To narrow the search results, you can refine the query by specifying the fields to search on. The list of fields is presented above. For example:

You can search across multiple fields at the same time:

logical operators

The default operator is AND.
Operator AND means that the document must match all the elements in the group:

research development

Operator OR means that the document must match one of the values ​​in the group:

study OR development

Operator NOT excludes documents containing this element:

study NOT development

Search type

When writing a query, you can specify the way in which the phrase will be searched. Four methods are supported: search based on morphology, without morphology, search for a prefix, search for a phrase.
By default, the search is based on morphology.
To search without morphology, it is enough to put the "dollar" sign before the words in the phrase:

$ study $ development

To search for a prefix, you need to put an asterisk after the query:

study *

To search for a phrase, you need to enclose the query in double quotes:

" research and development "

Search by synonyms

To include synonyms of a word in the search results, put a hash mark " # " before a word or before an expression in brackets.
When applied to one word, up to three synonyms will be found for it.
When applied to a parenthesized expression, a synonym will be added to each word if one was found.
Not compatible with no-morphology, prefix, or phrase searches.

# study

grouping

Parentheses are used to group search phrases. This allows you to control the boolean logic of the request.
For example, you need to make a request: find documents whose author is Ivanov or Petrov, and the title contains the words research or development:

Approximate search the words

For an approximate search, you need to put a tilde " ~ " at the end of a word in a phrase. For example:

bromine ~

The search will find words such as "bromine", "rum", "prom", etc.
You can additionally specify maximum amount possible edits: 0, 1 or 2. For example:

bromine ~1

The default is 2 edits.

Proximity criterion

To search by proximity, you need to put a tilde " ~ " at the end of a phrase. For example, to find documents with the words research and development within 2 words, use the following query:

" research development "~2

Expression relevance

To change the relevance of individual expressions in the search, use the sign " ^ " at the end of an expression, and then indicate the level of relevance of this expression in relation to the others.
The higher the level, the more relevant the given expression.
For example, in this expression, the word "research" is four times more relevant than the word "development":

study ^4 development

By default, the level is 1. Valid values ​​are a positive real number.

Search within an interval

To specify the interval in which the value of some field should be, you should specify the boundary values ​​in brackets, separated by the operator TO.
A lexicographic sort will be performed.

Such a query will return results with the author starting from Ivanov and ending with Petrov, but Ivanov and Petrov will not be included in the result.
To include a value in an interval, use square brackets. Use curly braces to escape a value.

Especially great difficulty for children with ONR are invested sentences, passive sentences, as well as complex sentences.

Syntax violations are manifested both at the level of deep and at the level of superficial syntax.

At a deep level, syntax violations manifest themselves in difficulties in mastering semantic components (objective, locative, attributive), in difficulties in organizing the semantic structure of an utterance. At the surface level, violations are manifested in the violation of grammatical relationships between words, in the wrong sequence of words in a sentence.

Chapter 2

2.1. METHODS OF SPEECH THERAPY ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF VOCABULARY IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN WITH GENERAL SPEECH UNDEVELOPMENT

When carrying out speech therapy work on the development of vocabulary, it is necessary to take into account modern linguistic and psycholinguistic ideas about the word, the structure of the meaning of the word, the patterns of vocabulary formation and ontogenesis, and the peculiarities of vocabulary in preschool children with speech pathology. Taking into account these factors, the formation of vocabulary is carried out in the following areas:

§ expanding the volume of the dictionary in parallel with the expansion of ideas about the surrounding reality, the formation cognitive activity(thinking, perception, ideas, memory, attention, etc.);

§ clarification of the meanings of words;

§ formation of the semantic structure of the word in the unity of its main components (denotative, conceptual, connotative, contextual);

§ organization of semantic fields, lexical system;

§ activating the dictionary, improving the processes of searching for a word, translating a word from a passive to an active dictionary.

When developing this technique, some techniques and methods described by L. S. Vygotsky, S. N. Karpova, I. N. Kolobova, L. V. Sakharny, N. V. Ufimtseva, G. A. Cheremukhina were used in a modified form , A. M. Shakhnarovich and others.

R. I. Lalaeva, N. V. Serebryakova

CORRECTION

GENERAL UNDEVELOPMENT OF SPEECH

FOR PRESCHOOL CHILDREN

(VOCABULARY FORMATION

AND GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE)

St. Petersburg

BBC 34.17L 11

Chapter 1

building speech in normal and impaired

speech development

L 11 Lalaeva R.I., Serebryakova N.V.

Correction general underdevelopment speech in preschoolers (formation of vocabulary and grammatical structure). - St. Petersburg: SOYUZ, 1999. - 160 p.; ill.

ISBN 5-87852-109-1

The book presents speech therapy work on the formthe formation of vocabulary and grammatical structure in preschool childrenkov with general underdevelopment of speech. Specially intendedsheets, as well as a wide range of readers.

ISBN 5-87852-109-1 © R.I. Lalayeva, N.V. Serebryakova, 1999© Soyuz Publishing House, 1999

1.1. DEVELOPMENT OF VOCABULARY IN ONTOGENESIS

The development of a child's vocabulary is closely connected, on the one hand, with the development of thinking and other mental processes, and, on the other hand, with the development of all components of speech: the phonetic-phonemic and grammatical structure of speech.

With the help of speech, words, the child means only what is available to his understanding. In this regard, words appear early in the child's dictionary specific meaning, later - words of a generalizing nature.

The development of vocabulary in ontogenesis is also due to the development of the child's ideas about the surrounding reality. As the child gets acquainted with new objects, phenomena, signs of objects and actions, his vocabulary is enriched. The development of the surrounding world by a child occurs in the process of non-speech and speech activity with direct interaction with real objects and phenomena, as well as through communication with adults.

L. S. Vygotsky noted that the initial function of a child’s speech is to establish contact with the outside world, the function of communication. The activity of a young child is carried out jointly with an adult, and in this regard, communication is situational.

Currently, in the psychological and psycholinguistic literature, it is emphasized that the prerequisites for the development of speech are determined by two processes. One of these processes is the non-speech objective activity of the child himself, that is, the expansion of ties with the outside world through a concrete, sensory perception of the world.

The second most important factor in the development of speech, including the enrichment of the dictionary, is the speech activity of adults and their communication with the child.

Initially, communication between adults and a child is one-sided and emotional character, causes the child's desire to make contact and express their needs. Then, adult communication shifts to introducing the child to the sign system of the language with the help of sound symbolism. The child connects to speech activity consciously, joins communication with the help of language.

Such a "connection" occurs primarily through the simplest forms of speech, using understandable words associated with a specific, specific situation.

In this regard, the development of vocabulary is largely determined by the social environment in which the child is brought up. Age norms vocabulary children of the same age fluctuate significantly depending on the socio-cultural level of the family, since the vocabulary is acquired by the child in the process of communication.

A large number of studies have been devoted to the development of the child's vocabulary, in which this process is covered in various aspects: psychophysiological, psychological, linguistic, psycholinguistic.

The early stage of speech formation, including word acquisition, is multifaceted in the works of such authors as M. M. Koltsova, E. N. Vinarskaya, N. I. Zhinkin, G. L. Rozengart-Pupko, D. B. Elkonin and others.

At the end of the first and beginning of the second year of a child's life, verbal stimulus gradually begins to acquire more and more strength. However, during this period of development, according to the observations of M. M. Koltsova, words are not distinguished from each other, the child's reaction occurs to the entire complex of words with the entire objective situation.

At the initial stage, the reaction to a verbal stimulus manifests itself in the form of an orienting reflex (turning the head, fixing the gaze). In the future, on the basis of the orienting reflex, the so-called second-order reflex to a verbal stimulus is formed. The child develops imitation, repeated repetition of a new word, which contributes to the strengthening of the word as a component in the general complex of stimuli. During this period of development, the first undivided words appear in the child’s speech, the so-called babbling words, which are a fragment of what he heard. baby words, consisting mainly of stressed syllables(milk - moko, dog - baka).

Most researchers call this stage in the development of children's speech the "word-sentence" stage. In such a word-sentence there is no combination of words according to the grammatical rules of a given language, sound combinations do not have a grammatically formed character. The word does not yet have a grammatical meaning.

Words-representations at this stage express either a command (on, give), or an indication (there), or they call an object (kisa, lala) or an action (bay).

Later, at the age of 1.5 to 2 years, the child's complexes are divided into parts, which enter into various combinations (Katya bai, Katya lala). During this period, the child's vocabulary begins to grow rapidly, which by the end of the second year of life is about 300 words of various parts of speech.

The development of a word in a child occurs both in the direction of the subject correlation of the word, and in the direction of the development of meaning.

Analyzing the development of the meaning of a word in ontogenesis, L. S. Vygotsky wrote: “Speech and the meaning of words developed naturally, and the history of how the meaning of a word developed psychologically helps to illuminate to a certain extent how the development of signs occurs, how the child naturally develops the first a sign, how, on the basis of a conditioned reflex, the mechanism of designation is mastered" (Vygotsky L.S. Development of oral speech // Children's speech. 1996. Part 1. S. 51).

Initially, a new word arises in a child as a direct connection between a specific word and an object corresponding to it.

The first stage in the development of children's words proceeds according to the type conditioned reflexes. Perceiving a new word (conditioned stimulus), the child associates it with the object, and later reproduces it.

At the age of 1.5 to 2 years, the child moves from the passive acquisition of words from the people around him to the active expansion of his vocabulary during the period of using questions like “what is this?”, “What is it called?”.

Thus, at first the child receives signs from the people around him, and then he becomes aware of them, discovers the functions of the signs.

Despite the fact that by the age of 3.5 - 4 the subject attribution of a word in a child acquires a rather stable character, the process of forming the subject attribution of a word does not end there.

In the process of vocabulary formation, the meaning of the word is clarified.

Initially, the meaning of the word is polysemantic, its meaning is amorphous, vague. A word can have multiple meanings. One and the same word can denote both an object, a sign, and an action with an object. For example, the word kykh can denote in the speech of a child and a cat, and everything fluffy (a collar, a fur hat), and an action with an object (I want to stroke a cat). The word is accompanied by a certain intonation, gestures that clarify its meaning.

In parallel with the clarification of the meaning of the word, the structure of the meaning of the word develops.

It is known that the word has a complex meaning in its structure. On the one hand, the word is the designation of a certain object, it correlates with a specific image of the object. On the other hand, the word generalizes the totality of objects, signs, actions. The meaning of the word is also influenced by the connection with other words: a sad time, a cheerful time, a short time, a time of dreams. The word takes on different shades of meaning depending on the context. So, in sentences: He crossed the street, He crossed the border, He crossed all the borders, He crossed the second year.- word passed over takes on different shades of meaning depending on the context.

The word takes on a different meaning and depending on the intonation. Word wonderful can denote the highest degree of praise, irony, sarcasm, mockery, depending on intonation.

The following components of the meaning of the word are distinguished as the main ones (according to A. A. Leontiev, N. Ya. Ufimtseva, S. D. Katsnelson and others):

Denotative component, i.e. reflection in the meaning of the word of the features of the denotation (table is a specific item

Conceptual, or conceptual, or lexico-semantic component, reflecting the formation of concepts, reflecting the relationships of words in semantics;

The connotative component is a reflection of the speaker's emotional attitude to the word;

The contextual component of the word's meaning (cold winter day, cold summer day, cold water in the river, cold water in the kettle).

Of course, not all components of the meaning of the word appear in the child at once.

In the process of ontogenesis, the meaning of a word does not remain unchanged, it develops. L. S. Vygotsky wrote: “Every meaning of a word ... is a generalization. But the meanings of words evolve. The moment a child first learned a new word... the development of the word didn't end, it just started; it is at first a generalization of the most elementary type and only as it develops does it pass from a generalization of an elementary type to all higher types of generalization, completing this process with the formation of genuine and real concepts. The structure of the meaning of the word in different age periods is different.

Studies show that the child first of all masters the denotative component of the meaning of a word, that is, establishes a connection between a specific object (denotation) and its designation.

The conceptual, conceptual component of the meaning of a word is acquired by the child later as the operations of analysis, synthesis, comparison, and generalization develop. Explaining the meaning of the word table, the child first says: "They eat on it." Later he explains the word differently table:“This is a type of furniture”, that is, it correlates this word with a more general concept, defines this word on the basis of relationships between words in the language system.

Gradually, the child masters the contextual meaning of the word. Yes, baby before school age with great difficulty masters the figurative meaning of the word, aphorisms.

According to A. R. Luria, initially, when forming the subject correlation of words, side, situational factors pay great attention, which later cease to play a role in this process.

At an early stage of speech development, the subject relatedness of a word is influenced by the situation, gesture, facial expressions,

intonation, the word has a diffuse, extended meaning. During this period, the subject relatedness of a word can easily lose its specific subject relatedness and acquire a vague meaning (E.S. Kubryakova, G.L. Rozengart - Pupko). For example, the word bear the child can also name a plush glove, since appearance she looks like a bear.

The development of a connection between linguistic signs and reality is the central process in the formation of speech activity in ontogeny.

At the initial stage of mastering the signs of a language, the name of an object is, as it were, a part or property of the object itself. L. S. Vygotsky called this period of development of the meaning of the word “doubling the subject.” E.S. Kubryakov calls this period the stage of "direct reference". At this stage, the meaning of the word is a way of fixing in the mind of the child the idea of ​​this subject.

At the first stages of acquaintance with the word, the child cannot yet acquire the word in its "adult" meaning. At the same time, the phenomenon of incomplete mastery of the meaning of the word is noted, since initially the child understands the word as the name of a specific object, and not as the name of a class of objects.

In the process of developing the meaning of a word, mainly in children from 1 to 2.5 years old, phenomena of shifted reference, or “stretching” of the meanings of words (E. S. Kubryakova), “overgeneralization” (T. N. Ushakova) are noted. At the same time, the transfer of the name of one object to a number of others associated with the original object is noted. The child isolates the attribute of an object familiar to him and extends its name to another object that has the same attribute. The child uses the word to name a number of objects that have one or more common features (shape, size, movement, material, sound, taste, etc.), as well as the general functional purpose of objects.

At the same time, attention is drawn to the fact that the child combines in one word signs that are psychologically more significant for him at this stage of mental development.

As the dictionary develops, the “stretching” of the meaning of the word gradually narrows, since when communicating with adults, children

learn new words, clarifying their meanings and correcting the use of old ones.

The change in the meaning of the word, therefore, reflects the development of the child's ideas about the world around, is closely related to the cognitive development of the child.

L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that in the process of child development, the word changes its semantic structure, is enriched by a system of connections and becomes a generalization of a higher type. At the same time, the meaning of the word develops in two aspects: semantic and systemic. The semantic development of the meaning of a word lies in the fact that in the process of development of the child, the relation of the word to the object, the system of categories in which the given object is included, changes. The systemic development of the meaning of the word is due to the fact that the system is changing mental processes following the given word. For a small child, the affective meaning plays a leading role in the systemic meaning of the word; for a child of preschool and primary school age, it is a visual experience, a memory that reproduces a certain situation. For an adult, the leading role is played by the system of logical connections, the inclusion of the word in the hierarchy of concepts.

According to L. S. Vygotsky, the development of the meaning of a word is the development of concepts. The process of formation of concepts begins in early childhood, from the moment of acquaintance with the word. However, only in adolescence do mental prerequisites mature, which form the basis for the formation of concepts. L. S. Vygotsky singled out several stages in the development of conceptual generalization in a child. The formation of the structure of concepts begins with "syncretic" images, amorphous and approximate, and then the stage of potential concepts (pseudo-concepts) passes. The meaning of the word, therefore, develops from the concrete to the abstract, generalized.

L.P. Fedorenko also identifies several degrees of generalization of words in terms of meaning.

The zero degree of generalization are proper names and names of a single object. At the age of 1 to 2 years, children learn words, correlating them only with a specific subject. The names of objects, therefore, are for them the same proper names as the names of people.

By the end of the 2nd year of life, the child learns the words of the first degree of generalization, that is, he begins to understand the generalized meaning of the names of homogeneous objects, actions, qualities - common nouns.

At the age of 3, children begin to learn words of the second degree of generalization, denoting generic concepts (toys, dishes, clothes), generalizing the names of objects, signs, actions and the form of a noun (flight, swimming, blackness, redness).

By about 5 years old, children learn words denoting generic concepts, that is, words of the third degree of generalization (plants: trees, herbs, flowers; movement: running, swimming, flying; color: white, black), which are a higher level of generalization for layers of the second degree of generalization.

By adolescence, children are able to absorb and comprehend words of the fourth degree of generalization, such as state, sign, subjectivity etc.

The enrichment of the child's life experience, the complication of his activities and the development of communication with other people lead to a gradual quantitative growth of the vocabulary. There are significant discrepancies in the literature regarding the volume of the vocabulary and its growth, since there are individual characteristics vocabulary development in children depending on the conditions of life and education.

According to E. A. Arkip, the growth of the dictionary is characterized by the following quantitative features: 1 year - 9 words, 1 year 6 months. -- 39 words, 2 years - 300 words, 3 years 6 months - 1110 words, 4 years - 1926 words.

According to A. Stern, by the age of 1.5 a child has about 100 words, by 2 years - 200 - 400 words, by 3 years - 1000 - 1100 words, by 4 years - 1600 words, by 5 years - 2200 words .

According to A. N. Gvozdev, in the dictionary of a four-year-old child there are 50.2% of nouns, 27.4% of verbs, 11.8% of adjectives, 5.8% of adverbs, 1.9% of numerals, 1.2% of conjunctions, 0 .9% of prepositions and 0.9% of interjections and particles.

The vocabulary of an older preschooler can be considered as a national language model, since by this age, the child has time to learn all the basic models 10

native language. During this period, the core of the dictionary is formed, which does not change significantly in the future. Despite the quantitative replenishment of the dictionary, the main "framework" does not change (A. V. Zakharova),

Analyzing the vocabulary of colloquial speech of children aged 6 to 7 years, A. V. Zakharova identified the most commonly used significant words in children's speech: nouns (mother, people, boy), adjectives (small, big, childish, bad), verbs ( go, talk, say). Among the nouns in the vocabulary of children, words denoting people predominate. A study of the vocabulary of children in terms of the prevalence of adjectives showed that for every 100 word uses, there are on average only 8.65% of adjectives. Among the most frequent adjectives regularly repeated in children's speech, there are adjectives with a broad meaning and active compatibility (small, big, childish, bad, mother's, etc.), antonyms from the most common semantic groups: size designation (small - large), estimates (good bad); words with weakened concreteness (real, different, general); words included in phrases Kindergarten, New Year), by A. V. Zakharova. An important place among the groups of adjectives in the children's dictionary is occupied by pronominal adjectives. In the general list, the highest frequency is noted for such pronominal adjectives as such(108), which the(47), this(44), their(27), any(22), our(10), all, each(17), mine, most(16).

In the speech of children from 6 to 7 years old, there is a regular repetition of adjectives with the meaning of size (large, small, huge, large, medium, huge, tiny, tiny). A feature of the structure of the semantic field of adjectives with the meaning of size is asymmetry: adjectives with the meaning "big" are presented much more widely than those with the meaning "small".

When analyzing the speech of children from 6 to 7 years old, more than 40 adjectives used by children to designate color are revealed. The adjectives of this group were more common in the speech of children than in the speech of adults. Most often in the speech of children of this age are adjectives black, red, white, blue.

When analyzing the vocabulary of a child of this age, it is noted

also the predominance of a negative assessment over a positive one and active use; comparative degree adjectives.

Thus, with the development of mental processes (thinking, perception, ideas, memory), the expansion of contacts with the outside world, the generalization of the sensory experience of the child, the qualitative change in his activity, the child's vocabulary is formed in quantitative and qualitative aspects.

Words in the lexicon are not isolated units, but are connected to each other by various semantic connections, forming a complex system of semantic fields (A. R. Luria and others). In connection with this, the question of the formation of the lexico-semantic system in ontogeny is relevant.

As the child's thinking and speech develop, the child's vocabulary is not only enriched, but also systematized, i.e., ordered. Words seem to be grouped into semantic fields. The semantic field is a functional formation, a grouping of words based on the commonality of semantic features. In this case, not only words are combined into semantic fields, but also the vocabulary is distributed within the semantic field: the core and periphery are distinguished. The core of the semantic field consists of the most frequent words that have pronounced semantic features.

The organization of lexical consistency in young children and adults occurs in different ways. In young children, the combination of words into groups occurs mainly on the basis of the thematic principle (for example, a dog is a kennel, a tomato is a garden bed). Adults more often combine words related to the same concept (dog - cat, tomato - vegetable).

A. I. Lavrentiev, observing the formation of the lexical-semantic system in children from 1 year 4 months. up to 4 years, identifies 4 stages in the development of the system organization of the children's dictionary.

At the first stage, the child's vocabulary is a set of individual words (from 20 to 50). The set of tokens is unordered.

At the beginning of the second stage, the child's vocabulary begins to increase rapidly. Child's questions about names

the objects and phenomena surrounding him testify to the fact that a certain system of words relating to one situation is being formed in his mind, their groups are formed. The naming of one word from a given group causes the child to name other elements of this group. A. I. Lavrentieva calls this stage situational, and groups of words - situational fields.

In the future, the child begins to realize the similarity of certain elements of the situation and combines lexemes into thematic groups. This phenomenon characterizes the third stage in the formation of a lexical system, which is defined as a thematic stage.

The organization of thematic groups of words causes the development of lexical antonymy (big - small, good - bad).

The contrast "big - small" at this stage replaces all variants of parametric adjectives (long - small, thick - small), and the opposition "good - bad" - all variants of qualitatively evaluative adjectives (evil - good).

A feature of the fourth stage in the development of the lexical system in ontogenesis is the overcoming of these substitutions, as well as the emergence of synonymy. At this stage, the systemic organization of the child's vocabulary approaches in its structure to the lexico-semantic system of adults.

The development of lexical consistency and organization of semantic fields is reflected in the change in the nature of associative reactions.

T. N. Naumova, analyzing the results of an associative experiment conducted with preschoolers 4 and 6 years old, notes high level stereotypical responses to stimulus words. At the same time, the percentage of stereotypical reactions increases in 6-year-old children compared to 4-year-old children.

According to T.N. Naumova, this phenomenon testifies to the active mastery of significant aspects of the meaning of the word by children during this period.

In the analysis of children's responses to the stimulus-noun, the dominance of opposition operations is noted, which culminates in children of 6 years of age. The same tendency towards a strategy of opposition is also observed among reactions to adjectival stimuli.

Based on the analysis of the nature of verbal associations in preschoolers aged 5-8 years, N.V. Serebryakova identified the following stages in the organization of semantic fields.

The first stage is characterized by the unformed semantic field. At this stage, the child relies on the sensory perception of the surrounding situation, and the names of objects surrounding the child (dog ball) predominate as reaction words. .The lexical system has not been formed.. The meaning of the word is included in the meaning of phrases. A large place is occupied by syntagmatic associations (a dog barks).

Second phase. At this stage, the semantic connections of words are assimilated, which differ significantly from each other in terms of semantics, but have a situational, figurative connection. This is manifested in the predominance of thematic associations, which are based on certain images (representations): a house is a roof, a tree is high, etc. At this stage, there is a figurative, motivated nature of the connections. The semantic field is not yet structurally organized, not formalized.

Third stage. At this stage, concepts and classification processes are formed. In the associative experiment, figurative connections are replaced by connections between words that are semantically close, which differ only in one differential semantic feature, which is manifested in the predominance of paradigmatic associations (tree - birch, high - low). There is a differentiation of the structure of the semantic field, the most characteristic relations of which are groupings and opposition.

In the process of the associative experiment, the following types of verbal associations are distinguished, which are most typical for children aged 5-8 years.

1. Syntagmatic associations. This type of association is distinguished when the word-reaction and the word-stimulus make up a phrase, most often agreed (yellow - a flower, a tree - grows).

2. Paradigmatic associations are such associations when the stimulus word and the reaction word differ in no more than one differential semantic feature (tree - birch, cat - dog, dishes - cup).

Paradigmatic associations correlate differently with stimuli and express different relationships. Among the couple

digmatic associations in preschoolers are observed the following:

a) associations expressing synonymous relations (courage - courage). These reactions are rare in preschoolers;

b) associations expressing antonymic relations, i.e. relations of opposition (high - low, good - bad);

c) associations expressing similarity relations. In this case, one of the elements of the group is selected. An example of these relationships are the names of colors (yellow - red), the names of domestic animals (dog - cat), natural numbers (two - three);

d) associations expressing generic relations (dishes - pan, tree - birch). Relationships "species - genus" in children 5-8 years old are much less common than in adults. This is probably due to the lack of formation of generalization processes in children;

e) associations expressing the relationship "whole - part" (house - roof, tree - branch);

3. Thematic associations. These associations, as well as paradigmatic ones, refer to semantic reactions and characterize the relations of one semantic field. Thematic associations are such associations when the stimulus word and the reaction word differ in more than one semantic feature.

Thematic associations make up a large percentage of all associations of children aged 5-8. If paradigmatic reactions testify to the semantic aspect of the word's meaning, then thematic reactions reflect the pragmatic side of the word's meaning associated with cognitive experience. Therefore, thematic associations are considered as the most psychological in nature.

In children aged 6-8, the following types of thematic associations are observed: a) the relationship of the object and its location (a dog - a kennel, dishes - a house, a tree - a crow);

b) the relationship of the object and the action that is carried out with this object (dishes - wash);

c) cause-and-effect relationships (courage - victory). These associations are sporadic in children;

d) associations of the instrument of action and the object designated by the stimulus word (butterfly net),

e) the relationship of the sign and the object that has this sign (yellow - the sun, good - people , courage - soldier);

f) the relationship between the images of the action and the object (fun - holiday, high - a tree, fast - a hare).

g) associations on one common feature (butterfly

4. Word-building associations. In this case, words derived from the desired are given as reactions. Two subtypes of such associations can be distinguished:

a) stimulus words and reaction words belong to the same part of speech (hare - hare, they say - they talk, quickly - faster). In adults, this subspecies of word-formation associations is almost never found;

b) stimulus words and reaction words refer to different parts of speech (fun - cheerful, high - tall, fox - fox).

Most often, the association to an adverb is an adjective, and to an adjective, a noun, that is, as reactions, words are given from which a word is formed in the history of the language;

5. Associations of grammatical forms of the same word. Most often, plural forms are reproduced as reaction words (table - tables, butterfly

Butterflies, tree - trees).

This type of association, like word-formation associations, is almost never found in adults due to the fact that adults do not perceive word forms as separate words.

Phonetic associations are such associations when the reaction word is consonant with the stimulus word, but there is no obvious semantic connection between the words (butterfly - grandmother, sing - drink). These associations are rare in children.

random associations. In this case, there is no semantic and grammatical connection between the stimulus word and the reaction word, as well as sound similarity (fast - pear, courage - notebook, fox - boat). Most often, in response to the stimulus word, children name objects of the environment. This type of association is very

common in children, especially 5-6 years. In adults, this type of association does not occur.

In the process speech development the child changes the nature of verbal associations. According to N. V. Serebryakova, at the age of 7, children experience a qualitative leap in the formation of lexical consistency, in the organization of semantic fields. This is expressed in the fact that the ratio of paradigmatic and syntagmatic reactions in the associative field changes significantly. It is known that an adult in an associative experiment mainly has paradigmatic associations, which is a sign of the formation of the semantic field. In children of 5-6 years of age, syntagmatic reactions prevail over paradigmatic ones, they occur many times more often. At 7-8 years, on the contrary, paradigmatic reactions are much more common than syntagmatic ones.

In children 5-6 years old, thematic associations are more common. At 5 years old, they take the 2nd place in prevalence, at 6 years old - the 3rd place and are more common than paradigmatic ones. It is known that thematic associations express the connections of a word with the periphery of the semantic field, they reflect the connections between objects fixed in experience. They are more psychological than semantic associations. At the age of 7, thematic associations are observed much less frequently than paradigmatic ones. This indicates that in children of 7-8 years old, the core of the semantic field is already beginning to form.

Analysis of associations among second-graders, conducted by N. V. Ufimtseva, showed that junior schoolchildren the leading strategy is to respond with a single root word. The opposition strategy, which is the leading one in 6-year-old children, ceases to be dominant in 2nd grade schoolchildren. A significant role in second-graders begins to play the strategy of selecting synonyms for the original word. Apparently, the response of a single-root word to a stimulus word is associated with the process of school education.

cheniya, during which there is an awareness of the morphemic structure of the word.

The study by T. N. Rogozhnikova using a free associative experiment conducted with subjects from 4 to 28 years old makes it possible to identify some patterns in the development of lexical consistency.

With increasing age, the percentage of stereotypical reactions to the same stimulus word decreases and the number of different reactions increases. At the age of 8-12 years, there is a slight decrease in the number of different reactions, and then their growth continues.

As children age, there is a decrease in the number of specific reactions.

The active process of developing the meaning of a word and lexical consistency does not end at school age, but continues in adults. In different age periods, “not only the sets of lexico-semantic variants of polysemantic words change, but the degree of relevance of individual lexico-semantic variants for certain age groups also varies” (Rogozhnikova T.N. Comparison of associative reactions of children of different age groups in conditions of norm and pathology // Psycholinguistic research in the field of vocabulary and phonetics. Kalinin, 1983. P. 139).

Thus, the strategy for searching for associative reactions in children with normal speech and mental development changes with age.

The formation of a child's vocabulary is closely related to the processes of word formation, since as word formation develops, the child's vocabulary is quickly enriched with derivative words. The lexical level of a language is a set of lexical units that are the result of an action and a mechanism for word formation.

The word-formation level of the language acts as a generalized reflection of the way in which new words are formed on the basis of certain rules for the combination of morphemes and the structure of the derived word. The unit of the word-formation level is univerbs (model-types). Univerb is a derivative word that implements the formed idea of ​​the model-type of word formation.

The development of word formation in children in the psychological, linguistic, psycholinguistic aspects is considered in close connection with the study of the word creation of children, the analysis of children's word-formation neologisms (K. I. Chukovsky, T. N. Ushakova, S. N. Zeitlin, A. M. Shakhnarovich and others .). The mechanism of children's word creation is associated with the formation of language generalizations, the phenomenon of generalization, and the formation of a system of word formation.

Lexical means, due to their limitations, cannot always express the child's new ideas about the surrounding reality, so he resorts to word-building means.

If a child does not own a ready-made word, he "invents" it according to certain rules already learned earlier, which is manifested in children's word creation. Adults notice and make adjustments to a word independently created by the child if this word does not correspond to the normative language. If the created word coincides with the existing one in the language, people around do not notice the word creation of the child (S. N. Tseitlin).

In the process of speech development, the child gets acquainted with the language as a system. But he is not able to assimilate at once all the regularities of the language, the entire most complex language system that an adult uses in his speech. In this regard, at each stage of development, the language of the child is a system that differs from the language system of adults, with certain rules for combining language units. As the child's speech develops, the language system expands and becomes more complex based on the assimilation of an increasing number of rules, patterns of language, which fully applies to the formation of lexical and word-building systems.

The result of reflection and consolidation in the consciousness of the systemic connections of the language is the formation of language generalizations in the child. In the process of perception and use of words that have common elements, words are divided into units (morphemes) in the child's mind. Children's word creation is a reflection of the formation of some and at the same time the unformedness of other language generalizations.

According to T. N. Ushakova, “with the initial formation of generalized verbal structures in conditions

the actions of linguistic stereotypes create opportunities for further self-development of linguistic forms, which is partly expressed in children's word creation (Ushakova T.N. The role of word creation in the acquisition of the native language // Proceedings of the Third Symposium on Psycholinguistics,M..1970, C 125). The main role in children's word creation belongs to the active, creative attitude of the child to the word.

According to the hypothesis of G. A. Cheremukhina and A. M. Shakhnarovich, the mechanism of the word-formation level consists of the interaction of two levels: the word-formation proper and the lexical one.

Study of the nomination process when answering questions in children from 2 years 10 months. up to 7 years 3 months, conducted by G. A. Cheremukhina and A. M. Shakhnarovich, showed that word-formation and lexical levels are in dynamic interaction. In different age periods, they are used as background or as leading ones when creating a nomination unit.

Children's answers junior group(2 years 10 months - 3 years 8 months) showed that during this period the lexical level prevails, and the stage of mastering the rules of word formation is just beginning.

AT middle group(4 years - 5 years 2 months) noted largest number words-neologisms, which indicates the predominance of the word-formation level.

Children preparatory group(6 years 1 month - 7 years 3 months) most often used lexical units of the language in the process of nomination, and they resorted to word-formation means when there was a shortage of time or when they forgot the right word.

Thus, in the early stages of language acquisition, the leading role belongs to the lexical level, and in the future, the word-formation level comes to the fore,

Children's word creation is characterized by the use of regular (productive) word-building models. Having mastered a productive word-formation model, the child “generalizes” this model (according to T. N. Ushakova), transfers it by analogy to other cases of word formation, which are subject to less productive patterns, which manifests itself in a variety of non-normative word formations. The essence of "generalization" is, therefore, that

similar phenomena can be named in a similar way (hare - fox, pig, hedgehog, squirrel, elephant; snowflakes - springs). This phenomenon is possible due to the fact that the child, analyzing the speech of others, isolates certain morphemes from words and correlates them with a certain meaning. So, by highlighting the morpheme -nit- from words soap dish, candy bowl, sugar bowl, the child correlates this morpheme with the meaning of a dish, a container for something. And in accordance with this meaning, the child forms words like sunflower.

Thus, on the basis of isolating a word-building morpheme from a word, models-types are fixed in the child's mind, in which certain meanings are associated with a certain sound form.

In the process of verbal communication, the child does not just borrow words from the speech of others, does not just passively fix words and phrases in his mind. Mastering speech, the child is active: he analyzes the speech of others, highlights morphemes and creates new words by combining morphemes. In the process of mastering word formation, therefore, the child performs the following operations: isolating a morpheme from words - generalizing the meaning and the connection of this meaning with a certain form - synthesis of morphemes in the formation of new words.

Most often, neologisms in children's speech are the result of the fact that the child uses word-building morphemes in accordance with their exact meaning, however, when word-building, the correct root element is combined with affixes alien to this root (not accepted in the language). Most often, the child at the same time replaces synonymous affixes, uses productive suffixes instead of unproductive ones (salt girl, sailor, fox, postman, umbrella, ailment, co-even, pig, shattered, remembered, slept off).

Another word-formation mechanism underlies neologisms of the “folk etymology” type (dig - shovel, shoulder blade - digger, gore - zaroga, crackers - mowers, vaseline - mazeline, compress - mokress, saliva - spit, policeman - street officer).

Neologisms of this type are formed differently. There is no irregularity in the combination of selected morphemes. The main feature of these neologisms is the replacement of one

the sound of the word to others. At the same time, the etymology of the word changes, its meaning is rethought. This shows the child's desire to establish a connection between an incomprehensible word and the meaning of familiar and understandable ones.

This type of neologisms testifies to the functioning in the child's mind of a system of interverbal connections, a "verbal network", to the beginning of the establishment of a word-formation paradigm.

The nature of children's word-building neologisms reveals certain patterns of the initial stage of word formation. In the process of mastering word formation, the following main trends stand out:

1) the tendency to “align” the stem, the preservation of the identity of the root (stem) in the derived word. This trend is multifaceted, which is manifested in the fact that in derivative words alternation, stress change, consonantization of the stem vowel, suppletivism are often not used;

replacement of productive derivational affixes with unproductive ones;

the transition from simple to complex both in terms of semantics and in terms of formal sign expression.

The sequence of appearance of word-building forms in children's speech is determined by their semantics, their function in the structure of the language. Therefore, at first, semantically simple, visually perceptible, well-differentiated word-building forms appear. So, for example, first of all, the child masters diminutive forms of nouns. Much later, the names of people's professions, the differentiation of verbs with prefixes, and other forms that are more complex in semantics appear in speech.

Thus, the mastery of word formation is carried out on the basis of the mental operations of analysis, comparison, synthesis, generalization and prefers a fairly wide level of intellectual and speech development.

R.I. Lalaeva, N.V. Serebryakova believe that the development of a child's vocabulary is closely connected, on the one hand, with the development of thinking and other mental processes, and, on the other hand, with the development of all components of speech: the phonetic-phonemic and grammatical structure of speech.

With the help of speech, words, the child means only what is available to his understanding. In this regard, words appear early in the child's vocabulary.

wa of a specific meaning, later - words of a generalizing nature.

The development of vocabulary, according to R.I. Lalaeva, N.V. Serebryakova, in ontogenesis is also due to the development of the child's ideas about the surrounding reality. As the child gets acquainted with new objects, phenomena, signs of objects and actions, his vocabulary is enriched. The development of the surrounding world by a child occurs in the process of non-speech and speech activity with direct interaction with real objects and phenomena, as well as through communication with adults.

The initial function of a child's speech is to establish contact with the outside world, the function of communication. The activity of a young child is carried out jointly with an adult, and in this regard, communication is situational.

R.I. Lalaeva, N.V. Serebryakova emphasize that the prerequisites for the development of speech are determined by two processes. One of these processes is the non-speech objective activity of the child himself, that is, the expansion of ties with the outside world through a concrete, sensory perception of the world. The second most important factor in the development of speech, including the enrichment of the dictionary, is the speech activity of adults and their communication with the child. AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

In this regard, the development of vocabulary is largely determined by social environment in which the child is raised. The age norms of the vocabulary of children of the same age fluctuate significantly depending on the social level of the family, since the vocabulary is acquired by the child in the process of communication.

R.I. Lalaeva, N.V. Serebryakova note that at the end of the first and beginning of the second year of a child's life, a verbal stimulus gradually begins to acquire more and more strength. In the initial stage, the reaction to it manifests itself in the form of an orienting reflex. In the future, on its basis, a second-order reflex is formed - the child develops imitation, multiple repetitions of the word. During this period of development of the child's speech, babbling words appear.

This stage in the development of children's speech is called the "word-sentence" stage. At this stage, words express either a command or an indication, or they name an object or action.

At the age of 1.5 to 2 years, the child's complexes are divided into parts, which enter into various combinations with each other. During this period, the child's vocabulary begins to grow rapidly, which by the end of the second year of life is about 300 words of various parts of speech.

The development of a word in a child occurs both in the direction of the subject correlation of the word, and in the direction of the development of meaning.

L.S. Vygotsky, analyzing the development of the meaning of a word in ontogeny, wrote: “Speech and the meaning of words developed naturally, and the history of how the meaning of a word developed psychologically helps to illuminate to a certain extent how the development of signs occurs, how the first sign naturally arises in a child, how, on the basis of a conditioned reflex, the mechanism of designation is mastered.

Initially, a new word arises in a child as a direct connection between a specific word and an object corresponding to it.

The first stage in the development of children's words proceeds according to the type of conditioned reflexes. Perceiving a new word (conditioned stimulus), the child associates it with the object, and later reproduces it.

So, at the age of 1.5 to 2 years, the child moves from the passive acquisition of words from the people around him to the active expansion of his vocabulary during the period of using the questions: “what is this?”, “what is it called?”.

By the age of 3.5 - 4 years, the subject relatedness of the word in the child acquires a fairly stable character, the process of forming the subject relatedness of the word continues.

In the process of the formation of vocabulary, the meaning of the word is clarified.

Initially, the meaning of the word is polysemantic, its meaning is amorphous, vague. A word can have multiple meanings. One and the same word can denote both an object, a sign, and an action with an object.

The word is accompanied by a certain intonation, gestures that clarify its meaning. In parallel with the clarification of the meaning of the word, the structure of the meaning of the word develops.

The word takes on different shades of meaning depending on the context and depending on intonation.

In the process of ontogenesis, the meaning of the word develops. L.S. Vygotsky wrote: “Any meaning of a word. is a generalization. But the meanings of words evolve. The moment a child learns a new word for the first time. the development of the word has not ended, it has just begun; it is at first a generalization of the most elementary type and only as it develops does it pass from a generalization of an elementary type to all higher types of generalization, completing this process with the formation of genuine and real concepts. The structure of the meaning of the word in different age periods is different.

The child, first of all, masters the denotative component of the meaning of the word, i.e. establishes a connection between a specific subject (denotation) and its designation.

The conceptual, conceptual component of the meaning of a word is acquired by the child later as the operations of analysis, synthesis, comparison, and generalization develop. Gradually, the child masters the contextual meaning of the word. Initially, in the formation of subject correlation, words are greatly influenced by secondary, situational factors, which later cease to play a role in this process.

At an early stage of speech development, the subject relatedness of a word is influenced by the situation, gesture, facial expressions, intonation, the word has a diffuse, extended meaning. During this period, the subject relatedness of a word can easily lose its specific subject relatedness and acquire a vague meaning.

The development of a connection between linguistic signs and reality is the central process in the formation of speech activity in ontogeny.

At the initial stage of mastering the signs of a language, the name of an object is, as it were, a part or property of the object itself. At this stage, the meaning of the word is a way of fixing in the mind of the child the idea of ​​this subject.

At the first stages of acquaintance with the word, the child cannot yet acquire the word in its "adult" meaning. At the same time, the phenomenon of incomplete mastery of the meaning of the word is noted, since initially the child understands the word as the name of a specific object, and not as the name of a class of objects.

In the process of developing the meaning of a word, mainly in children from 1 to 2.5 years old, phenomena of shifted reference, or stretching of the meanings of words, supergeneralization are noted. At the same time, the transfer of the name of one object to a number of others associated with the original object is noted. The child uses the word to name a number of objects that have one or more common features (shape, size, movement, material, sound, taste), as well as the general functional purpose of objects.