Yarkho in n Latin. Latin language

LATIN LANGUAGE TEXTBOOK, WIA STUDENTS OF PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITIES Edited by V.N. Yarkho, V.I. Loboda FIFTH EDITION. STEREOTYPICAL Recommended for publication by the Ministry of General and vocational education Russian Federation as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions studying in the direction of "Philology", specialty ", Latin) MOSCOW. HIGH III KOLA. 1998 UDC LBC 807.1 81.2 Latin L27 Reviewers: Department of Romano-Germanic Languages, Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical Institute foreign languages named after NA. Dobrolyubova (Head of the Department, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor G.V. Ilyina) Authors: Viktor Noevich Yarkho, Nina Lazarevna Katsman, Ida Aronovna Lifshits, Valentina Dmitrievna Savukova, Tatyana Mikhailovna Sokolova, Yudif Matveevna Kagan, Beatrice Khodorkovskaya Borisovna, Shopina Nina Rodionovna L 27 Latin: Proc. for ped. in-t on spec. "Foreign lang.” jV.N. Yarkho, Z.A. Pokrovskaya, n.l. Katzman and others; Ed. B.N. Yarkho, B.I. Loboda. - 5th ED., Sr. - M.: Byssh. school, 1998. - 384 p. ISBN 5-06-003473-9 The textbook contains brief information from the history of the Latin language; systematic presentation of grammar in comparison with similar phenomena in modern languages ; an anthology of exercises, phrases and texts, adapted excerpts from the works of Caesar and Cicero. The textbook has a Latin-Russian dictionary. The fifth edition (4th ISBN 5-06-003473-9 -1995) is stereotypical. with KalleImIB authors, 1998 FOREWORD When compiling, I proceeded from the present tasks that the author's team of the Latin language at the faculties of foreign languages ​​put before the course. The Latin language is called here as a special not only linguistic discipline to expand the general linguistic horizons of students, but also to promote the development of a scientific approach to the studied modern foreign language. Accordingly, the main emphasis on assimilation (1) in the course of the Latin course system should be given to grammar; which of the studied modern foreign language and the necessary lexical minimum is more commonly used, in comparison with the words of the Latin language, including (2) the most predominantly non-derivative ones, which at the same time are especially productive in the formation of the vocabulary of strange languages ​​and the "international" modern foreign terminology. This goal predetermines the nature of the textbook, in which the authors sought not only to inform students of a certain set of rules that form the basis of Latin, to understand from a historical point of view and to compare in new languages. them, where possible, this was grammar, but with similar phenomena to the facts of historical phonetics, morphology, and providing comparative features or leaving it declared expedient to focus students' attention on the most important and sa, and the emergence of these rules is a little bit of them at all for places with the essence syntax exceptions and grammatical limits are used as separate parts of the textbook. When studying it by sections in the grammar of that corresponding material genetivus possessi \ "Us immediately after the rule of the syllable transition to 1 already examples, declension; brief about in which anthology. phonetic final forms known to students by students of the closed 3rd l. plural of the third conjugation and not words like (mittunt) and pot. sing. 11 declension (lupus), tempus or corpus. In the interests of a systematic 3 presentation of grammar, after an indirect question explained directly In teaching, however, it seems consecutio temporum.It seems more convenient to gradually introduce students to the individual features of historicum, tia elements, tenses on the same grammatical and curn historicum causa1e would be required and fina1e ut rule follower then objectivum, sits and, finally, indirect question). Therefore, the causale christome is calculated in components (first, with the order of the part of the passage of the material; the use of tenses with sieves is set out in somewhat more detail than it is in studying grammar in a systematic way. Some other “inconsistencies” of the part in its presentation are also explained by the tasks of the practical use of the grammatical. related, strictly speaking, to the field of syntax, familiarization with these forms is reported in the section of tenses.Morphology When explaining verb forms, perfectum indicativi, praesens are considered in particular detail, and since their solid assimilation is a necessary condition for understanding all other verbal formations For the present time, a complete table is given, taking into account various types of conjugations; for other times, it is enough to confine ourselves to typical samples with the reference of students to the summary table of verb phrases. the origin of Latin grammar in its various aspects. Each section of some main topic in morphology is also reported along the way necessary, usually devoted to a verb or name; syntax details simple sentence , about the meaning of cases. in the second half of the reader, naturally, more attention is paid to the syntax of the verb and the compound sentence. The reader is constructed in such a way as to ensure the assimilation of grammatical material mainly in an inductive way: from individual linguistic facts, students must be summed up with generalizing conclusions. The inductive method is also in the grammatical part: the comparison of dit k at 1 and partly 11 k uses inflections under the distinction between two types of nominative, which is then necessary to explain five declensions, 111 - V declensions; characterized as a whole; the explanation after the case system ablativus absolutus relies on the studied endings in familiarity with the syntactic functions of the ablative in adverbial meaning; the use of the 4th subjunctive in subordinate clauses is compared, where possible, with its meaning in independent clauses. In the morphology of the verb, information of a generalizing nature is usually given in the introductory paragraphs of each section (for example, general information about the verb, about the system that the student, returning to this study, summarizes the specific perfect); assumed paragraphs after more de facto, will find in them a useful summary. The volume of grammatical material that makes up the content of individual sections of the target topic is uneven. to the Latin circulation of various disclosures This is due to the fact in grammar. within the section that the composition is determined The burden required of the sections should be dependent on the curricula in order to be distributed in one or another educational institution. The experience of the teaching staff's work made the participants pay special attention to the consolidation of the vocabulary. For this purpose, in each section, starting from the second, a group of phrases is allocated (they are denoted by the letter A), which includes all the words that are included in the mandatory lexical minimum of the student's vocabulary of this group of a limited language, since the minimum is not in the text. be in section. is the number of hours, From the phrases, with these highlighted opposites, Reading is an indispensable case of memorizing included in the phrases in the condition for the course of the word from B, sa Latin lexical support subsection of each when in read, the choice can be made by the teacher depending on the working conditions. Proverbs and sayings in both subsections are in italics. As for the lexical minimum, wherever possible, lexical parallels of new languages ​​are given to Latin words: in this way, on the one hand, the passage of Latin vocabulary is facilitated, on the other hand, words of Latin origin in the new language studied by students are explained . When selecting similar ones, highlight: a) the parallels of the word common were found to be appropriate of Indo-European origin; b) originally French words, representing the result of the direct development of Latin vocabulary in Gaul, and their derivatives; c) borrowings in French from Latin, made in later periods, and their derivatives; d) borrowings from Latin in Russian, English and German. 5 in accordance with this lexical minimum vocabulary scheme has the following form: in the sections of the Latin word, Russian translation; after it in parentheses are given after the mark ep. (compare) the available numbers 1. Indo-European primordial parallels are given1; French words, then under bold (or a dash if there are no such words); they are divided from given borrowings borrowings from semicolons; Latin in under others from the numeral of new 2. languages. Sample: di "co, dixi, dictum, ere 3 speak, name (Er. Eng. l. token teach to teach; German Zeichen n sign, zeigen show); 1. dire; dictionnaire t dictionary, dicton t saying; 2. announcer, diction, edict, English dictate to dictate, dictionary German Diktat n, Diktatur /, dichten to compose poetry. English words token, teach and German Zeichen n, zeigen are related to Latin di "co and go back to a common Indo-European root; French dire arose from dicere as a result of phonetic processes, the sign that took place in folk Latin a and dictionnaire dicton made in more are on the territory Gaul, bookish late period; borrowings, Russian, English and non-Metsch words are borrowings from Latin either directly, or through French, or with mutual influence.Of course, the number of such borrowings can be significantly increased; student for further searches. Among Russian borrowings, as a rule, those that are obvious due to the placed parallels in other languages ​​are not cited. In the same way, among borrowings in Western European languages, those that have entered the Russian language are usually not cited. So, for example, student of the Faculty of English, having found in the given dictionary entry the verb and dictation go back to the same faculty of the Russian word, but after dictation, dictation will easily establish a connection between and dichten, which conveys the meaning of the corresponding Latin word and its related Indo-European origin, without re-marking (ep. w/h. pathe, lIe.llf. 6 dictation, and dictatorship. having, moreover, the words and the same Latin basis; a German student such as Dichter, Diktatur will easily understand that the noun dictate, Russian Name ep., and stands out t) etc. in font, for example: potep, lnis n name When referring to native French words, their phonetic development, behind rare exceptions are not explained: this is not within the competence of Romance philology; borrowing time in borrowings and considerations (phonetic, stylistic, etc.) according to which this or that word is assigned to this category. The classification in our textbook is based on the interpretation of the French language; (Paris, 1950). In borrowings from Latin in Russian, English, the source; for neither English nor time is taken into account and for borrowing, German is the language. and French, Indicating these connections German or would turn ero directly into Latin and French, for Russian Tinsk, and not like any other lexical minimum into a historical-linguistic dictionary in five languages, which is not included in task of this textbook. The main goal pursued by lexical parallels, the cognitive assimilation by students, is to provide as much as possible with the necessary Latin words and productive formations from them in new languages. In the 4th edition, in the grammatical part, a list of lexical minimum verbs by types of perfect formation was added (§ 464 - 471). introduction of texts In the anthology more revised informative preference was the composition of texts over passages. given When the texts, the selection of the most coherent ones, are syntactically saturated (the use of the subjunctive in complex sentences, nye turnovers). The texts of the passage of Britain" by Caesar are more or less infinitive "Preparation for war and an excerpt from a significant one, while Cicero proceeded from the reduction of selected chapters and in connection with this Toro, and participles with helvetam And", "Po in have already undergone some adaptation . Therefore, the assimilation of the student ~ and the style of Latin fiction is not the task of this course of Latin, the language is considered in it: as reading an end in itself, Roman texts are used by authors to not consolidate grammatical and lexical material. However, at the request of teachers of poetry and students of Roman authors are included. textbook separate in the present edition compiled a Latin Russian dictionary. In the present sections and types of work 7 are performed by the following members of the team of authors (in alphabetical order): Kagan Yu.M. drafting - § 223 - 225; sections<<Лексический минимум»; подбор латинских выражений и крылатых слов. Кацман - подбор н.л. прозаических и стихотворных текстов для хрестоматии; адаптация текста «Подготовка к войне с гельве­ тамИ»; составление ско-русского разделов «Лексический минимум» и латин­ словаря. Лифшиц и.А. - § 112 - 135, 226 - 235, 272 - 278, 338, 340 - 353, 406 - 416, 430, 460 - 463; подбор французских лексических паралле­ лей; подбор текстов для хрестоматии. Ло6ода в.и. -§ этимологического Покровекая 468 - 476; лей; З.А. подбор - § в латинско-русском 136 - 153, английских составление сведения 8 - 16, 285 - 291, 295 - 337, 354 - 355; характера упражнений и 236 - 269, немецких к разделам словаре. 451 ~ 459, 356 - 376, лексических Х - ХХУII; паралле­ адаптация текста «Поход Цезаря в Британию». Савукова для в.д. - § 377 - 392, 417 - 429, 431- 450; подбор текстов хрестоматии. Соколова Т.М. - § 179 - 183, 203 - 204, 214 - 216, 393 - 405. - § 279 - 2&4. Ходорковская Б.Б. Шоnина Н.Р. - Ярхо - §1- в.н. подбор текстов для хрестоматии. 7, 17 - 111, 154 - 178, 184 - 202, 205 - 213, 217 - 222, 270 - 271, 292 - 294, 339, 464 - 487; составление. упражне­ ний к разделам 1 - IX; подбор текстов для хрестоматии; адапта­ ция текста «Расправа Верреса с командирами кораблей». КРАТКИЕ СВЕДЕНИЯ ИЗ ИСТОРИИ ЛАТИНСКОГО ЯЗЫКА Латинский § 1. е в р о пей с к и х язык принадлежит к числу инДо- языков, к которым относятся также языки сла­ вянские, балтийские, герман скис, индийские, иранские, древне- и новогреческий и другие. Вмссте с J(ревними осс к и м и у м б р­ с к и м языками латинский составлял и т а л и й е к у ю ветвь индо­ европейской семьи древней Италии языки со и языков. В латинский временем ПРOI~ессе язык занял исторического вытеснил господствующее другие развития италийские положение в запад­ ном Средиземноморье. Сравнительно-историческим ществующие между индоевропейской изучением латинским семьи. языко~ Доказано и выявлены. связи, остальными происхождение су­ языками индоевропей­ ских языков QT одного языка-основы; несомненная общность на­ глядно прослеживается входящих в основной хотя бы при словарный сопоставлении состав латинского ряда и слов, новых ев­ ропейских языков. Сравним, например: лат. frater mater mors русск. брат брат мать мать смерть, нем. мертвый основа morttres est три три есть - 3-е. л.ед. есть ч. англ. Bruder Mutter Mord morden drei ist brother mother murder three IS глагола быть § 2. В несколько историческом этапов, развитии характерных с латинского точки языка зрения отмечается его внутренней эволюции и взаимодействия с другими языками. В начале 1 тысячелетия до нашей эры на латинском языке (lingua Latina) говорило население небольшой области Лаций (Lcitium), расположенной на западе средней части Апеннинского полуострова, Лаций, по нижнему называлось течению латинами Тибра. (Latini), Племя, его к и м. Центром этой области стал город Рим язык населявшее (R6ma), л ат и н с­ по имени которого объединившиеся вокруг него италийские племена стали называть себя римлянами Наиболее которыми ранние мы (Romam). письменные располагаем, памятники восходят языка, к концу тельная надпись из древнего города С а т р и к а 1978 г. посвяти­ (в 50 км К югу от Рима), датируемая последним УI УI началу - отрывок сакральной примерно ч еско й латыни надгробные начала римских н. э. Эrо надписи 1899 году при к 500 году до (найден в 111 - веков до V найденная н.э.). и в десятилетием на обломке раскопках относятся надписи - латинского предположительно в. до н. э., И ч ер н ого кам н я римского форума, относится К древним также памятникам довольно официальные ар х а и­ многочисленные документы середины в. до н. э. (из них наиболее известны э п и т а Ф и и 11 политических деятелей постановления о святилищах Сципионов и текст сенатского бога Вакха). Указанные источники дают богатый материал для восстановления фонетического строя древнейшего латинского языка и для пони мания происходивших в нем процессов. Крупнейшим литературного Плавт дошло (ок. 20 представителем архаического периода в области языка является до 254 - 184 древнеримский н. э.), от которого до комедий целиком и одна - комедиограф нашего времени в отрывках. Следует, впро­ чем, заметить, что словарный состав комедий Плавта и фонети­ ческий строй его языка уже в значительной мере приближают­ ся к нормам к л а с с и ч е с к о й латыни 1 в. до н. э. - начала 1 в. н.э. Под термином «классическая латынь» ратурный язык, достигший наибольшей подразумевается выразительности и лите­ син­ таксической стройности в прозаических сочинениях Ц и Ц е р о н а (106 - 43 до н. э.) И произведениях Ц е зар я Вергилия до н. э.) И О в и Д и я (43 до (100 - 44 до н. э.) И В поэтических (70 - 19 до н. э.), Г О Р а ц и я (65 - 8 н. э. - 18 Но3.). Латинский литератур­ ный язык именно этого периода служит предметом изучения в наших высших учебных заведениях. от классической латыни принято отличать язык римской ху­ дожественной с и ч е с к о го двумя литературы периода, веками нашего так называемого хронологически п о с л е к л а с­ совпадающего летосчисления (так с первыми называемая эпоха «ранней империи»). Действительно, язык прозаических писателей и поэтов этого времени (Сенека, Тацит, Ювенал, Марциал, Апу­ лей) отличается значительным своеобразием в выборе стилевых средств; но так как выработавшиеся 10 в течение предшествующих столетий нормы нарушаются, ский» чем И грамматического указанное «послеклассический» лингвистическое В качестве выделяется скими деление имеет периода называемая границами латинского языка скорее языка на не «классиче­ литературоведческое, значение. отдельного так строя латинского которой в истории поз Д н я я являются латинского языка л а т ы н ь, 111 - VI хронологиче­ - вв. эпоха позд­ ней империи и возникновения, после ее падения, варварских го­ - сударств. В произведениях писателей этой поры венно историков и христианских многие морфологические ющие переход § 3. к Период новым богословов - преимущест­ находят место уже и синтаксические явления, подготовля­ романским формирования и языкам. расцвета классического латин­ ского языка был связан с превращением Рима в крупнейшее ра­ бовладельческое государство Средиземноморья, подчинившее своей власти обширные территории на западе и юго-востоке Ев­ ропы, в северной циях римского Африке и Малой Азии. В восточных провин­ государства (в Греции, Малой Азии и на север­ ном побережье Африки), где к моменту завоевания их римля­ нами были развитая широко греческая распространены культура, шого распространения. греческий латинский язык язык не и высоко­ получил Иначе обстояло дело в западном боль­ Среди­ земноморье. К концу на всей 11 в. до н. э. латинский язык господствует не только территории Италии, но 8 качестве официального госу­ дарственного языка проникает в покоренные римлянами области Пиренейского полуострова и нынешней южной римских солдат и торговцев латинский язык Франции. Через в его разговорной форме находит доступ в массы местного населения, являясь од­ ним из наиболее эффективных средств романизации завоеван­ ных территорий. При этом наиболее активно романизуются бли­ жайшие соседи Галлии (территория дерландов и римлян - кельтские нынешних Швейцарии). Покорение лось еще во второй половине самом. конце 50-х годов 1 племена, Франции, 11 в. до проживавшие Бельгии, отчасти римлянами Галлии в Ни­ нача­ в. до н. э. И было завершено в н. э. В результате длительных военных действий под командованием Юлия Цезаря (галльские войны 58 - 51 гг.). Тогда же римские войска входят в тесное со­ прикосновение с германскими племенами, обитавшими в обшир­ ных районах к востоку от Рейна. Цезарь совершает также два похода в Британию, но эти кратковременные экспедиции (в 55 и 11 54 годах) не имели серьезных последствий для отношений меж­ ду в римлянами и британцами (кельтами). Только спустя г. 43 н. Э., которые Британия находились была здесь до завоевана г. 407 римскими Таким образом, в течение примерно пяти столетий, до падения Римской империи в племена, населявшие Галлию и Британию, а лет, 100 войсками, также 476 г., германцы испытывают сильнейшее воздействие латинского языка. Латинский язык § 4. ности латынь - в его народной так называемая вульгарная (разговорной) разновид­ (в значении народная) явился языком-основой для новых национальных ков, объединяемых под общим принадлежат язы­ названием р о м а н с к и х. К ним и тал ья н ски й язык, создавшийся на террито­ рии Апеннинского полуострова в результате исторического изме­ нения латинского языка, французский и прован­ с а л ь с к и й языки, развившиеся в бывшей Галлии, и с п а нс к и й и пор т у г а л ь с к и й р о м а н с к ий на - Пиренейском полуострове, р е т 0- на территории римской колонии Реции (в части - нынешней Швейцарии и в северо-восточной Италии), р ум ы н­ ски й римской - на территории Румыния), м о л Д а в с к и й При общности происхождения ми в настоящее время объясняется тем, территории рых сам он на что латинский язык-основа Известный романские судьбе языки территорий, длительного ряда несколько языков веков, на также которых между ни­ на завоеванные в течение видоизменялся местными племенными отпечаток наложило на (нынешняя значительные различия. Это язык проникал целого в сложное взаимодействие с диалектами. Дакии романских имеются и протяжении как провинции и некоторые другие. они возникавшие различие в и кото­ вступал языками и родственные исторической формировались В течение времени. Тем не менее все романские языки сохраняют в своей лекси­ ке, а также, хотя и в значительно меньшей степени, в морфоло­ гии латинские черты. Для ков наиболее известный примера возьмем из романских язы­ у нас французский. В области лексики достаточно сравнить латинские слова mater, frater, causa, grandis, французскими mere, frere, cause, centum, millе, vincere, sentire с grand, cent, mШе, vaincre, sentir, имеющими в латинском. ляет Глагольная дальнейшее развитие народной латыни. ратурного языка на 12 система форм то же значение, что и французского глагола, языка представ­ намечавшееся В период формирования французского уже в лите­ него оказал сильное влияние латинский син- таксис, под воздействием которого сформировались во француз­ ской грамматике правила согласования и последовательности вре­ мен (concordance des обособленные temps), причастные конструкции, инфинитивные обороты. Попытки § 5. римлян подчинить себе г е р м а н с к и е племе­ на, неоднократно предпринимавшиеся на рубеже в. н. Э., не манцами венно имели успеха, существовали через римские но длительное Кбlп (из Confluentes, лат. букв. время; напоминают 1 связи они колонии-гарнизоны, Рейна и Дуная. об этом дов: экономические в. до н. Э. И римлян шли 1 гер­ преимущест­ расположенные названия с вдоль немецких горо­ поселение), KobIenz (из лат. - Кобленц расположен у стече­ Regensburg (из лат. Regina castra), Вена Col6nia «стекающиеся}) ния Мозеля с Рейном), (из Vind6bona) и др. Латинского происхождения в современном немецком radix - языке корень), дукты римского римские слова Birne Wein (из лат. (из лат. pirum) сельского хозяйства, купцы, а также термины, vinum), Rettich (из лат. и др., обозначающие про­ которые вывозили относящиеся к за Рейн строительному делу: Mauer (из лат. murus - каменная стена, в отличие от герм. Wand - плетень), Pforte (из лат. porta), Fenster (из лат. fenestra), Strasse (из лат. strata via, т. е. «мощеная дорога}» И многие дру­ гие. § 6. В БР итан и и языка являются -caster или наиболее древними следами латинского городов с составной частью -chester, -castle от лат. castra военный лагерь и castellum укрепление, foss- - от fossa ров, col(n) - от colonia поселение. Ср.: Manchester, Lancaster, Newcastle, Fossway, Fossbrook, Lincoln, Colchester. Завоевание Британии в V - УI вв. германскими племенами англов, саксов названия и ютов увеличило ний, усвоенных британскими принятых германцами англ. лат. wine; strata, от римлян. нем. число латинских заимствова­ племенами, за счет слов, уже вос­ Strasse, Ср.: лат. англ. street; vinum, лат. нем. Wein, campus - по­ ле, нем. Кampf, англ. саmр. § 7. Значение латинского языка для постепенного и длитель­ ного формирования новых западноевропейских языков сохраняет­ ся и дата после падения - 476 дарства и Западной Римской империи (традиционная г.). Латинский язык продолжал оставаться языком госу­ школы в раннефеодальном Фра н к с к о м (образовалось в конце V королевстве века), поглотившем значительную часть 13 территории Западной ставшее империей Римской (Карл империи; ператора), распалось в середине тельные государства франкское IX Западной в века (в Европы государство, 800 roду титул им­ 843 roду) на самостоя­ Великий принял Италию, - Францию и Германию. Orсутствие в этих государствах в течение нескольких столетий национальных литературных языков заставляло прибе­ гать в сношениях между ними к помощи латинскоro языка. На протяжении всех средних веков и позже латинский язык являет­ ся языком католической церкви. Исключительна роль классическоro латинскоro языка в эпоху ВозрожД е н и я представителями пейской буржуазной античной века), (XIV - XVI прогрессивного культуре культуре, и когда когда течения проявляли писатели, гуманисты, в ранней огромный пользуясь бывшие западноевро­ интерес латинским к язы­ ком, стремились подражать античным образцам, особенно языку Цицерона. Для примера достаточно назвать имена писавших латинском языке Томаса Эразма Роттердамского Том м азо Кам п ан елл ы Мор а в (1478 - 1535) (1466-1536)-в (1568 -1639) - на Англии, Голландии, в Италии. Латинский язык становится в этот период важнейшим средст­ вом международного MHoroBeKoBoe культурного и научноro общения. распространение необходимость основательноro латинскоro изучения его в языка вызывало школах, составля­ лись словари, издавались переводы и подстрочники (учебные по­ соБJ:fЯ с подстрочным, слово В слово, переводом латинскоro тек­ ста, с примечаниями и разбором всех слов); это также содейство­ вало вые проникновению соответствующей западноевропейские области образования языки. и школы: латинской лексики Например, латинские magister наставник, в слова но­ из учитель, тинскоro tabula доска, - вошли в современные живые языки master, school, table и нем. Meister, Schule, Tafel. Ла­ происхождения нем. schreiben, Schrift (из scrfbere писать, scriptum написанное). schola школа, в виде англ. На английский язык латинская лексика оказала существенное влияние через французский вследствиt! за­ воевания Англии в XI веке французскими норманнами (норман­ дцами)l. ер. англ. поЫе, 1 Норманны «<северные victory, art, colour люди») - с лат. северогерманские n6bilis, vict6ria, племена скандию\вских стран. В начале Х века они захватили северо-западную область Франции, получив­ шую поэтому культуры. 14 название Нормандии, и стали носителями, фраНЦУ1СКОЙ феодальной ars, c61or. Много заимствований было сделано английским язы­ ком в эпоху Возрождения и непосредственно из латинского. Вплоть дО ломатии и XVIII века латинский язык оставался языком дип­ международным языком науки. В частности, на ла­ тинский язык был в ХII в. переведен с арабского «Канон врачеб­ ной наукю> n s of the great (Abu Ali Ibn, the medieval encyclopedist Sina); in Latin, the account of Amerigo on the discovery of the "New Document in the World" is widely known in Europe; history on the Nerchinsky agreement, the Dutch scholar Latin Russian-Chinese 1689 philosopher Newton A and Tsen began to translate in 1503. In Latin they wrote their Sochi Spinosa L (1643 - 1727), (1632 - 1677), English monosov (1711 - 1765) and many others. In recent years, there has been a movement in Western Europe and South America to use Latin as the international language of science. Several congresses of an international organization created for this purpose have taken place, and a special journal is being published. Finally, the Latin language, along with ancient Greek, has long been a source for the formation of international socio-political and scientific terminology. So, the words in Russian Latin revolution, form, dictatorship, empire, conference, etc.; and other European languages ​​of origin, congress, consultation, proletariat, republic, certificate, professor, ect, predicate, act, decree, docent, attributive, constitution, active, and subject, passive, and lecture, audience, etc.; re others; legal faculty, laboratory, graduate student many socialism, proclamation action, liberal, university, student, doctor, included communism, demonstration, army, institute, exam, torus, e.g. adjectivum, indicativus, conjunctivus and other grammatical terms; culture, literature, ment, spectacle, tour, construction, realism, scenery, sentimentalism, opera, heater, sia, radium, radio, etc. artist, instrumental soloist, etc.; motor, body, transmission, ar.ma translation GRAMMAR PHONETICS ALPHABET § 8. Latin pronunciation in the development of skim a number of changes, processes, languages. occurring Modern countries subject to partly undergone reading norms in its associated in new Latin pronunciation with the historically phonetically Western European text of new ones in different languages. Below is given the traditional reading of Latin letters adopted in Russian educational practice. Inscription Name Pronunciation Inscription Name Pronunciation [u] C c se D d de [k] [d] E e e [e] or p Q q R r F r G g eC [c] ge [g] T S s t ku er es te H ba [b ] [i] U u V v u ve jota ka W [k] X x ix y y el z z ypsilon zeta [i] or [y]1 [z] no [t] h 1 i J j K k LI Mt Letter U [z] or [v] [v] U was used only in words borrowed from Greek, and sounded like [y]; the pronunciation of [i] in frontal Russian or a language in which there is no arose in school practice under the influence of a closed labialized [y]. er.: lat. (from Greek) syllaba - syllable, symph6nia - consonance, RUSSIAN. syllabic, symphony. 16 (25 The given alphabet according to the number of letters of letters) is somewhat V different from the alphabet KJI of the classical era, when the letters 1 also meant external vowels U, y; Letter K U, u; 1, i) (present and consonants and (ne J, jl). disappeared very early; traces of it are preserved only in KAL - some abbreviations, for example, K or the spelling of the word abbreviated to kalends, which Kalendae - denoted the first day of each month .Z The letters U and ssky are found only in borrowings from the Greek language.(VOCALES) VOCALES § 9. In classical Latin, as in many ancient Indo-European languages, Long and e and Long vowel were distinguished (e.g., a) , short is customary - sign to denote - (A). short superscript vowels. sign Long was twice as long as short. The number (i.e. relative duration - longitude or brevity) of the vowel served as a means of distinguishing meaning (Iiber free, New book ; sёro late, sёgo I sow), the means of expressing the grammatical form was) and in many Late standing distinction time (venit he comes, vepit he in cases determined the place of stress in the word. vowels number by the number of vowels when the axis is lost. reading is not B for playback oh baby. In our textbook, the number of vowels is indicated in the anthology only in cases where these are word forms, distinguishing the grammatical part, the number of vowels and words of meaning (sections are indicated (basics, and setting phonetics as well as suffixes, necessary for inflections) and determining stress. morphology) characteristics and for B if the elements of understanding are regular phonetic changes. § 10. In the Latin alphabet, letters are given denoting the so-called m o n o F t o n g and (i.e., unanimous). There are six of them: a, e, i, o, u, y, but there were twelve monophthongs: six long and six short (the pronunciation of the long differed from the pronunciation of the short also in timbre). 1 In many dictionaries and editions of the works of Roman authors, the letter j is not a diphthong neuter, neither the one + u make up the ei compound [ei]: nor the other, the vowels e of the diphthong. pronounced Europa Z. Diphthongs ae and oe (from the more ancient ones into monophthongs, with an energetic vowel: aigite of gold 3. depicted by two ai and letters as one Europe. Usually oi) (this is how the called digraphs turned). Digraph ae means sound [e]: building; current praemium, aedes, aedificium praesens Itagrad; [edifi,ts;ium] draw cash. 1 In our textbook, the number of vowels in a final closed syllable is designated s (since this consonant is preceded by both a long vowel and a short one), for example. : listen to audis, take capis. Before all the rest, only before the final giya final consonants, the obligatory brevity of the vowel is predetermined by the rule formulated above. 2 In morphology tables, the shortness of such a vowel is not indicated. 3 ep. in German the monosyllabic word auch. 18 New Western languages ​​do not usually retain the spelling ae in words of Latin origin. In German, the Latin origin (from ae) is explained by a in borrowed words like Prasens, Pramie. In French, the digraph is edifice, estime, present. In English, the spelling ac under the influence of French more \ i partly gave way to the letter e: Present, edifice, esteem respect (Latin verb cessi; 1st l. the perfect from the verb concutio shake: stem *concut + si > concussi. The combination of ss at the end of the word is simplified: dos is the dowry of *dots > *doss. 2. Voiced back-lingual g and voiced labial b are stunned before voiceless s and t (the combination with + s in writing is denoted by the letter x). For example, 1st l. the perfect from the verb rego I rule: *reg-si > rec-si (written: rexi); c) "pin * reg-tum > rectum; 1st letter of the perfect from the verb scribo I write: scrib-si > scripsi; supin * scrib-tum > scriptum. usually completely assimilated: accedo approach from ad + cёdo, aggrödior attack from ad + gradior, ar rap o nruag from ad + rap o, affero bring from ad + fёro, attraho attract from ad + traho, arrfpio grab from ad + rapio , aHiido flirting from ad + liido § 19. As a result of voicing, the intervocalic s turned into r (the so-called law of rotacism 2) From the thread of the verb esse, comparing the forms infi and any regular verb, for example, laudare, -se, it is clear that in in the first case the suffix of the infinitive is (stem es + se = esse), in the second it is -ge Historically, the suffix of the infinitive and for regular verbs was -se, but in the position between vowels s turned into r~ so the forms laudare turned out Other esse listen, etc. is in the imperfect and future Sign of sounds 24 audlre example. agola *eso > its and other form, while praising, not (asterisk, or asterisk) here and in the future is denoted attested in Latin in writing, but substantiated by the history of the development of the language. 2 By the name of the Greek letter p - "rho". 3 The transition from s to r is also attested in German (preterite wзг participle form gewesen) and in English: cf. was and were. § 20. The action of the law of rotacism ended, apparently, by the beginning of AD. E., and the words included in the vocal. to IV into Latin after this time, they retained inter s also arose in native Latin -ss- after a long vowel or diphthong (causa from caussa, ciisus from cassus) and was preserved (or restored) in compound words, where the meaning of the second was clearly felt member (de-silio I jump off with a simple verb salio I jump, ni-si if not with the conjunction si if). in all these cases, the intervocalic s sounded muffled, and its pronunciation in modern school practice is both its and the nominal part of the compound predicate. (genitive) Geneti "vus agreed Dati" vus - most often it is a non-defining case. (dative) - case of indirect object; usually indicates the object or person to whom the action is addressed. Accusati "vus (accusative) - case of a direct object. 1 A specific phenomenon of the Latin language is the use of the stern multa (pl.) gold .. (Ac. P u.mo (!", 28 - about number meaning: said pronouns and adjectives Jtln.Oloe; shk and n) "Omnia sunt r about the gender in - dixit aurum.<<Все аблятив AbIati"vus - (отложительный, или отделительный, па­ деж). В латинском аблятиве слились функции трех падежей, не­ когда существовавших обозначал место, i n s t r u m е n t а 1i s дие и самостоятельно: откуДа и 1о с а tl v u s место действия. собственно происходит аЬ движение, обозначали соответственно ору­ В зависимости от контекста ablati"vus жет обозначать действующее лицо, орудие действия, ства места, времени, причины, образа действия Vocati"vus щении языке (звательный) название этого являются лица падежа формы - предмета. украинском пор: «Галю». В (§ 321 - 335). современном Заимствованиями звательного определенной стилистической до сих мо­ обстоятель­ падеж, в котором ставится при обра­ или нет. 1а t i"v u s удаление; падежа, из русском старославянского иногда с целью: боже, отче, сыне, княже. употребляемые В и белорусском языках звательный падеж сохранился друже Форма (от «друг»), звательного сынку падежа в (от «СЫНОК»), латинском Галю языке (от почти всегда совпадает с формой именительного. ТИПЫ СКЛОНЕНИЯ § 29. правило, дежных Изменение в имен присоединении окончаний, ск и х к различию падежам основе которых немного. Распределение восходит по к в имен и числам слова латинском по п я т и конечных состоит, соответствующих как па­ языке сравнительно т и п ам с кл он е н и я звуков индоевропей­ осн О в. Распределение Тип склонения II III имен по типам склонения Конечный звук основы Окончание Gen. sing. -3- -ае -0- -1 согласное согласный гласное -r- -IS 111 IV -и- -us V -ё- -ci 29 Иногда слова в результате претерпевала ния, так числа что не по всегда опознания единственного формой действия падежных форме можно ределенному типу для в склонения именителыюго падежа служит и слова в должна к оп­ признаком родительного приводится падежа единственного практическим форма основа видоизмене­ принадлеЖIЮСТЬ Поэтому которая законов некоторые именителыlOГО определить склонения. числа, фонетических формах словарях падежа наряду с вместе с заучиваться нею. К именам первых трех склонений тельные, так и прилагательные при надлежат § 30. только относятся (§ 74 - 93). К как и IV V существи­ склонениям существительные. а) В связи с тем, что в процессе развития латинского склонения конеч­ ный гласный основы в ряде случаев сливался с флексией (напр., dat.-аbI. склонений - окончание из -is и -ais -ois, потю pl. 11 склонения - pl. 1 -i окончание и из 11 - oi), в живом латинском языке исчезало ощущение исторически возникшей структу­ ры слова и происходило пер е раз л о ж е н и е, Т.е. перемещение границы между морфемами: за основу стали принимать ту часть слова, которая при склонении ос­ тавалась неизменной: III stell- склонении гласном (ср. в 1 склонении, § 49). lир-, во agr-, verb- 11 склонении, mar- в Хотя подобная трактовка основы, вызванная переразложением, принята во мно­ гих нормативных языка латинских грамматиках, целесообразнее оперировать при лингвистическом изучении историческими именными основами, латинского отражающи­ ми древнейшее состояние индоевропейского склонения. б) Наличие развитой системы именных основ и падежных окончаний сближает латинский язык с русским, сохранившим шесть трем склонениям. Следует при менном русском языке так этом иметь же восходят к падежей и распределение имен в виду, что типы индоевропейским основам, тинском: слова типа сmежz, земля восходят к основам на сmoл, на -u конь, село, (ср. лат. IV поле - к основам на -о (ср. скл.), типа камень, имя, дочь, слово рического развития - путь, кость - склонения лат. 11 -8 i к основам на согласный (ер. лат. (ср. лат. 111 по совре­ как и в ла­ (ср. лат. 1 скл.), типа дом к основам на в - III скл.), типа к основам скл.), типа скл.). В ходе исто­ русского языка конечные звуки основ, вступая во взаимодейст­ вие с падежными окончаниями настолько видоизменились, и подвергаясь различным фонетическим процессам, что число склонений сократилось до трех, а средством различения слов по склонениям в современном языке служит форма именительного падежа. В западноевропейских сохранилисъ в лежит артиклю. Possessive Case языках флективного В английском языке остатком окончаний того же числа. (-5, склонения роль в оформлении именной и окончание множественного числа, чание множественного числа 30 признаки немецком, но и здесь основная флексии больше всего падежа принад­ является во французском - форма только окон­ -х), восходящее к одному из латинских падежных ПЕРВОЕ СКЛОНЕНИЕ (основа на -а-) К первому склонению относятся имена, оканчивающиеся § 31. в пот. sing. имена ж е н с к о г о на -з, в на диграф -зе [е]. Как правило, это gen. sing. рода; ИСЮllочением являются существитель­ ные, при надлежащие по значению к мужскому роду (напр., роёtа поэт, моряк). nauta Флексия склонения 1 восходит к индоевропейской основе на -а-. Образец склонения stella. f ае звезда (основа: stеШi-) SinguГaris Падежи stеШ! stellae stellis Асс stellae stellae stellam АЫ. stсШi stellls Nom, Уос. PluraLis Сеn. Dat. § 32. Как сохраняется видно почти stеШiгum stеШis из таблицы, во всех конечный падежах гласный единственного и основы ного числа. Основа в чистом виде представлена формой singularis, где сохраняется а. гласный основы сократился: В в nominatlvus singularis ablatlvus конечный stellii. к основе accusatlvus singularis -а­ множествен­ stella- прибавляется окончание -т, перед которым гласный сокращается; в нове прибавляется -rum -5. Эти. же окончаниi/. (из древнего характерны склонении, причем окончание accusatlvus pluralis genetlvus pluralis к ос­ *-s6m), в accusallvus pluralis и accusatlvus для большинства других singul?IГis -т и окончание -5 своиственны всем латинским именам муж­ ского и женского рода. Общим правилом для всех склонеllии является совпадение форм nominatlvus и vocatlvus pluralis, а также datlvus и ablatlvus pluralis. В 1 склонении, кроме того, совпадают формы. genetlvus sing., datlvus sing. и nominatlvus pl., оканчивающиеся на -зе. Конечный элемент этих падежей восходит к более древнему (архаическому) дифтонгу ai (§ 11, п. 3). 31 <../ Существительные § 33. оканчиваются -tura или слова 1 на -а на -sura), с склонения в ряде nominatlvus singularis согласным (напр., на Новые языки, заимствуя латинские -ia, -ntia. склонения, усвоили сы, причем в предшествующим и их словообразовательные суффик­ случаев последние претерпели фонетические изменения. rosa cultura Используем для сравнения латинские слова: familia семья, scientia ка, mensura мера. знание. natura l1рирада. роза. terra земля, gloria слава, возделывание земли, 06работ­ В русском языке латинские слова оБЫЧIIО сохраняют свою форму: роза, фами­ лия, натура, культура. Во французском языке конечное (с muet), причем КОllечное латинское [атillе, science, nature, culture, mesure. латинское -а дает сочетание -entia всегда неПРОИЗIIОСИМое дает -епсе: -с rose, terre, gloire, В английском языке обычно -а >-e, -ia > -y, -ntia > -pse, -ura > -ure: rose, glory, family, science, nature. culture, mesure. In German, the final -ia > -ie, otherwise a is usually dropped: Familie, Natur, Kultur, but Rose. The feminine gender of borrowed Latin words of the 1st declension is usually preserved in new languages, See also distinguishing the category of grammatical gender. § 282, 284. SECOND declension (based on § 34. -0-) The second declension includes male names ending in sweat. and from redne ro kind to -it. sing. on -us, -eg Gen. sing. of both Sample 11 СlUl01lеllIJA Average glad 5 Cases lupus puer ager vir uetite shaft to; boy; pale; husband; the words; base: OSIIOVA: OSlIova: base: base: lira-pucro-agrb- virb-verbb- lupus lupi Dat. liro Ass. lupum AY. Lyra Voc. lire puer pucri pucro pucrum puero puer agcr agri agro agrum agro agcr vir viri viro virum viro vir verbum Oell. NOI1l. .~ I,E::! ~ v) 32 ro -rr), childbirth has an ending - Masculine glad ~ ro (one word per uet, ueto verbum ueto verbum Continuation of the table. . . Nom., Oe / l. Dat. ~ Ass. ~ I ~ ~ lupi luporum lupis lupos lupis Uos.Ay.ne -1.agr1 t field;pueri puerorum pueris pueros pueris agri agrorum agris agros agris viri virorum viris viros viris verbii verborum verbis vergi verbis Eg: lupus, IUP1 t wolf; puer, puerl t boy; ager, vlr, Vlrl t husband, person, verbum, verbl n word 11 declension goes back to the Indo-European stem in inflexion -0- However, the sound of the stem appears as a result of phonetic in reliable 1 than the final -a- basics in the changes in the masculine gender forms from -us to -e (here the alternation in the basis of names was reflected, note § 157, 1; § 168, Latin, forms skl. -o / e-; 1). This is the only case in vocaL1vus singularis differing from the form with p e Dn e g about the genus accusat1vus cos na gives with the form of each of the numbers; in plural In number, these cases always end in gender. approx. ends with 11 nominaL1vus singularis. 2. names have nominat1vus in yes, when less often, inclination. § 35. Comments on the table. 1. VocaL1vus singularis names cf. final significantly on regardless of -a. This is the addition to - the general rule for names of the middle is what declension they are ep. in Russian, "the window is open" refers to. And "open the window", "the windows are open" And "open the windows". ass. § 36. From comparison pl. 1 and 11 declensions of declension, case forms differing Ny vowel stem 1 аЫ. sing., gen. pl. one can see the similarity between the two only in the vowel of the stem: and the types of final СЫУl. -з- is preserved in the enumerated cases, the final vowel of the stem is 11 cl. -0- is also present in them, but lengthened (o). Dat. on -1S and aY. pluralis in both declensions coincide, ending (the final vowels of the stems have merged with inflection). Cases AB/. Оell. R/. Ass. R/. Dat. R/. AL/. R/. sing. Declension a II 2-167 o arum orum as OS (masculine) 15 is Is 15 33 § 37. Particular attention should be paid to the forms nominatlvus sш gularis. 1. In the first declension, the nominatlvus singularis differs from the stem (stella-) only in the contraction of the final vowel (stеШi). 2. In names in -us of the second declension, the true ending, from a historical point of view, is only the consonant s, attached to the stem in -6-: *lup6-s; according to the phonetic laws of the Latin language (§ 23), in the final closed syllable, the vowel 6 before s turned into and: *luрбs > lupi.is 1. In names like puer "*pueros) and ager" "agros) the final element -6s As a result of phonetic changes, it disappeared. that in the wind nominatlvus singularis in Latin there was a language with a way of forming the ending in 11 (so s i n g .: -s, as called a with and gmatic nominative in the overwhelming and 11 declension Dva and it is formed either with in masculine nouns sitive), or from the stem without an ending called 1 r mathematical nominative -s, as in 1st declension (so nominative)2. Asigmatic in most cases has a zero ending. A special case ending in is -m: nom. sing. Bellom of neuter names, > belli.im. Features of the second declension a) Proper names in § 38. Ovidius end in nogo -ius (for example, Lucötius Lucretius, filius SON in the vocative singular with -1, (and not with -ie), keeping the stress nominative Ovidi, fili " The possessive pronoun meus in the vocative singular masculine form mi: Ovid) and the case word: (§ 110) has Disce, mi fili learn, my SON! has forms and 1 The form lupOs in accusativus pluralis originated from luрб-пs; when HOCO n was dropped, the preceding vowel b lengthened (bps > bs). without sound s) are formed from the name of the Greek letter and 34 - "sigma". husband. and cf. R.: from speech; places IOCl places loca = individual places (excerpts) from a book, a collection of places, locality, region, country. c) Noun form: sweat. Of the nouns § 39. turned out to be those, For example: mentum deus God has in the plural. hours parallel df, gen. deorum and deum, dat.-abl. dels and dls. and del which are 11 dec. the most productive for had derivational -ari-, -ori-, -ment-. for SERVICE, instru- monetarius coiner, notarius scribe, auditorium hall tool, fundamentum base. The indicated suffixes are ative in Latin, Middle Ages but not; in the new existing languages, along with the word audience in languages ​​there are so many kinds of new languages ​​suffixes in words, the language again became a product of the classical type of the period. the words laboratory, outpatient clinic, nalllOpuu appeared; along with words and nstru. "IIeHIII, foundation ca IlOcmameHIII, regulations; - an aquarium, a terrarium, a herbarium were formed according to the type of rosarium (rose garden). The suf -ari-, denoting a specialty, penetrated into the German language and gave it a suffix of the character and tools -er (monetarius > Miinzer), but already from the German foundations: Spinner spinner, Nbgeg SLUlUshnel, Fernsprecher telephone See also § 281-283. vowel 1. The names genetlvus sing. on -1s., in the III declension sound and vowel 1. were combined, ending in the first group consonant declension, declension In mixed names are the second special declension) a group of the so-called group (this is how two are distinguished - the third vowel-named names from the bases: the base is the third on -1-, subjected to the analogous effect of the consonant type. Third consonant declension (based on a consonant) Signs § 41. 111 consonant declension The third consonant declension includes names of three genders (male, female and middle), having one syllable more than in pot. sing. gen. sing. Such words are called not equivalent. The stem of 111 consonant declensions ends in a consonant sound preceded by a vowel. Consequently, according to the third comaCHOMY declension, 35 names that are not equally syllable with a stem are inclined to one consonant. In view of the fact that the stem can end in nouns 111, almost consonant with the same in the formation of forms, a number of phonetic forms are the only variety: sweat. changes, the number of names of the consonant sklo form skl. sound and k occurs nominati "vus singularis nominative differ 111 cl. -os, -as, -us, -es, nouns e.g., on -og, sing., 111 in any significant case can end in -x, -o, - io, this diversity is associated with a variety of bases included in the skl., and morphologically only two 111 types with null and sigmatic endings nominati "vus singularis: reduced to -ep. However (§ 37). Nouns in the middle of the consonant sound of the stem, have gender, sweat. regardless of the final s. with a null ending. Understanding the principle of formation, nouns 111 between the forms of the nominative number and the forms of indirect cases, the divine indirect nominative case, the declension and the assimilation of the relationships, the essence of the case, the case of the singular, allow us to easily determine the original (dictionary) form stems giving a nominative with a zero ending § 42. These include stems, 1, r and front-lingual n and s. units Ch., either in oblique cases, or in all cases. Nom. s. orator, gen. s. orator-is, stem orator- (for the abbreviation in pot. s. o stems, see Nom. s. § 10, para. 1) represents a stem with a null ending. b) Stems in -n-.nom.s.potep name, gen.s.nomln-IS.stem pot~ps.(zero ending) and in pure vi de sweat. cases ~ goes into ·no-me-nis > in-mi-pis. 36 - in the middle open syllable retains the indirect ones (§ 21, item 1): Nom. s. ratio of any sweat. s. timesJ4, changes gen. s. ratio is. the final nasal sound is preserved. To the same category in n The basis of the word ration- indirect cases. all B are eliminated. stems include nouns like homo, h0d1fni5 man with alternating stems of long o (B pot. s.) and short i (in all OCTaJIbIIbIX cases). c) Bases on without a vowel -s-. gen. s. mor-i5. Base to5- preserved s. (zero ending), and in indirect cases 5 > r according to the law of rotacism (§ 19): "mos-is > mor-is. Nom. s. tempu5 time, gen. s. temp6r-i5. This is one of the cases when the stem undergoes a change both in pot s and gen s. The stem is temp65-. Gen. s. "temprbs-is > temprbr-is according to the law of rotacism (§ 19). Nom. s. t05 temper, custom, is found in its pure form in sweat. Genus belongs to the same category of bases, gen ~ ris glad with e - it turns out two nouns of the type alternating in the basis of short vowels of the stem variant: and gen()s- in Russian, the alternation of vowels of the type ne60 geniis from "geпбs; in other cases, except ass. gepes-. (). and (Er. in - heaven.) Nom. s. S., base vep~g- from veP~5-. From the last three examples it can be seen that the sound is basic, and finally, not with the help of which in other cases of the sigmatic that 5 is a case (§ 43) ending here, the form of the nominative is formed . Basics. giving SIfll4VJICHSSKIY NOIl4INvriv § 43. With the help of the ending in most cases, sweat. s. which ends in lingual or is formed in a huge pain -5 nouns lxx occlusive: front lingual sound 111 deaf - -С-, declensions, base or -v-, voiced -t-, -d-; posteriorly less often - on the labial -p-, -b-. a) Basics on -s- and -in-. Back-lingual c and g pronunciation of the combination of n. together with the ending S in the sweat. .~ c-) "~ .:! ~ actis I lcx I tcmpiis n nomen n base: base: base: base: base: orator- actat- lcg- opamor ik law tcmJXis-> tcmp6r-nomfn-> nomin-.peJIUI K.ACJI orator t actis actit-i, actit-i actit-em actit-e lcx lcg-is lcg-i lcg-em lcg-l tcmpiis tcmp6r-i" temp6r-i tcmpiis temp6r-C! nomcn nomin-i5 nomin-j nomcn nomin-l Uos. orator..fs orator-um aetitooёs lcg..fs lcg-um tcmp6r-l tcmp6r-um nomin-I nomin-um Dat. AI actat-um 1 C: OGL8Choro 1Npa orator orator-i "orator-i orator-em orator-l Ass. Oen. in Uos. Oen. Nom., .~ (from the syllabic Let's compare accordingly: -ot), -05. Dat. orator-iЪiis aetit-iЪils lcg-iьiis temp6r-iЪiis pomip-iЪiis Ass. orator..f, actat..fs lcg..fs tcmp6r-1 nomin-l AU orator-iЪiis actit-iьils lcg-iьils temp6r- iЪiis pomin-ibIis 39 Third vowel declension (based on § 47. bodily To the third vowel with the middle 11 o M -i-) DECLINE SHALL BE DECLINED genders ending in -ag. From this it is clear that sweat. there is a zero ending, and s., in pot. s. exist on -e, -al, as always in the middle gender, having the final vowel tate of the phonetic changes "bJIII in pot. s. stems -i- in the result is absent (persists in e or disappears). , animali-, exemplari-, pot. tagyo .sea, i > e (§ 25), anrmal animal, i omitted, exemplar sample, i omitted!. s. Nom., Voc., Cell. Dat., Plur. AL. Ass. NOIII., Voc., Ce". Dat., § 48. AI. "anlmal 11 exemplar n OCIlOBa: exempliirf- base: base: marl-anini3ll- mare maris mari" anlmal animalis animШ exemplar exemplarfs exemplarf mqfia marium maribus animalia animalium animalibus exemplaria exemplarium exemplaribus names with a vowel stem ending: abl. s. has a long stem vowel (mari with stem marl-, cf. lupo with lupo- stem, § 36); in sweat ass. pl. the usual neuter ending -3 is added to OSlIova (§ 35, paragraph 2): mari-a, like tempor-a (§ 46). In gen. pl. - characteristic for III class. ending -um: mari-um, like tempOr-um. Gen. s. and dat.-abl. pl., in contrast to the consonant type (§ 45 and 46), The falling away of the final smooth i is determined by the pelyu lIeGl by the immediate proximity to the preceding rJJaCHbIM (a). Abbreviation a in form s. - according to CIIO general rule the number of vowels (§ 10, item 1). However, the r in exemplar is the result of dissimilation: excmplal > cxcmplar, like singularis from singulalis (cf. pluralis). me sweat. 40 I or r, following. for dolP1M -s have nové endings in -1-. -bus, and added directly to os. Thus, the forms of these cases are similar to the forms of the same cases of the consonant declension and This applies to marfbus). mari). § 49. also to the forms (Iegis and maris, Iegfbus dat. s. on -1 (Ieg1 and The indicated similarity led to the emergence of the school rule.lla, according to which the form that precedes in the basis of it is taken as the basis of vowel-type nouns genitive nouns of genus case ending vowel consonant type a) аЫ.-е difference from from differ in flags b) c) s -1- in contrast to nom., voc., ass. pl. -12 in gen. pl. -ium in contrast to the three types (mari, -is. from is devoid of relationships in such an understanding of environments with endings: but temrBJt); -3 (maria, but tetrbga); -um (marium, but temrbgum). The historical difference of the foundations is ignored, folornskih nouns within classical Latin, but from the point of view of the given MOP, the rights. IIO are not grounds. Third mixed declension § 50. declensions Some case forms of the consonant type turned out to be similar case forms of the vowel in the sound of the coinciding forms were different. For example, in gen. s. -IS c type, although 111 slope correspond to origin (§ 48). the consonant-type ending, and in the vowel-type vowel of the stem, the relation -IS was case arose from the connection of the final with the case ending -s; dat. and aY. -fbus, which in the vowel type was formed from the stem vowel -1- and the case ending -bus, while in the consonant type -fbus was attached to the consonant -1-pl. in all cases they end in the new sound of the stem. In the process historical development In the Latin language, the sound similarity of individual forms led to a mixture of bases and the influence of the consonant type on the vowel. The masculine result, called feminine and mixed, arose in such a way as a declension, sort of combining mainly with names based on -1-. Mixed my -1- gen. pl. to the declension -ium. differs from the consonant only fore (Here the primordial basis is clearly detected). § 51. The belonging of 111 declension nouns to 41 mixed type is determined by the following external signs: In gen. s. the final -is is preceded by d in a or group u n pa Pars part, gen. s. part-is (two consonants); therefore, gen. pl. partium (historically parti-um). 2.Nom. s. Equally complex nouns end in -ёs or -is 2 Examples: vulpёs fox, gen. s. vulpis (both cases have an equal number of syllables); hence gen. pl. vulpium (historically vulpi-um); civis citizen, citizen/sa, gen. s. civis; therefore, gen. pl. civium (historically civi-um). 1. consonants l. § 52. Sample declension of nouns Cases Chism mixed pars f vulpёs part fox f type 3 f сivГs t, citizen, citizen Sillgula,.is pars vulpёs Gen. parts vulrgs civgs Dat. parti partem parte vulpi vulpem vulpe civi civem Non~, Wass. Ass. AH!. Nom, Pluralis Wass., Ass. Gen. Dat., AI. § 53. meni occurs from the names partёs vulpёs civёs partium partibiis vulpium vulpibiis civium of mixed declension Several nouns of the same syllables store the final vowel of the stem of feed has an ass. s. puppim, Similar endings Exception.mother, ci ~ siVlЪiis In preclassical Latin and a number of authors of the classical time, often (civis). § 54. civГs frater, fratris in agreement with аЫ. in the brother, in the ass. s. (-im) 111 form ass. pl. on -is cl. with a base on -G-co and aY. s. (-one). For example: pupprs f s. puppy. ass. and aY. s. have nouns parens, parentis usually pater, patris parent (female), also father, equally syllable mater, matris according to III declining declension. 2 The exception is the nouns juvenis, is a young man, canis, is a dog, declining according to IP with a syllable declension. 3 According to the PI mixed declension, two nouns of the middle cor, cordis 11 heart and os, ossis n bone (pot. pl. corda, ossa; gen. pl. cordium, ossium) are declined. kind: 42:, 1I1S I thirst, febns I fever, I securls rne, as well as the names of cities and rivers on the ax, -IS: tums Nearblfs I I balUNYa and some other Neshwl, t Tiber. Tibens Ass. s. on -im and ay. s. on the -! have also sometimes equally complex classfs I navfs I ship, Ignfs t OlOn. Ferro ignique vastare to pierce with a sword and aqua ignique interdicere to radiate from water and fire (formula of condemnation on § 55. fl, fire; expulsion from the fatherland). Some features § 56. V1S f Noun formbI only three plurals. hours are formed from the base ass. pl. declension strength (based on cases: pot. well rotacism: pot. and 111 V1S, ass. -1-) has vim, аЫ. y1. ved. part FORMbI "vis- with the transition S\u003e g according to the law gen. pl. v1rium, dat. and aY. pl. V1gёs, v1riЪiis. § 57. Two bOs, bOvfs m, I of the word III combined the stem of the vocative No / ll. , senfs ou: s. Jupprter is a diphthong father and originally had the sign Uos. jou- from bou- Juppfter Jou- axis. Jbv- from bOs Juppfter Gen. Dat. bvfs Jbvfs bOvi" Jbvi Ass. LOOET JBVET AY. boye J6ve Nom., § 58. basic. to boss Pluralis ascendant Jupiter. Sweat shape Declension Cases Singularis -ou-, case. Sample Numbers on Juppftcr, Jovfs t Jou- CO word pater arose from the confluence of OCllOBbI the bull, cow and Wass., Ass. boves Gen. Dat., boum bUbiis AU. A few words III cl. form case forms from two different words. The most common words of this type are: iter. itini!rfs n way, seni!x, t old man. Rules for the gender of names § 59. To s. on: III cl. and the most important exceptions to the male gender are words ending in sweat. -o (serm6, OPls speech; ord6, fnis order; class) 43 -og (labor, oris work, work) -os (custos, odis guard; mos, moris temper, customs) -er (venter, ventris belly; imber , imbris rain) u -es inequisyllabic (res, pedis leg; limes, pis limit, border) ~ -ex (index, icis pointer) -cis, -nis, -guis [-gvis] (piscis, IS fish; finis, IS end; unguis, IS nail, claw). § 60. The most important exceptions of the female gender of SLOl \ a: sago, camis, Meat; arbor, oris tree; mercёs, mercёdis lex, legis law. kind of word: coz, cordis heart; os, OflS mouth, face, 05, ossis bone; cadaver, eris corpse, veg, veris spring; aes, aeris "copper. load; quie ~ quiёtis nokoy; e d e n e iter, ro iti pegis way, § 61. pot. s. Words ending in in: - tas (civltiis, atis community, state) -tus (virtiis, iitis courage, valor) -s with the preceding consonant 1 (ars, artis art, mens, mentis mind, pax, pacis peace, fox, noctis NIGHT) -fs isosyllabic ( navis, is a ship) -es are equally syllabic (ruёs, is a rock) -do, -go, -io (fortitiido, inis courage, lmago, inis image, ratio, onis reason) § 62. The most important ISKJ1ucheniya M u s to r about the gender of the word: as, assis ass (Roman coin); mons, montis Jura, pons, pontis "bridge, fons, fontis source, dens. dentis tooth; mensis, is "month, orbis, is a circle; ordo, lnis order, estate. ere Dn e r about the gender of the word vas, vasis vessel. § 63. sweat. s. Words ending in R e Dn e m y include words ending in: -a (dig, -e, -1, poem, atis -ag (tase, is gramma, atis letter) anfmal, alis animal; exemplar, sea ; ans nexample) -tep (potep, fnis name) 1 Combinations of s with a preceding consonant also include the group c + s, denoted by the letter x. 44 -bgis -us, gen. s. or sogrbgis -eris (corpus, body, opus, operis labor) throat) 1. -ur (guttur, iiris The most important § 64. exceptions Male gender) salt, r about the genus lepus, lerbris words: hare, sol , solis sun, sal, salis (singularis mus, muris MbllUb. occasionally middle FOURTH declension (base on -and-) § 65. Masculine nouns belong to the fourth declension, middle gender on Eg. : fructiis, us t IV cl. Inflection of the second gender has an ending with ending fruit, sogpi, nlod (stem Cases UOS. Dat. Ass. -), cornu horn (stem comu-) Pluralis n t cornu comus comu comu comu comu fructl1s fructuum fruclibus fruclus fructibiis comuum comibus comu.il comibiis As can be seen from the table, the vowel OCllOI3bI -i- is retained where it is replaced e.g.: and -us declension in all cases (often in the lengthened form pl., Nom. s. mid vowel n fructus fruclus fruclui2 fruclum fruclu Gen. -us, horn. Singularis m Nom., us n sigmatic extension s. sweat. goes back to the basis on -and-. The fructus pattern in both genera ends in -u. Gen. s. some artubus from r words artus by analogy with IV CKJ1. -u- joint, member, 111 -u), except dat. -aY. declension. SAVE lacubus from lacus in dat. -aY. pl., lake. 1 The middle gender is also the words jus, juris right, justice, lac, lactis molo caput, capftis head, capital. 2 Masculine names Sometimes they have dal. s. at -11. 45 nom. and in and ass. as a general rule, they coincide with the environment, the plural also coincide with maria). have the form of an ordinary sweat. and ass. ending 111 skl., on -s. Gen., dat. and aY. pl. have the same endings, (cf. fructuum and civium, fructibus and civibus). -A (cf. masculine, pl. ending, as in Names § 67. IV 111, masculine declensions are often verbal formations, na. For example: what are the names "derived from the stem supi statum, starc 1 stand - status, us t standing, state, position; video, v! di, V! SUffi, vide 2 see - v! sus, us t vision, view , external / awn; cado, cecidi, casum, сadege 3 pa give - casus. us t fall, case, (gram.) case; audio, audlvi, audltum, aud!re 4 listen - aud!tus, us t hearing; sentio, senSl, sensum, sentlre 4 feel - sensus, us t feeling § 68. sto, stёti, A few words are common among them: ka, detachment (manus IV declension domus, us f thea .., oh hand, .., oy only in the plural. That was the name of the day of the other months): tribus, us torial associations, on f are feminine. Most (domus tea..,oy to..,); manus. us f ru detachment); ldus , lduum f ides (used until .., the 15th day of March, May, July, October and the l3th trioo (originally tribal, then terri which the full population of the Roman Republic was subdivided). The noun domus has a number of parallels (and more common 11th declension: аЫ.s. domo, gen. pl. domorum, ass. pl. domos. In the adverbial meaning, dom! do..,a (from the old CII "O local case), domum do..,oy, domos to do.., am, domo from do..,y. § .69. nyh) forms formed according to the FIFTH declension ( § 70. Feminine fifth gender, declension ending in _~il. in -ё-, and pot. sigmatically. Names V skl are not numerous, but some of them are very common, for example: rcs, devotion; f Sound dics, die! , in the case of a vowel (stem diё-) day (usually masculine ro- -i-. in the form of EXCLUSIVE "tenia, long y. This is important for determining the place of impact ltИJI. 46 s. preserves its yes; in the feminine gender it means the appointed day, the due date); fidёs, fide1 f (base fidё-) fidelity, faith, trust. Only two words are fully inflected in both numbers: dies. names, in the plural, res and the rest, for the most part, being abstract, have only a number form, no nominative coinciding with and accusative nominative case at all or cases, in the singular, are used. Wass sample. fidёs diёs rёs diёs rёi lidci fidei fidem fide diei rёrum dierum diёi rёbus dieubus diem die rёs dies diebus rёi rem AU. rё § 71. Pluralis rёs Ass. already CLELLELLII Sillgishgis Cases Nom., Ge/l. Dat. V rёblis All morphological formants used in met in others = base V SKL. , declensions. + s (re-s; cp. fructu-s). ending gen. s. -1 Data. s. With. the ending -1 is found in the III consonant declension (orator-i), IV declension (fructu-i). Ass. s. has a constant ending for all declensions -i. AI. s. owls falls with the stem (cf. stclla). Nom. and ass. pl. on -s are known" from 111 and IV declensions. Gen. pJ. on -git should be compared with the corresponding forms of 1st and II declensions (steHi: -rut, lupo-rum). Dat. and ayl. pl. on -bus met in declensions 111 and IV (civibus, fructibus) Nom. s. is known from declension 11. LATIN declension system § 72. Comparing the case forms in all five declensions, it is easy to verify their significant similarity. eH. genus usually has either a sigmatic ending (11 cl. lupus from Iupo-s, 111 cl. rex, civitas from reg-s, civitat-s, IV cl. fructii-s, V dec. re-s), or a zero ending (1 dec. steHi., neuter, with the exception of lello-t), always has 11 III dec. orator). Nom . s. skl. with the ending zero ending (PI names -t (Lel1um skl. potep, tempus from tetrbs, marE< marr, IV скл. соrnи). 47 Gen. s. имеет окончание либо -1 (1 скл. stellae из ·stella-i, 11 скл. lиР-l, V скл. re-i), либо -s (111 скл. гласное mari-s, IV скл. fructu-s; в ПI согласном скл. s входит в окончание -is: oratar-is). Dat. s. либо представляет у Д л и н е н н ы й гл ас н ы й о с н о в ы с нулевым окончанием (11 скл. "ира, ПI скл. гласное marl, IV скл. слов средн. рода cornu), либо имеет окончание -1 (1 скл. stellae из ·stella-i, III скл. согласное oratar-l, IV скл. слов муж. рода fructu-l, V скл. re-i). Асс. s. слов муж. и жен. рода всегда оканчивается на -т (stellam, "ирит, civem, fructum, rcm), у слов среднего рода совпада­ ет с формой пот. s. АЫ. s. имен с основой на долгий гласный с о в п а Д а е т с этой о с н о в о й (1 скл. stelIa, 111 скл. vl, V скл. re) или представ­ ляет у Д л и н е н н ы й г л а с н ы й о с н о в ы (11 скл. "ира, ПI скл. mari, IV скл. fructu при основах на о, i, и). Только в ПI соглас­ ном и по аналогии с ним в 111 смешанном скл. аЫ. s. имеет окончание -~ (oratar-~, civ-~). совпадает с пот. S., за исключением слов муж. рода 11 -us (voc. на -~: "и~). Nom. и асс. pl. имен средн. рода всегда оканчиваются на -3 (П скл. ЬеШi, III скл. nomina, maria, IV скл. cornua). В Ш, IV и V скл. пот. и асс. pl. имен муж. и жен. рода также совпадают и при этом оканчиваются на -s (cives, fructus, res; в 111 согл. скл. -S Voc. s. скл. на входит в окончание -ёs: огаtаг-ёs). В 1 и 11 скл. пот. pl. оканчивался на -1 (stellae из ·stella-i, lupi), асс. pl. - на общее всем склонениям -s (stellas, lupos). Gen. pl. имеет окончание -r-um в 1, 11 и V скл. (stellarum, luparum, rerum), -ит в 111 и IV скл. (oratorum, marium, fructuum). Dat. и аЫ. pl. всегда совпадают. При этом в 1 иПскл. они оканчиваются на -IS (stellls, lupls), а в Ш, IV и V на -bus (maribus, fructibus, rebus, в III согласном -ibus: oratoribus). Voc. pl. всегда. совпадает с пот. pl. Указанные закономерности дают основание говорить о с и ст е­ м е латинскОГО склонения, сущность которой состоит в присоеди­ нении сравнительно небольшого числа падежных окончаний, сходных для ряда склонений, к различным основам. Ниже приводится таблица падежных окончаний пяти склоне­ ний: окончания показаны в соединении с основой (иногда окон­ чания при слиянии с основой ПОД8СРгались изменению). шанное склонение его, кроме гласного 48 gcn. pl., склонения. не включено совпадают с в схему, так конечными как все 111 сме­ элементы элементами ПI со­ § 73. СхематичеСI(ЗЯ таблица ОI(ОНЧаний имен всех СlCJIонений (В соединении § CIUlOHeнue с I(онечным 3BYl(OM 11 1 III III согласн. ~ /({)нечный звук ОСЖJвы б jj основы) N V гласн. i соглос- u ё n I ный Рад Нт) m(l) n т.! n I,m n т.! Падежи Nomillatlvus 1 а- us um s - is er- - us u- ёs .~ GenetJ.-vus 1 is Is us ае о- i i ui u- AccusatJ.-vus ат ит ет Ablativus а- о- е ае 1 Genetlvus arum orum um ium uum ёrum DatJ.-vus AblatJ.vus Is fs ibus ibus ibus ёЬus AccusatJ.-vus as os NominatJ.-vus VocatJ.-vus .~ "~ ~ Q., ёi ае "~::t .~ DatJ.-vus ~ а а ёs ёs - а а ёi ет 2 - um -u ет 1- ё- ёs ёs uia us ua ia us uз ёs ёs 1 Форма vocat1vus не приводится, так как отличается от ФОРМbI nominativus 11 скл. на -us (§ 35, п. 1). 2 У небольшоro количества существителЬНblХ - -im (§ 54, 55). только у имен 49 имя ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНОЕ Латинские прилагательные делятся в зависимости от их § 74. морфологической тельные и 1 принадлежности склонения; 11 § 75. же Флексия типам склонений: (основа 1 к на скл. -а-), что и у существительных: -us на две группы: и склонения II Ilрилагательные род -um. восходит к же н с ко го рода мужского и образуется так же, как -0-). Nom. s. женский или -ег, средний на прилага­ соответствующих СЮI.-Ilрилагательные II 1) склонения. СКЛОНЕНИЯ 11 1 111 существительных относятся ко с р е Д н е г о рода (основа на у И I прилагательных основ, на прилагательные 2) ПРИЛАГЛТЕЛЬНЫЕ тем (NOMEN AOJECTIVUM) оканчивается на -а, мужской В словарях для каждого латин­ ского прилагательного указываются последовательно формы муж­ ского, женского и среднего рода: свободный; erum niger, gra, grum bonus, го рода этих прилагательных Ьопа, рода Ьопит, а, ит хороший; libCra, nigra, 1 и 11 формы среднего склонения magnus. magna, magnum болЬ/uаЙ. болЬ/uая. Основа: magno-. mаgпIi-. magno-. Sillgulшis ПaiJежu nt n magnum magni magno magnum magno magnum magnus mаgnА mаgn! Асс. magnum magno magn{! magnae magnae magnam magnIi magna mаgnо большое Plurulis f Nam. Ge/L Dat. Уас. ега, liberum, nigrum. Образец склонения прилагательных АЫ. liber, черный. Полные формы женско­ n f nt magni magnorum magnis magnos magnis magni mаgnае mаgnа magnIirum magnis magnorum magnis mаgnш mаgnа magnis magnis mаgnае mаgnа § 76. Прилагателыюе, обязательно согласуясь с существит~ль­ ным в роде, может по свосму морфологическому типу относить­ ся к другому склонению, ществительное пер в о эm, 50 nauta rо чем данное скл. мужско существительное. Так, rо рода (типа poёta су­ по­ МОРЯ/с) может иметь при себе в качестве определения прилагательное nauta bonus). второ rо скл. на или -us -ег (роёtа RоmшlUS, ер. в русском языке: старый дедушка, грозный вое­ вода. Различие прилагательных по родам, отчетливо проведенное в латинском языке, характерно Кnabe, также для русского ного с определенным артиклем и но ослабляет и немецкого языков (хороший, диффереНLU1ацию в и женского рода (добавление е существованием -ее; guter качестве именной части сказуемого значитель­ прилагательных по родам. средний род исчез, а существующие способы различения своим -ая, Кiпд). В немецком, впрочем, употребление прилагатель­ gute Lehrerin, gutes muet, фонетическим переход -с в -уе, процессам, Во французском языке прилагательных мужского -eux в -euse происходившим и др.) обязаны преимущественно в старофранцузский период. § 77. С точки зрения словообразования в новых языках особенно продуктив­ -i"d-, -i"c-, -iv-, -10-, -80-, -05-. Ср. лат. timi"dus робкий, pubIi"cus обществеЮtЫЙ, activus деятельный, divlous боже-" сmвенный, subterraoeus rwдзе.мныЙ, nervOsus жилистый, .мусicулистыЙ с фр. timide, pubIic, actif, divin, souterraio, nerveux, аНlЛ. timid, pubIic, active, divioe, subterraneous, nervou5. В русский и немецкий языки эти суффиксы ВОШЛИ только отчасти: не.м. nervos (нервный), РУССК. активный, нервозный, публичный, причем в послед­ нем случае суффикс -ic- вполне ассимилировался, сблизившись с русским суффик­ сом -ичн- (ер.: годичный, первичныЙ). См. также § 280, 282, 283. ными оказались суффиксы латинских прилагательных Местоименные прилагательные (Adjectlva pronominalia) § 78. К числу прилагательных 1 и П склонения относится группа м е с т о и м е н н ы х прилагательных. Они называются так потому, что близки по значению к местоимениям и склоняются по типу, характерному для у

The textbook contains brief information from the history of the Latin language; systematic presentation of grammar in comparison with similar phenomena in modern languages; an anthology of exercises, phrases and texts adapted from passages from the works of Caesar and Cicero. The textbook has a Latin-Russian dictionary.

From the history of the Latin language.
The Latin language belongs to the Indo-European languages, which also include Slavic, Baltic, Germanic, Indian, Iranian, ancient and modern Greek, and others. Together with the ancient Ossian and Umbrian languages, Latin constituted the Italic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. In the course of the historical development of ancient Italy, the Latin language supplanted the other Italic languages ​​and eventually assumed a dominant position in the western Mediterranean.

A comparative historical study revealed the links that exist between the Latin languages ​​and the rest of the languages ​​of the Indo-European family. The origin of the Indo-European languages ​​from one language-base is proved; the undoubted commonality can be clearly seen even when comparing a number of words included in the main vocabulary of Latin and new European languages.

CONTENT
Preface 3
Brief information from the history of the Latin language 9
GRAMMAR
Phonetics
Alphabet 16
Vowels 17
Consonants 19
Syllabus 22
Number of syllables 22
Accent Rules 23
The most important phonetic laws 24
Morphology
Grammar structure of the Latin language 27
noun 27
Number and gender 27
Cases 28
Declension types 29
First Declension 31
Second Declension 32
Third Declension 35
III consonant declension (35). - III vowel declension (40). - III mixed declension (41). - Some features of the III declension (43). - Rules for the gender of names III cl. and major exceptions (43).
Fourth declension 45
Fifth declension 46
Latin declension system 47
adjective 50
Adjectives I and II Declension 50
Adjectives III declension 52
Comparisons of adjectives 54
The use of cases with degrees of comparison 5g
Adverb 59
Pronouns 60
Personal (60). - Returnable (61). - Possessive (...). - Index (62). - Definitive (65). - Relative (66). - Interrogative (67). - Uncertain (68). - Negative (70). - Correlative (70)
Numerals 71
Verb 77
General information 77
Four conjugations of the Latin verb 79
Stems and basic forms of the verb
Infecta 84 system
Perfect 95 system
Summary table of verb forms
Descriptive active voice conjugation 113
Depositional verbs 113
Semi-depositional verbs 118
Irregular verbs 119
Insufficient verbs 133
Impersonal verbs 134
Prepositions 134
Word formation 135
Phrasing 136
Affixation 136
Syntax
Simple sentence
The main members of the proposal 143
Word order in sentence 144
Passive Syntax 145
Use of cases 146
Genetfvus 146
Datlvus 150
Accusativus 152
Ablatfvus 154
Verb syntax 159
Infinitive 159
Accusatfvus cum infinitfvo 160
Nominatfvus cum infinitivo 164
Supin 166
Gerund 167
Gerundiv 170
Communions 173
Attributive and predicative use of participles (174). - Ablatfvus absolutus (177)
The use of the subjunctive in independent sentences 180
Subjunctive for expressing will and desire 181
Subjunctives for suggestion and possibility 183
The use of tenses and moods in subordinate clauses
Use of indicative tenses 185
Use of tenses conjunctiva 185
Consecutio temporum 186
Indirect question 188
Relative clauses of purpose 190
Additional clauses 191
Relative clauses of corollary 194
Time clauses 197
Relative clauses of reason 201
Subordinate clauses concessive 202
Conditional sentences 203
Indirect speech 207
Likening inclination 209
Applications 210
READER 222
Latin expressions and winged words 329
Latin-Russian Dictionary 333.

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2 LATIN LANGUAGE TEXTBOOK, WIA STUDENTS OF PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITIES Edited by V.N. Yarkho, V.I. Loboda FIFTH EDITION. STEREOTYPICAL Recommended for publication by the Ministry of General and Vocational Education of the Russian Federation as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions studying in the direction of "Philology", specialty "Latin" MOSCOW. HIGH III KOLA. 1998

3 UDC LBC 81.2 Latin L27 Reviewers: Department of Romano-Germanic Languages ​​of the Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages ​​named after NA. Dobrolyubova (Head of the Department, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor G.V. Ilyina) Authors: Yarkho Viktor Noevich, Katsman Nina Lazarevna, Lifshits Ida Aronovna, Savukova Valentina Dmitrievna, Sokolova Tatyana Mikhailovna, Kagan Yudif Matveevna, Khodorkovskaya Beatrice Borisovna, Shopina Nina Rodionovna L 27 Latin language: Proc. for ped. in-t on spec. "Foreign lang. "Jv.n. Yarkho, Z.A. Pokrovskaya, n.l. Katzman and others; Ed. B.N. Yarkho, B.I. Loboda. - 5th ED., Sr. - M.: Byssh. school, s. ISBN Textbook contains brief information about the history of the Latin language; systematic presentation of grammar in comparison with similar phenomena in modern languages; an anthology of exercises, phrases and texts, adapted excerpts from the works of Caesar and Cicero. The textbook has a Latin-Russian dictionary. The fifth edition (4th year) is stereotypical. ISBN with KalleImIB authors, 1998

4 FOREWORD When compiling this textbook, the team of authors proceeded from the tasks that are set for the course of the Latin language at the faculties of foreign languages. The Latin language is a special linguistic discipline here, designed not only to expand the general linguistic horizons of students, but also to help them develop a scientific approach to the modern foreign language being studied. Accordingly, the main emphasis during the course should be on mastering (1) the system of Latin grammar in comparison with the grammar of the studied modern foreign language and (2) the necessary lexical minimum, which includes the most common words of the Latin language, mostly non-derivatives, which at the same time are especially productive in the formation of the vocabulary of modern foreign languages ​​and "international" terminology. This goal predetermines the nature of the textbook, in which the authors sought not only to inform students of a known set of rules that form the basis of Latin grammar, but also to explain from a historical point of view the emergence of these rules and compare them, where possible, with similar phenomena in new languages. At the same time, it was considered expedient to focus students' attention on the most important and essential facts of historical phonetics, morphology and syntax, leaving relatively little space for exceptions and features, or leaving them completely outside the grammatical part of the textbook. When studying grammar, you can use its individual sections in the order in which the corresponding material is located in the anthology. So, when explaining genetivus possessi \ "us, examples are given that are available to students immediately after mastering 1 declension; in the presentation phonetic rule the transition of a short o into a short u in the final closed syllable, the forms of the 3rd l already known to students are involved. pl. Ch. of the third conjugation (mittunt) and sweat. sing. 11 declensions (lupus), not words like tempus or corpus. In the interest of a systematic 3

5 of the grammar, the indirect question is explained immediately after the consecutio temporum. In teaching, however, it seems more convenient to gradually introduce students to the individual elements that make up the rule of succession of tenses (first ut fina1e and objectivum, then sit historicum, sit causale, and finally the indirect question). The reader is designed for the same order of passage of the material; therefore, in the grammatical part, the use of tenses in sit historicum and curn causa1e is set out in somewhat more detail than would be required in the study of grammar in a systematic way. The tasks of the practical use of the grammatical part also explain some other "inconsistencies" in its presentation. The meaning of the tenses of the indicative, which, strictly speaking, belongs to the field of syntax, is reported in the morphology section when studying the forms of these tenses. When explaining verb forms, praesens and perfectum indicativi are considered in particular detail, since their firm assimilation is necessary condition for understanding all other verb formations. For the present time, a complete table is given, taking into account the various types of conjugations; for other tenses, it is enough to confine ourselves to typical samples with sending students to the summary table of verb phrases. The arrangement of the material in twenty-seven sections of the reader is subject to the gradual passage of Latin grammar in its various aspects. Each section is usually devoted to some main topic on the morphology of the verb or name; are also reported at the same time necessary information about the syntax of a simple sentence, about the meaning of cases. in the second half of the reader, naturally, more attention is paid to the syntax of the verb and complex sentence. The reader is constructed in such a way as to ensure the assimilation of grammatical material mainly in an inductive way: from individual linguistic facts, students should be led to general conclusions. The inductive method is partly used in the grammatical part: a comparison of 1 and 11 declensions leads to a distinction between two types of nominative, which is then necessary when explaining the V declensions; after all five declensions have been studied, the system of case endings as a whole is characterized; the explanation of ablativus absolutus relies on familiarity with the syntactic functions of the ablative in the adverbial sense; use of the conjunctiva in subordinate clauses 4

6 is compared, where possible, with its meaning in independent clauses. In the morphology of the verb, generalizing information is usually given in the introductory paragraphs of each section (for example, general information about the verb, about the perfect system); it is assumed that the student, returning to these paragraphs after a more detailed study of the specific facts, will find in them a useful summing up. The amount of grammatical material that makes up the content of individual sections is uneven. This is due to the fact that the compilers sought to disclose within a section of a particular topic of Latin grammar. The burden required to pass the various sections should be distributed according to the curricula in a given institution. The experience of teaching made the members of the team of authors pay special attention to the consolidation vocabulary. For this purpose, in each section, starting from the second, a group of phrases is allocated (they are designated by the letter A), which includes all the words included in the mandatory lexical minimum of this section. The reading of these phrases in each student group is an indispensable condition for the most limited number of hours allocated for the Latin language course, since otherwise the words from the lexical minimum do not receive support in the read text when memorized. From the phrases included in subsection B, the choice can be made by the teacher depending on the working conditions. Proverbs and sayings in both subsections are in italics. As for the lexical minimum, wherever possible, lexical parallels from new languages ​​are given to Latin words: in this way, on the one hand, the memorization of Latin vocabulary is facilitated, on the other hand, words of Latin origin are explained in the new language studied by students. When selecting such parallels, it was considered expedient to single out: a) words of common Indo-European origin; b) original French words, which are the result of the direct development of Latin vocabulary in Gaul, and their derivatives; c) borrowings in French from Latin, made in later periods, and their derivatives; d) borrowings from Latin in Russian, English and German. 5

7 in accordance with this, the scheme of the dictionary entry in the sections of the lexical minimum has the following form: Latin word, Russian translation; after it in parentheses are given after the mark ep. (compare) available Indo-European parallels1; further under the number 1. the original French words are given in bold (or a dash is made if there are no such words); they are separated from borrowings by semicolons; under number 2 are borrowings from Latin in other new languages. Sample: di "co, dixi, dictum, ere 3 speak, name (Er. Engl. token sign, teach to teach; German Zeichen n sign, zeigen show); 1. dire; dictionnaire t dictionary, dicton t saying; 2. announcer, diction, edict, English dictate dictate, dictionary German Diktat n, Diktatur /, dichten compose poetry This example shows that the English words token, teach and the German Zeichen n, zeigen are cognate with Latin di "co and go back to a common Indo-European root; the French dire arose from dicere as a result of phonetic processes that took place in popular Latin in the territory of Gaul, and dictionnaire and dicton are book borrowings made in a later period; Russian, English and German words are borrowings from Latin - either directly, or through French, or through mutual influence. Of course, the number of such borrowings in each case can be significantly increased; it is important to push the student's thought to further searches. Among Russian borrowings, as a rule, those that are obvious due to the placed parallels in other languages ​​are not given. In the same way, among borrowings in Western European languages, those that entered the Russian language are usually not given. So, for example, a student of the faculty of English, having found the verb dictate in the above dictionary entry, will easily understand that the noun dictation and the Russian words dictation, dictate, dictation go back to the same Latin stem; a German student will just as easily make the connection between dichten and Dichter, Diktatur and dictatorship. Russian word, which conveys the meaning of the corresponding Latin word and, moreover, has an Indo-European origin related to it, is not repeated after the mark er., but is highlighted in font, for example: potep, lnis n name (er. sh / ch. pate, lie.llf. Name m) etc. 6

8 When referring to native French words, their phonetic development, with rare exceptions, is not explained: this is within the competence of Romance philology; when borrowing, the borrowing time and considerations (phonetic, stylistic, etc.) are not indicated, according to which this or that word is assigned to this category. The classification in our textbook is based on the interpretation of this issue in etymological dictionaries French, including Bloch O., Wartburg W. U. Dictionnaire tymologique de la langue fragise, 2 me d. (Paris, 1950). In borrowings from Latin in Russian, English and German, neither the borrowing time nor the ero source is taken into account; for English and for German it can be directly Latin and French, for Russian - both Latin and French, German or some other language. The indication of these connections would turn the lexical minimum into a historical-linguistic dictionary in five languages, which is beyond the scope of this textbook. The main goal pursued by lexical parallels is to ensure the most conscious assimilation by students of the necessary Latin words and productive formations from them in new languages. In the 4th edition, in the grammatical part, a list of verbs of the lexical minimum according to the types of formation of the perfect () was added. The composition of the texts has been revised in the anthology by introducing more informative passages. When selecting coherent texts, preference was given to texts that are the most syntactically rich (the use of the subjunctive in complex sentences, infinitive and participial phrases). The texts "Preparation for War with the Helvetians", "Caesar's Campaign in Britain" and an excerpt from Cicero have undergone a more or less significant reduction within the already selected chapters and, in connection with this, some adaptation. At the same time, the compilers proceeded from Toro that the assimilation of the student ~ and the style of Latin fiction is not the task of this course of the Latin language: reading the texts of Roman authors is not considered in it as an end in itself, but is used to consolidate grammatical and lexical material. However, at the request of teachers and students, poems by Roman authors are included in this edition. The Latin Russian dictionary has been compiled anew. In this textbook, separate sections and types of work 7

9 were made by the following members of the team of authors (in alphabetical order): Yu. M. Kagan; sectioning<<Лексический минимум»; подбор латинских выражений и крылатых слов. Кацман н.л. - подбор прозаических и стихотворных текстов для хрестоматии; адаптация текста «Подготовка к войне с гельветами»; составление разделов «Лексический минимум» и латинско-русского словаря. Лифшиц и.а, 338, 430, ; подбор французских лексических параллелей; подбор текстов для хрестоматии. Ло6ода в.и, ; сведения этимологического характера в латинско-русском словаре. Покровекая З.А, 451 ~ 459, ; подбор английских и немецких лексических параллелей; составление упражнений к разделам Х - ХХУII; адаптация текста «Поход Цезаря в Британию». для Савукова в.д, ; подбор текстов хрестоматии. Соколова Т.М, Ходорковская Б.Б &4. Шоnина Н.Р. - подбор текстов для хрестоматии. Ярхо в.н, 339, ; составление. упражнений к разделам 1 - IX; подбор текстов для хрестоматии; адаптация текста «Расправа Верреса с командирами кораблей».

10 BRIEF INFORMATION FROM THE HISTORY OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE 1. The Latin language belongs to the Indo-European languages, which also include Slavic, Baltic, Germanic, Indian, Iranian, ancient and modern Greek and others. Together with J (the ancient o s and m brs k and m languages, Latin constituted the Italian branch of the Indo-European family of languages. In the course of the historical development of ancient Italy, the Latin language supplanted others Italic languages ​​and eventually took a dominant position in the western Mediterranean.Comparative historical studies have revealed the links that exist between the Latin language~ and.. the rest of the languages ​​of the Indo-European family.The origin of the Indo-European languages ​​\u200b\u200bQT of one base language is proved; Let us compare, for example: Latin Russian German English frater brother brother Bruder brother mater mother mother mors death, stem dead Mord murder mort- morden tres three three drei three est is - 3rd singular is ist IS of the verb to be 2. In the historical development of the Latin language, there are several stages that are characteristic from the point of view of its internal evolution and interaction with other languages. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, the Latin language (lingua Latina) was spoken by the population of a small region of Latium (Lcitium), located in the west of the middle part of the Apennine Peninsula, along the lower reaches of the Tiber. The tribe that inhabited Latium was called Latini, its language was Latin, and the city of Rome (R6ma) became the center of this area, named after

11 which the Italic tribes united around him began to call themselves Romans (Romam). The earliest written monuments of the Latin language that we have date back presumably to the end of the VI - the beginning of the V centuries BC. e. Ero is a dedicatory inscription found in 1978 from the ancient city of Satrika (50 km south of Rome), dating from the last decade of the 11th century. BC e., and a fragment of a sacred inscription on a fragment of a black stone (found in 1899 during excavations of the Roman forum, dates back to about 500 BC). Quite numerous tombstone inscriptions and official documents of the middle of the beginning of the 11th century also belong to the ancient monuments of Archaic Latin. BC e. (of which the epitaphs of the Roman politicians Scipio and the text of the Senate decree on the sanctuaries of the god Bacchus are best known). These sources provide rich material for restoring the phonetic structure of the ancient Latin language and for understanding the processes that took place in it. The largest representative of the archaic period in the field of literary language is the ancient Roman comedian Plavt (c. BC), from whom 20 comedies in their entirety and one in fragments have survived to this day. It should, however, be noted that the vocabulary of Plautus' comedies and the phonetic structure of his language are already largely approaching the norms of classical Latin of the 1st century. BC e. - beginning of the 1st c. AD The term "classical Latin" refers to the literary language that has reached the greatest expressiveness and syntactic harmony in the prose writings of C and Ceron (BC) AND Caesar (BC) AND In poetic works V erg i li i (70-19 BC), G O R a ts i (65-8 BC) I O v i D i i (43 BC No3 .). The Latin literary language of this particular period is the subject of study in our higher educational institutions. it is customary to distinguish from classical Latin the language of Roman fiction of the so-called post-classical period, which chronologically coincides with the first two centuries of our chronology (the so-called era of the “early empire”). Indeed, the language of prose writers and poets of this time (Seneca, Tacitus, Juvenal, Martial, Apuleius) is distinguished by a significant originality in the choice of stylistic means; but since those developed during the previous 10

12 centuries of norm grammatical structure of the Latin language are not violated, the indicated division of the Latin language into "classical" and "post-classical" has a literary rather than linguistic significance. As a separate period in the history of the Latin language, the so-called post-Day Latin is distinguished, the chronological boundaries of which are the VI centuries. - the era of the late empire and the emergence, after its fall, of barbarian states. In the works of the writers of this period - mainly historians and Christian theologians - many morphological and syntactic phenomena already find a place, preparing the transition to the new Romance languages. 3. The period of formation and flourishing of the classical Latin language was associated with the transformation of Rome into the largest slave-owning state in the Mediterranean, subjugating vast territories in the west and southeast of Europe, in northern Africa and Asia Minor. In the eastern provinces of the Roman state (in Greece, Asia Minor and on the northern coast of Africa), where by the time of their conquest by the Romans the Greek language and highly developed Greek culture were widespread, the Latin language was not widely used. The situation was different in the western Mediterranean. By the end of the 11th century. BC e. Latin dominates not only throughout Italy, but as the official state language penetrates into the regions of the Iberian Peninsula conquered by the Romans and present-day southern France. Through Roman soldiers and merchants, the Latin language in its colloquial form finds access to the masses of the local population, being one of the most effective means of Romanization of the conquered territories. At the same time, the closest neighbors of the Romans are most actively Romanized - the Celtic tribes living in Gaul (the territory of present-day France, Belgium, partly the Netherlands and Switzerland). The conquest of Gaul by the Romans began in the second half of the 11th century. BC e. And it was completed at the very end of the 50s of the 1st century. BC e. As a result of long military operations under the command of Julius Caesar (Gallic wars). At the same time, the Roman troops came into close contact with the Germanic tribes who lived in vast areas east of the Rhine. Caesar also makes two trips to Britain, but these short expeditions (in 55 and 11

1354) had no serious consequences for relations between the Romans and the Britons (Celts). Only 100 years later, in 43 AD. E., Britain was conquered by the Roman armies, which were here until 407. Thus, for about five centuries, until the fall of the Roman Empire in 476, the tribes that inhabited Gaul and Britain, as well as the Germans, were strongly influenced by the Latin language. 4. The Latin language in its folk (colloquial) variety - the so-called vulgar (in the meaning of folk) Latin - was the basis language for new national languages, united under the common name romansch. These include the Italian language, which was created on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula as a result of the historical change in the Latin language, French and Provencal languages, which developed in the former Gaul, and Spanish k and y and portuguese - on the Iberian peninsula, ret 0 - romansky - on the territory of the Roman colony of Rezia (in part of present-day Switzerland and in northeastern Italy ), Romanian - in the territory of the Roman province of Dacia (present-day Romania), young Davsky and some others. Despite the common origin of the Romance languages, there are now significant differences between them. This is explained by the fact that the Latin language penetrated the conquered territories over a number of centuries, during which it itself, as the basis language, changed somewhat and entered into complex interaction with local tribal languages ​​and dialects. A well-known imprint on the emerging related Romance languages ​​was also left by the difference in the historical fate of the territories in which they were formed for a long time. Nevertheless, all Romance languages ​​retain in their vocabulary, and also, although to a much lesser extent, in morphology, Latin features. For example, let's take the best-known French among the Romance languages. In the field of vocabulary, it is enough to compare the Latin words mater, frater, causa, grandis, centum, mille, vincere, sentire with the French mere, frere, cause, grand, cent, mshe, vaincre, sentir, which have the same meaning as in Latin. The verbal system of the French language represents a further development of the forms of the verb, which was already outlined in popular Latin. During the period of formation of the French literary language, it was strongly influenced by the Latin syn-12

14 taxis, under the influence of which the rules of concordance and sequence of tenses (concordance des temps), separate participial constructions, infinitive phrases were formed in French grammar. 5. Attempts by the Romans to subjugate the Germanic tribes, repeatedly undertaken at the turn of the 1st century. BC E. And 1 century. n. E., were not successful, but the economic relations of the Romans with the Germans existed for a long time; they went mainly through the Roman garrison colonies located along the Rhine and Danube. this is reminiscent of the names of German cities: Kblp (from lat. Col6nia settlement), KobIenz (from lat. Confluentes, lit. "flowing") - Koblenz is located at the confluence of the Moselle with the Rhine), Regensburg (from lat. Regina castra), Vienna ( from Vind6bona) and others. Of Latin origin in modern German, the words Wein (from lat. vinum), Rettich (from lat. radix - root), Birne (from lat. pirum) and others, denoting products of Roman agriculture that were exported Roman merchants across the Rhine, as well as terms related to the construction business: Mauer (from lat. murus - stone wall, in contrast to German. Wand - wattle), Pforte (from lat. porta), Fenster (from lat. fenestra), Strasse (from Latin strata via, i.e. "paved road)" And many others. 6. In Britain, the most ancient traces of the Latin language are the names of cities with the component -chester, -caster or -castle from lat. castra military camp and castellum fortification, foss- - from fossa moat, col(n) - from colonia settlement. Compare: Manchester, Lancaster, Newcastle, Fossway, Fossbrook, Lincoln, Colchester. The conquest of Britain in the V - VI centuries. the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes increased the number of Latin borrowings adopted by the British tribes at the expense of words already adopted by the Germans from the Romans. Wed: lat. vinum, German. Wein, English. wine; lat. strata, germ. Strasse, English. street; lat. campus - field, German. Kampf, English. sample 7. The importance of the Latin language for the gradual and long-term formation of new Western European languages ​​persists even after the fall of the Western Roman Empire (traditional date y). Latin continued to be the language of state and school in the early feudal Frankish kingdom (formed at the end of the 5th century), which absorbed a significant part of the 13

15 territories of the Western Roman Empire; the Frankish state, which became an empire (Charlemagne took the title of emperor in 800), broke up in the middle of the 9th century (in 843) into independent states of Western Europe - Italy, France and Germany. The absence in these states for several centuries of national literary languages ​​made it necessary to resort to the help of the Latin language in relations between them. Throughout the Middle Ages and later, Latin was the language of the Catholic Church. The role of the classical Latin language was exceptional in the Renaissance (XIV - XVI centuries), when humanists, who were representatives of the progressive trend in early Western European bourgeois culture, showed great interest in ancient culture and when writers, using Latin language, sought to imitate ancient models, especially the language of Cicero. For example, it is enough to name the names of those who wrote in Latin Thomas Mora () in England, Erasmus of Rotterdam () - in Holland, Tom Mazo Campanella () - in Italy. During this period, the Latin language becomes the most important means of international cultural and scientific communication. MHoroBeKoBoe The spread of the Latin language necessitated a thorough study of it in schools, dictionaries were compiled, translations and interlinear books were published (textbooks: fya with interlinear, word B word, translation of the Latin text, with notes and analysis of all words); it also contributed to the penetration of the corresponding Latin vocabulary into the new Western European languages. For example, Latin words from the field of education and school: magister mentor, teacher, schola school, tabula board, have entered modern living languages ​​in the form of English. master, school, table and German. Meister, Schule, Tafel. Latin origin German. schreiben, Schrift (from scrfbere write, scriptum written). In English, Latin vocabulary has had a significant impact through French as a result! the conquest of England in the 11th century by the French Normans (Normans) l. ep. English poye, victory, art, color from lat. n6bilis, vict6ria, 1 Normans "<северные люди») - северогерманские племена скандию\вских стран. В начале Х века они захватили северо-западную область Франции, получившую поэтому название Нормандии, и стали носителями, францу1ской феодальной культуры. 14

16 ars, c61or. Many borrowings were made into English during the Renaissance and directly from Latin. Until the 18th century, Latin remained the language of diplomacy and the international language of science. In particular, the Latin language was in the XII century. translated from Arabic "Canon of Medical Science" by the great medieval encyclopedist A.V. and Tsenna (Abu Ali Ibn Sina); in Latin translation became widely known in Europe in 1503 the report of Amerigo Vespuch about the discovery of the "New World"; the first document in the history of Russian-Chinese relations was compiled in Latin, the well-known Nerchinsky treaty of 1689. The Dutch philosopher Spinoza () wrote his works in Latin , English scientist Newton (), Lomonosov () and many others. In recent years, there has been a movement in Western Europe and South America to use Latin as the international language of science. Several congresses of an international organization created for this purpose have taken place, and a special journal is being published. Finally, the Latin language, along with the ancient Greek, has long been a source for the formation of international socio-political and scientific terminology. Thus, many words of Latin origin entered Russian and other European languages, for example: communism, socialism, revolution, dictatorship, proletariat, decree, constitution, reform, empire, republic, demonstration, proclamation, etc.; conference, congress, army, act, action, liberal, legal, etc.; certificate, institute, university, faculty, lecture, consultation, exam, student, laboratory, auditorium, rector, professor, doctor, associate professor, graduate student, etc.; subject, object, predicate, attributive, active, passive, and in Western European languages ​​also singularis, pluralis, verbum, adjectivum, indicativus, conjunctivus and other grammatical terms; culture, literature, realism, sentimentalism, artist, instrument, performance, scenery, opera, soloist, etc.; motor, valve, structure, heater, housing, transmission, transmission, radium, radio, etc.

17 GRAMMAR PHONETICS ALPHABET 8. Latin pronunciation has undergone a number of changes in its historical development, partly related to the phonetic processes that took place in the new Western European languages. The modern reading of the Latin text in different countries is subject to the norms of pronunciation of new languages. Below is the traditional reading of Latin letters, adopted in Russian educational practice. Inscription Name Pronunciation Inscription Name Pronunciation jota ka el et [b] [k] or [d] [e] [c] [g] [b] [i] W [k] [t] O r o r Q q R r S s T t U u V v X x y z z o re ku er es te u ve ix ypsilon zeta [o] [p] [k] [r] [s] or [z] [t] [u] or [v] [v] [i] or [y]1 [z] The letter U U was used only in words borrowed from Greek, and sounded like [y]; pronunciation [i] arose in school practice under the influence of the Russian language, in which there is no front closed labialized [y]. er.: lat. (from Greek) syllaba - syllable, symph6nia - consonance, RUSSIAN. syllabic, symphony. 16

18 The given alphabet in terms of the number of letters (25 letters) is somewhat different from the KJI alphabet of the classical era, when the letters V and 1 meant both vowels (current U, u; 1, i) and consonants (current U, y; J, jl). The letter K disappeared very early; traces of it have been preserved only in some abbreviations, for example, K or KAL - an abbreviated spelling of the word Kalendae - kalends, which denoted the first day of each month. The letters U and Z are found only in borrowings from the Greek language. VOCALES 9. In classical Latin, as in many ancient Indo-European languages, long and short vowels were distinguished. It is customary to designate a long vowel with a superscript sign (for example, a), a short one - with a sign - (A). The long one was twice as long as the short one. The number (i.e., relative duration - longitude or shortness) of the vowel served as a means of distinguishing meaning (Iiber free, Hier book; sёro late, sёgo I sow), a means of expressing the grammatical form (venit he comes, venit he came) and in many cases determines the place of stress in a word. Later, the distinction of vowels by number lost its axis. Currently, the number of vowels when reading is not reproduced. In our textbook, the number of vowels is indicated in the anthology only in cases where it is necessary to determine the form of the word, distinguish the meaning and place the stress. In the grammatical part (sections of phonetics and morphology), the number of vowels is also indicated to characterize the elements of the word (stems, suffixes, inflections) and to understand regular phonetic changes. 10. In the Latin alphabet, letters are given denoting the so-called mono o F tong and (i.e., unanimous). There are six of them: a, e, i, o, u, y, but there were twelve monophthongs: six long and six short (the pronunciation of the long differed from the pronunciation of the short also in timbre). 1 In many dictionaries and editions of the works of Roman authors, the letter j is not used; to designate a consonant with an energetic accent on the first vowel: aigit gold3. 2. The extremely rare diphthong ei is pronounced as a monosyllabic [ei]: neuter neither one nor the other, Europa Europe. Usually the vowels e + u do not form a diphthong. 3. The diphthongs ae and oe (from the more ancient ai and oi) turned into monophthongs represented by two letters (the so-called digraphs). Digraph ae means sound [e]: aedes, aedificium [edifi, c;ium] building; praemium Itagrada; praesens present, present. 1 In our textbook, the number of vowels in a final closed syllable is indicated only before the final s (since this consonant is preceded by both a long vowel and a short one), e.g. : listen to audis, take capis. Before all other final consonants, the obligatory brevity of the vowel is predetermined by the rule formulated above. 2 In morphology tables, the shortness of such a vowel is not indicated. 3 ep. in German, the one-syllable word auch. eighteen

20 New Western languages ​​usually do not retain the spelling ae in words of Latin origin. In German, Latin origin (from ae) is explained by a in borrowed words like Prasens, Pramie. In French, the digraph ae has completely disappeared: edifice, estime, present. In English, the spelling ac under the influence of French more \ i partly gave way to the letter e: Present, edifice, esteem respect (Latin verb

21 languages, and in German it gave two different letters in words borrowed from Latin: k - in borrowings from the ancient era, z - in words learned in the Middle Ages by book. At present, there are two ways of reading the letter c: the so-called "classical" one, in which C is pronounced in all positions as k, and the traditional one, which reproduces the distinction that arose in late Latin and was fixed in new languages. In this textbook, a double reading of the Latin letter c is adopted: c before e, i, y, ae, oe is read like the Russian letter c. This rule is easy to remember by comparing the following Latin words in terms of their alphabetic-sound composition and their corresponding words in French, English, German and Russian: Latin French English German Russian caput head. capital capital Kapital, capital capital color color couleur colo(u)r kolorieren color. color but: centum cent. cent. centenary Zentimeter, cent, one hundred centaine percent. Prozent (prop. "PO from- civis civil civil zivil civilization nin [! $ vis] pour-cen! wearing to a hundred") 2. 5 between vowels is pronounced as [z], and in other positions as [s]: rosa rose, acciiso wrap 1. But: solus odilt, servus slave, scribo I write. 3. I is usually pronounced softly (as in German or French). 4. The letter q is used only in combination with u before vowels, the letter combination qu is read as: aqua water, quinque five. 1 In proper names borrowed from Greek, it is more correct to pronounce intervocalic 5 as [s]: These,.ys Theseus, Agesilaus Аtesilay. twenty

22 5. The combination ngu before a vowel is pronounced as: Нпgua language; the combination su is pronounced as in the words suadeo I advise, suesco I get used to, suavis is pleasant (and derivatives). 6. The combination ti in the classical era was pronounced in all positions. However, already in the IV - V centuries. there was a softening in before vowels, which, according to tradition, is still preserved in educational practice: ratio mind (cf.: rational), initium beginning (cf.: initials) 1. However, ti and in the position before a vowel is pronounced as in combinations sti, xti, tti: bestia beast, mixtio - I mixture, Attius Attius (proper name). 7. In words borrowed from the Greek language, Greek aspirates (aspirated consonants) are transmitted by letter combinations with h, which in the letter combinations rh [r] and th [t] has completely lost its sound meaning; the other two aspirates are pronounced as slotted: ch [b], ph [t]. This spelling has mostly passed into the new Western European languages. For example: Latin German English French Russian ch6rus chorus choral choral physica Physik physics physique physics theatrum Theater theater theater theater rhythmus Rhythmus rhythm rythme rhythm e. the combination ch began to be used in some words of Latin origin instead of C [k], for example: pulcher instead of pulcer is beautiful, Gracchus instead of Graccus Gracchus. 8. The combination sch corresponds to Russian [сх], for example: schola school (cf .: scholasticism). 13. Among the consonants there are the so-called dumb (stop) and fluent. pronunciation ti. 21

23 liquida. The combination of a dumb (stop) with a smooth one is usually called the Latin words t u t a with u t I i q u i d a “dumb C smooth”. Possible combinations of muta cum liquida include: N, L; pl, pr; dl, dr; tl, tr; gl, gr; cl, SG. SYLLOGICAL SECTION 14. The number of syllables in a word corresponds to the number of vowels (including diphthongs, see 11). The syllable section passes: 1) before a single consonant (including before qu): ro-sa rose, a-qua water, au-rum gold, Eu-ro-pa Europe; 2) before the combination muta cum Iiquida and before the last consonant of other combinations of consonants: pa-tri-a homeland, sa-glt-ta arrow, fog-tu-pa fate, rips-tut point, dis-si-rn-pa science, order, a-grf-co-ia farmer, a-gatrum plow .. The middle language (voiced fricative) sound j (iota) between vowels in pronunciation doubled, distributed between two syllables: pejor is pronounced pej-jor by syllables is the worst; 3) the prefix stands out: de-ssep-do I go down, ab-sip-do I tear off, abs-ce-do I retreat, ab-ia-tl-vus ablative (depositive, or separative, case), ab-es-se to be absent. A syllable can be either open (final sound - vowel, diphthong) or closed (final sound - consonant). SYLLABLE NUMBER 15. In Classical Latin, each syllable was either Long or Short according to its quantity. short vowels - short. All other syllables - Long e. (A closed syllable containing a short vowel is long, since additional time is required to pronounce the closing consonant). Examples: In the word vi-a road, the syllable vi- is short: its vowel is before the vowel (10, p. 3); pf-ia ball - the open syllables pf- and -la are short: their vowels are short in nature, and this is indicated by W; pi-la mortar - here the open syllable Pl- is long: its vowel is long by nature, and this is indicated by the sign - ;

24 rai-reg poor - open syllable rai - long; it contains a diphthong (see 11); scrlp-tor writer - closed syllable scrlp- long, and it contains a long sound 1; sp-va forest - a closed syllable sp- long, despite the shortness of its vowel f1. It is clear from the last example that the length of a closed syllable does not always correspond to the number of its vowel. STICK RULES Stress, as a rule, is not placed on the last syllable. 2. Therefore, in two-syllable words, the stress is on the initial syllable (regardless of its number). 3. Polysyllabic words (more than two syllables) are stressed on the pre D after the Dn e m syllable, if it is D o l o g; if the penultimate syllable is short, the stress is on the third syllable from the end (regardless of its number). Thus, in order to place stress in polysyllabic words, it is necessary and sufficient to know the number of only the pre D after the D e syllable. Examples: fl-ii-a daughter, sci-en-ti-a knowledge - the stress falls on the third syllable from the end, since the second syllable from the end is open y "before the vowel, therefore, to r and t to and d (10, p. 3; 15); ma-g (s-ter teacher, fe-nes-tra window, per-fec-tus perfect, ind (g-nus unworthy - the emphasis falls on v t a swarm from the end of the syllable, since it is closed Y, therefore, Debt and Y, regardless of the number of vowels contained in it; na-tci-ra nature, or-n~-re decorate, a-r~ -trum (14, p. 2) plow - the stress falls on the second from the end of the open syllable, since its vowel is L o g by nature; in-su-la island, li-quf -dus liquid, e-mf-gro I move - the stress falls on the third syllable from the end, since the second from the end of the open syllable is short in nature. -or indicate the number of this vowel 23

25 THE MOST IMPORTANT PHONETIC LAWS 17. In various periods of the history of the Latin language, phonetic laws acted, the knowledge of which facilitates the understanding of its morphological system. The following are among the most important phonetic laws. 18. Regressive assimilation of consonants) 1. Front lingual d and t before s are completely assimilated. For example, 1st l. perfect from the verb cedo I step: stem * ced + si > cessi; 1st l. the perfect from the verb concutio I shake: stem * concut + si > concussi. The combination of ss at the end of a word is simplified: dos is a dowry from *dots > *doss. 2. Voiced back-lingual g and voiced labial b are stunned before voiceless s and t (the combination with + s in writing is denoted by the letter x). For example, 1st l. the perfect from the verb rego I rule: * reg-si > rec-si (written: rexi); c) "pin * reg-tum > rectum; 1st letter of the perfect from the verb scribo I write: scrib-si > scripsi; supin * scrib-tum > scriptum. 3. Voiced front-lingual d before c. g. p. f. t. usually fully assimilated: accedo approach from ad + cёdo, aggrödior attack from ad + gradior, ap rap o nplage from ad + rap o, affero bring from ad + föro, attraho attract from ad + traho, arrfpio grab from ad + rapio , ahiido flirting from ad + liido 19. As a result of voicing, the intervocalic s turned into g (the so-called law of rotacism 2) From a comparison of the infinitive forms of the verb esse and any regular verb, for example, laudare, it can be seen that in the first case the infinitive suffix is -se (stem es + se = esse), in the second - -ge Historically, the infinitive suffix for regular verbs was -se, but in the position between vowels s turned into r ~ so the forms laudare to praise, audlre to listen, etc. etc. Another example is the modification of the stem of the verb * * esse in imperfect and future 1: es-a-m > egam, eso > his and etc. The sign (asterisk, or asterisk) hereinafter denotes a form that is not attested in writing, but justified by the history of the development of the sounds of the Latin language. 2 By the name of the Greek letter p - "rho". 3 The transition from s to r is also attested in German (preterite wзг with the participle form gewesen) and in English: cf. was and were. 24

26 20. The action of the law of rotacism ended, apparently, by the beginning of the 4th century. BC e., and the words that entered the Latin language after that time retained the intervocalic s: philosophia, rosa. The intervocalic s also arose in native Latin words as a result of ~forgiveness -ss- after a long vowel or diphthong (causa from caussa, ciisus from cassus) and was preserved (or restored) in compound words, where the meaning of the second member was clearly felt (de-silio I jump off with a simple verb salio I jump, ni-si if not with the conjunction si if). in all these cases, the intervocalic s sounded muffled, and its pronunciation in modern school practice is like V. N. Yarkho, V. I. Loboda. Latin language. Textbook for students of pedagogical universities 1998, DJVU To view DJVU you need a free program...

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Latin JlZYK. Under general edition V.N. Yarkho and V.I. Loboda. Editorial Manager ZA. Pronicheva Editor I. S. Kultysheva Art editor V.A. Shcherbakov.

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Latin language - Yarkho V.N., Loboda V.I - Page 22

the new nasal -t sounded weak in Latin. For example, verse. Tecum vivere atem, tecum obeat libens should read: Tecum viver(e) atem, tec(um) obeat liblns.

on the sixth day), from where the name vysokosny penetrated into the Russian language (through Greek).

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Of the regular transitive Latin verb, each form of the active voice corresponds to the form of the passive.

In late Latin they are gradual. lose their features, acquiring the form of a valid pledge.

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Read a book Latin language. Textbook for pedagogical...

Tutorial for pedagogical institutes on special "- read an interesting book by the author (V.N. Yarkho, etc.).

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to any person. In Latin, in relation to the l-th AND the 2-nd.

in translation into Russian, in all these cases, you can use the possessive lOC, the pronoun your, regardless of.

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In the process of the historical development of the Latin language, the sound similarity of individual forms led to a mixture of bases and the influence

# 12.02.201514.28 Mb2798Latin language - Yarkho V.N., Loboda V.I.pdf. # 12.02.2015541.47 Kb243Levitan K.M. - Legal Pedagogy.docx.

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Latin literature. The language of this particular period is the subject of study in our higher educational institutions.

The Russian language was associated with the transformation of Rome into the largest slave-owning state in the Mediterranean, subjugating vast ...

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some normative Latin grammars, in the linguistic study of Latin.

b) The presence of a developed system of nominal stems and case endings brings the Latin language closer to Russian, which has retained six cases and the distribution of names according to.

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§ 349. In the Latin language there are cases when ass. With. inf. depends on verbs with the meaning to speak, transmit, use

# 12.06.201515.3 Kb8 Landscape practice 3 conclusions.docx. # 12.02.201514.28 Mb2670Latin language - Yarkho V.N., Loboda V.I.pdf.

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In German, in subordinate tenses with the conjunctions ebe, bls, Priisens Konjunktiv can be used to express the intention, the implementation of which<>­.

la, but in Latin - different. The indicated ratios of the forms of time and inclination in ...

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