, the formation and development of vocabulary, changes in various groups of words. Comparative lexicology is engaged in comparing the lexical phenomena of one language with the facts of another or other languages. Comparative lexicology reveals similarities and differences in the division of objective reality by lexical means of different languages. Both individual words and groups of words can be matched. Lexicology as the science of the vocabulary of a language is primarily divided into onomasiology and semasiology. Further, more private sections are distinguished - phraseology, onomastics, etymology. A special place is occupied by lexicography. Semasiology (from the Greek semasia - meaning, meaning and logos - word, teaching) - in a broad sense, this is the science of the meanings of language units in general, i.e. Semasiology is the same as semantics, and in a narrow sense - an aspect of semantics, a section of linguistics that studies the meanings of linguistic units, in contrast to onomasiology, which studies the ways of linguistic designation of objects and concepts. Thus, if semasiology studies the meaning of vocabulary units of a language, types of lexical meanings, the semantic structure of a word, then the subject of study of onomasiology is the nominative means of the vocabulary of the language, types of vocabulary units of the language, methods of nomination. Semasiology goes from the means of expression to the expressed meaning, onomasiology is based on the movement from the designated object to the means of its designation, i.e. from content to form. Phraseology studies the phraseological composition of the language in its current state and historical development. A phraseological unit (phraseological unit, phraseological phrase) is a lexically indivisible, stable in its composition and structure, a phrase that is integral in meaning, reproduced in the form of a finished speech unit. Etymology is the study of the origin of words. The subject of etymology as a branch of lexicology is the study of the sources and the process of forming the vocabulary of a language, including the reconstruction of the vocabulary of the most ancient (usually pre-literate) period. The subject of study of onomastics are proper names. Onomastics is traditionally divided into sections in accordance with the categories of objects that have their own names: anthroponymy studies the names of people, toponymy - the names of geographical objects, zoonymy - the names of animals, astronomy - the names of individual celestial bodies, etc. The object of study of onomastics is the history of the emergence of names and the motives of the nomination, their formation, territorial and linguistic distribution, functioning in speech. Onomastics explores phonetic, morphological, word-formation, semantic, etymological and other aspects own name.
Lexicography is a branch of lexicology that studies the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.

33) Word. The word is the central unit of language. This is the main nominative and cognitive unit of the language, which serves to name and communicate about objects, features, processes and relationships. The word is a structural-semantic two-sided unit of the language, which has a form (expression plan) and meaning (content plan). The word is the minimal relatively independent meaningful unit of the language; the relative independence of a word - greater than that of a morpheme - is most consistently manifested in its absence of a rigid linear connection with neighboring words (in the presence, as a rule, of a rigid connection between parts of a word), and, in addition, in the ability of many words to function syntactically - as a minimal (single-word) sentence or as a member of a sentence. Like all other language units, a word acts in the language system as an abstract unit - an invariant, and along with this, as a rule, also in the form of a set of its variants; in speech (in a speech act and in a text) it is realized in the form of a specific instance, i.e., a “speech word”. The invariant of a word is called a lexeme. As for the linguistic variants of a word, since the word is a unit much more complex than the phoneme, the linguistic variation of this unit is also more complex. This variation may be a purely phonetic variation of the exhibitor (cf. variants such as galosh and galosh), sometimes associated with differences in style or professional sublanguages ​​(report for sailors - report in other cases) or with phonetic conditions of the surrounding context (the English indefinite article a before consonants and an before a vowel: a thought"thought" - an idea"idea"). Variation of the word can be (not essential for the meaning) variation of the morphemic composition of the word (read - read) in combination with one or another stylistic differentiation (as in potatoes - potatoes) or without it. The variation of a word may, on the contrary, concern only its content side (semantic variants of a polysemantic word, for example, the audience "training room" and the audience "composition of students", which will be discussed below). In a language like Russian, and in very many others, a very important type of linguistic variation of a word is its grammatical variation, that is, the formation of its grammatical forms, or word forms (I write, write, write, etc.), including and analytical (I will write, would write). The most important part of the lexical meaning of the word, its core is in most significant words the mental reflection of one or another phenomenon of reality, an object (or class of objects) in a broad sense (including actions, properties, relationships, etc.). d.). The object denoted by the word is called the denotation, or referent, and the display of the denotation (class of denotations) is called the conceptual meaning of the word. In addition to the core, the lexical meaning includes the so-called connotations, or connotations - emotional, expressive, stylistic "additives" to the main meaning, giving the word a special coloring. In every language there are also such significant words for which the main meaning is not an additional, but the main meaning is the expression of certain emotions (for example, interjections like wow! pah! or brr!) or the transmission of commands - urges to certain actions (stop! away! scat! on! in the sense of "take", etc.). In the lexical meaning of the word, three sides, or facets, are distinguished: 1) the relation to the denotation is the so-called subject relatedness of the word; 2) relation to the categories of logic, and above all to the concept, - conceptual relatedness; 3) relation to the conceptual and connotative meanings of other words within the corresponding lexical system - this aspect of the meaning is sometimes called significance. The main properties of the word:

1. Phonetic formality (the presence of the main stress).

2. Semantic design (the presence of lexical, grammatical, structural meaning).

3. Nominative function (the name of the phenomenon of reality and its presentation in the form of a lexical meaning).

4. Syntactic independence (the ability to be used as a separate statement; relative freedom in the arrangement of words in a sentence).

5. The impenetrability of the word (the impossibility of breaking the unit by any elements). Exceptions: no one - no one etc.

6. Whole design.

7. Valence (the ability to combine with other words according to certain semantic and grammatical laws).

34) Lexical meaning. The word performs a nominative function, i.e. the outer shell calls any phenomenon of reality. Based on this, a connection is established between such a unit and an object, fixed by the practice of speech use. However, most often the word is associated not with a specific subject, but with a concept that has developed among the representatives of a given nation about a given subject, due to which the word has a subject-conceptual relation, which is called LZ. By definition, V.V. Vinogradov, lexical meaning is a subject-material content, designed according to the laws of the grammar of the Russian language. Visually, this can be represented as a triangle or trapezoid, which reflects the relationship between the object, concept, LZ and sign (word).

concept meaning

subject sign

A separate object is a “piece” of reality, but the word does not name a specific piece, an idea of ​​the totality of similar elements that has been formed in the human mind over the centuries.

A concept is a logical category, it is a mental unit (a form of thinking) that reflects the essential features of an object or objects, the result of its cognition. The functions of cognition are the allocation of the general, which is achieved by abstracting from all the features of objects. Therefore, the concept is devoid of any evaluation, expressiveness.

Meaning is a linguistic unit, it is not equal to a concept. Although the concept is the semantic core of the word, its meaning is not exhausted by the concept: after all, in addition to the conceptual component, the meaning structure can also include various expressive meanings. Being an integral part of the word, the meaning is associated with the sign - the image of the given word in speech. As we see from the diagram, there is no direct connection between the sign and the object, it is mediated by our thinking and language, its national characteristics.

When considering many issues related to the semantics of a word, a distinction is made between significative, denotative and connotative meanings.

The significative meaning (Greek significatio “meaning, meaning, meaning”) of a lexical unit is a specifically linguistic reflection of reality. This is the meaning that forms the basis of the concept. In explanatory dictionaries it is presented in the form of interpretations: a man is an adult male; tree - a perennial plant with a solid trunk and branches extending from it, forming a crown. The significative meaning can be decomposed into separate elements, semes - “peculiar pieces of meaning”. For example, the word man consists of the following semes: "man", "male", "adult". If we compare the words woman or child with LZ, we will see that they have common semes - "man", and there are also differential ones - "sex", "childhood / adulthood". The common seme often combines words of the same class or gender, therefore it is also called a hyperseme (archiseme, generic seme). A differential seme distinguishes objects of the same class (genus) and is called a hyposeme (species seme). Semes are internally organized and form a certain semantic structure. The denotative meaning (Greek denotatum "object") is specific meaning words for specific situation. A denotation in linguistics is understood as a separate phenomenon, an object of reality to be named. A denotative meaning is a subject meaning that characterizes the connection of a lexical unit with the designated object, therefore it can be more in content than a significative one. For example, Birch belongs to the class deciduous trees. White birch under my window. In the first sentence, the structure of the word birch has a significative meaning, in the second - a denotative one. They have a parrot for a long time (connection with a specific subject). How long can a parrot live? (connection with the concept).

The structure of the LZ may also contain an emotional-evaluative component (emotive), or a connotation. The connotative meaning (Latin con “together”, noto “I mark, designate”) is an additional meaning to the conceptual meaning, expressing a different attitude of the speaker to the subject of speech. Wed The man approached the car. Petrov is a real man (courteous, gallant). The connotative meaning appears most clearly if we compare words with the same significative meaning, but different in emotional and expressive coloring, i.e. stylistic synonyms: eat, gobble up (“eat quickly, with appetite”); Get out! Get out of here! Drive out, kick out, kick out.

The term "lexicology" is composed of two Greek elements: lexis (lexis) and logos (logos). Both of them meant "word" in ancient Greek. Thus, lexicology is a word about a word, or a science about words. The vocabulary of a language is a collection of all words and their equivalent phrases (phraseological units).

Sections of lexicology

1. Onomasiology - studies the vocabulary of the language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of the language, methods of nomination.

2. Semasiology - studies the meaning of the dictionary units of the language, the types of lexical meanings, the semantic structure of the lexeme.

3. Phraseology - studies phraseological units.

4. Onomastics - the science of proper names. Here we can distinguish the largest subsections: anthroponymy, which studies proper names, and toponymy, which studies geographical objects.

5. Etymology - studies the origin individual words.

6. Lexicography - deals with the compilation and study of dictionaries.

7. The word is at the center of the study of lexicology.

lexeme

Having become acquainted with the types of words presented in the language, one can introduce another concept presented in lexicology, namely, the concept of a lexical word, or lexeme. A lexeme is a significant word that points to objects and denotes concepts about them. A lexeme is able to act as a member of a sentence and form sentences, it can be simple (lexeme - a word) and compound (lexeme - a compound name, for example: railway, rest house) In this understanding, service words and word forms are not included in the concept of "lexeme".

How do the terms lexeme and word relate?

In some cases, they denote the same fact of language. So a person is both a word and a lexeme; in, would. From are words, but not lexemes. In the sentence "Man is friend to man" there are three words, but two lexemes. Therefore, the term lexeme diverges from the term word. The latter names both the function word and the form of the word. Word forms that differ only in grammatical meaning are not considered separate lexemes (kot - kota - kotu - kotom). They form a paradigm, that is, a system of word forms of one lexeme.

The lexical meaning of a word is the content of the word, reflecting in the mind and fixing in it the idea of ​​an object, a property of a process, a phenomenon, and so on. This is the correlation established by our thinking between the sound complex and the object or phenomenon of reality, which is indicated by this complex of sounds.

The carrier of lexical meaning is the basis of the word. The meaning of the word reflects the general and at the same time essential features of the subject, learned as a result of people's social practice. Lexical meanings can be specific and abstract, general (common) and singular (own).

Word problems in language

A hole in one of his latest articles wrote: "Indeed, what is a word? I think that in different languages it will be different. It follows from this that the concept of the word does not exist at all.

Smirnitsky, who in his article "On the Question of the Word", writes that "the word acts not only as the basic unit of the vocabulary, but also as the central nodal unit of the language in general" illuminates this issue differently. When presenting the material on words, we will adhere to this point of view.

The Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary (M., 1990) gives the following definition of the concept of a word:

The word is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to a given language.

The most important features of the word

The word, like any other unit of language, according to Smirnitsky, has two the most important features:

1) It has not only an external (sound) side, but also an externally expressed meaning (semantic or emotional content).

Considering the question of the two-sidedness of a word, one should dwell on the very nature of this connection between the sound of a word and its meaning.

The connection between the sound and meaning of a word is, in principle, conditional, arbitrary, or unmotivated. So, for example, there is no inherently binding connection between the meaning of table and the sound of Tisch. As you know, different sound complexes are associated with the meaning of table in different languages: in English. table, in Russian. Table, in it. Tisch. The principle of convention applies to simple, indecomposable units; completely, actually to morphemes.

As for more complex formations, in addition to the principle of convention (since simple units are included in complex formations), the principle of motivation comes first. The concept of motivation is related to the term "internal form of the word", which is understood as the motivation of the lexical meaning of the word by its word-formation with the semantic structure. The internal form of the word reveals some sign of the object on the basis of which the name originated. So, for example, the redstart bird once struck a person with its unusually bright, as if burning, tail. This sign that struck a person was the basis for the name of this bird. Of course, the sign that underlies the name is not always so bright and spectacular. It is usually much calmer: a candlestick is what is under the candle, and a thimble is what is put on the finger - a finger, a snowdrop, a flower that appears in the spring, when there is still snow on the fields.

2) The word appears not as a work created in the process of speech, but as something that already exists and is only reproduced in speech.

By the way, morphemes also satisfy the above requirements, and therefore can be considered units of the language with good reason. It should also be noted that proverbs, sayings, aphorisms and, in general, various sayings, reproduced again and again as whole units, also act, according to Smirnitsky, as units of the language, since they already exist in the language and are only reproduced in speech. But then the sentence is not, according to Smirnitsky, a unit of language.

It is necessary to dwell on the issue of the separability of a word in the flow of speech. AT known cases certain phonetic moments serve to highlight the word, to delimit it from neighboring words. So, for example, the absence of stress on a full-valued unit that has a substantive meaning in Germanic languages ​​is usually an indicator that we are dealing with only a part of the word, for example. English Railway, blackboard, German. Eisenbahn, Schwarzbrot, where the absence of stress on -way, -board, -bahn, -brot shows that these units in these cases do not represent separate words, but are only components of words. Such phonetic moments, capable of expressing the difference between a word and a part of a word, should be considered only as some additional, auxiliary means of highlighting a word. Why? The fact is that with such a selection, the word is considered as if it were only a sound segment. Meanwhile, the word, as a unit of language, is a formation that has both a sound side and a semantic side. The main signs of separability, completeness of the word should be sought based on the understanding of the word as the main unit of the vocabulary of the language and, at the same time, such a unit that is able to change grammatically and grammatically combine into sentences, into a coherent meaningful speech with other units of the same order.

The changeability of a word presupposes a certain form of its formation: since the same word changes, insofar as it stands out something basic, actually dictionary, lexical, which remains the same with various changes in the word, and, on the other hand, something additional, variable, belonging together with that, not to a given specific word, but to a known class or category of words, abstracted from specific words - grammatical, associated with the use of a word in various works of speech. Thus, the basic, lexical meaning of the word turns out to be supplemented, complicated by those or other grammatical meanings that are materially expressed in external, sound differences between individual varieties - grammatical forms of the word: this gives the word a certain formality.

Words turn out to be grammatically, both morphologically and syntactically designed, in a certain way adapted to their joint functioning in coherent meaningful speech. This formalization of the word gives it a certain completeness, which makes it quite easy to distinguish it from speech.

The internal integrity of the word (whole-formation) of the word is revealed in comparison with the structure of the phrase. Unlike words as whole-formed formations, phrases can be defined as separate-formed formations. This can be illustrated by the following examples. If we compare the language formation das Schwarzbrot and the language formation das schwarze Brot, which includes the same root elements as the first formation, then it is easy to see that they, denoting the same object of objective reality and not significantly differing in their meaning, are fundamentally different. in relation to grammatical structure, in its form. This difference lies in the fact that in the first language formation - the word - both components are formed once, while in the second language formation - the phrase - there is an independent grammatical design for each component. In other words, the formation Schwarzbrot is integrally formed, and the formation das schwarze Brot is separately formed.

The wholeness of the word in itself expresses a certain semantic integrity: it emphasizes that a given object or phenomenon is thought of as something one, a special whole, even if the complexity of its structure is noted or its individual features are distinguished. Thus, when we say das Schwarzbrot, we focus on the object denoted by this word, although we mean its separate aspects: a) bread, a food product, and b) the quality of this product in terms of color. On the contrary, if we say das schwarze Brot, separate aspects of the designated phenomenon come to the fore, and already through the perception of certain aspects of this object or phenomenon, the object itself or the phenomenon as a whole is realized.

Semantic structure of the word- the semantic structure of the main unit of vocabulary (see Word). S. s. With. manifests itself in its polysemy (see) as the ability to name (designate) various objects (phenomena, properties, qualities, relationships, actions and states) with the help of internally related meanings. The semantic structure of an unambiguous word is reduced to its seme composition (see Seme) .

The simplest unit (element) of the semantic structure of a polysemantic word is its lexico-semantic variant (LSV), that is, with a lexical meaning (see), associated with other lexical meanings by certain relationships, the main of which are hierarchical: expression of subordination of dependent lexical meaning from the south to the main. In S. with. With. lexico-semantic variants are related to each other due to the common internal form (see Internal form of the word), their mutual motivation, derivation from each other.

Therefore, in dictionaries, each preceding LSV determines the interpretation of the subsequent one, for example. circle ^ "a part of the pchoskosgn, bounded by a circle, as well as the circle itself" ~ ^- circle ± "an object in the shape of a circle" (saving. rubber circle), [circle-) "a closed area, within the outlined boundaries, a cut and a difference occur something" (circle of responsibilities, interests, issues)], [circle "a group of people united by common interests, took off" (circle of acquaintances, friends; in their own circle)], [circle $ "a social set of people primarily engaged in intellectual, creative work "(general circles of the public, literary, journalistic circles; about diplomatic circles: in the circle of scientists, specialists)], etc. Here, the hierarchically main LSV is a circle, in the content of which the internal form is most manifested; with this LSV, all other LSVs of the word circle are metaphorically (according to the similarity of form). At<ггом представление о круге присутствует в толковании значений всех ЛСВ слова и внутренне связывает их в единое целое. Основанием для выделения главного и частных значений (или иначе: главного и частных ЛСВ) служит различный характер взаимодействия слова в таких значениях с контекстом, т. е. фрагментом текста, необходимым и достаточным для определения того или иного значения слова. Главное значение в наименьшей степени обусловлено контекстом. Слово в главном (первом в словарях) значении является семантически наиболее простым по своему содержанию (ср. вода\ "прозрачная бесцветная жидкость") и обладает в силу этого самой широкой н свободной сочетаемостью с другими лексическими единицами. Все прочие значения слова (его ЛСВ) выступают как частные. В частных значениях по сравнению с главным слово в значительно большей степени обусловлено контекстом, присоединяет к себе его элементы и является в силу этого семантически более сложным (напр., вода2 "минеральный, газированный, фруктовый напиток", т. е. вода+содержащая минеральные соли; насыщенная газом; приготовленная из фруктов), при атом характеризуется ограниченной, избирательной сочетаемостью: минеральная, сельтерская, газированная, фруктовая вода.

The main meaning is called the primary semantic function of the word, private meanings - its secondary semantic functions.

Along with the usual dictionary meanings (main, private) in S. s. With. the general meaning is singled out as its invariant (from Latin invarians - unchanging), opposed to variant meanings: this is the coinciding part of the content of all meanings (LSV) of the word, something constant, unchanging in them. It stands out like a common factor in algebra: ab + ac + ad = = a(b + c + d), is an extremely generalized and semantically simple content and is a linguistic abstraction useful for the semantic analysis of language units. The ratio of the meanings of a word to its general meaning [i.e. i.e. to the general content of all its variants] makes it possible to establish their semantic hierarchy according to the degree of proximity to it: the central, dominant meanings turn out to be semantically the simplest, the peripheral ones are more complex and therefore further separated from the general (invariant) meaning of the word than the first ones. In S. with. With. certain values ​​(LSV) can die off. For example, the meaning of "beautiful" in the common Slavic adjective red (cf. Red Square) was historically the original, the main one in the word formed from the same stem as the word beauty. In the meaning of color, the word red began to be used later, in the era of the separate existence of the East Slavs. languages. This value became the main thing in S. with. s, leading to its partial restructuring. However, S. s. With. is constantly enriched with new meanings, since the word is a unit of an “open” lexical system, for example. meanings "a person who swims in open water in winter" in the word walrus (cf. section of walruses), "successful attacking player in football, hockey" in the word scorer (cf. top scorer of the season), etc.

All words are divided into word-building motivated (derivatives) and unmotivated (non-derivatives).). Word-building motivated are such words, the meaning and sound of which are determined in the modern language by other words of the same root (motivating, or producing). Motivated words are perceived as formed from motivating words: table - table 'small table', white - turn white 'become white, whiter'. The meaning and sound of derivational unmotivated words (table, white) are not conditioned in the modern language by other words with the same root; they are not recognized as being formed from other words.

A motivated word is connected with another single-rooted word or with several single-rooted words by the relations of derivational motivation. Motivation is such a relationship between two words with the same root, in which the meaning of one of them is either determined through the meaning of the other (house - house 'little house', strength - strongman 'man of great physical strength'), or identical to the meaning of the other in all its components, except for the grammatical meaning of a part of speech (walking - walking, daring - daring, bold - boldly), or completely identical to the meaning of another with a difference in the stylistic coloring of these words (knee - open knee).

Words with the same root, devoid of the named properties (house and house), are not in a relationship of motivation with each other.

One of the two words with the same root, connected by relations of word-formation motivation, is motivating, and the other is motivated. The motivation of a word is determined by four rules that apply in the following cases:

The compared single-root words have different lexical meanings, and in their stems, in addition to the root, a different number of sound segments is singled out (the stem of one of them may be equal to the root). In this case, a word is motivated, the stem of which is longer by some sound segment, which is recognized as a word-forming affixal morph (see § 16): forest - forest-ok, stand - stand.

The compared single-root words have different lexical meanings, and the same number of sound segments is singled out in their stems. In this case, the motivated word is semantically more complex, the meaning of which is determined through another word compared with it: chemistry - chemist 'specialist in chemistry', artist - artist 'woman artist'.

The meanings of the compared single-root words are identical in all their components, except for the grammatical meaning of the part of speech. In this case: a) in the pairs “verb - noun denoting the same action” (draw - drawing, go out - exit, creak - creak) and “adjective - noun denoting the same sign” (bold - courage, graceful - grace , blue - blue), regardless of the length of the stems of the compared words, the noun is motivated; b) in the pair "adjective - adverb" a word is motivated, the stem of which is longer by some segment - a word-forming affixal morph (see paragraph 1): cf. today - today-sh-th and dare-th - dare-o, where -o is part of the stem (suffix).

Note. An exception to the rule formulated in paragraph 3a is: 1) pairs of words consisting of a noun that does not have a suffix with the meaning of action, and a verb with the suffix -nicha-, -stova-, or -ova-/-irova-/- izirova-/-izova-: in such pairs, the verb is motivated, because in the modern language, with the help of these suffixes, verbs are easily formed from nouns with the meaning of action, and nouns with the meaning of action are not formed from such verbs without the help of a suffix: focus - conjurer, blasphemy - blaspheme, salute - salute, repair - repair, terror - terrorize; 2) pairs consisting of a noun on -stv (o) and an adjective, in which after -stv- follows a suffix: courage - courageous, ignorance - ignorant.

One of the words in the relationship of motivation is stylistically neutral, and the other has some stylistic coloring. In this case, regardless of the length of the stems of the compared words, the stylistically colored word is motivated: ship - shipbuilder (colloquial), individual - individual (colloquial).

A motivated word differs from a motivating one by certain derivational means. As word-building means for motivation, affixal morphs (most often) act, as well as cutting off part of the stem, a fixed order of components and a single stress on one of the components in additions and unions (for more details, see § 31).