Age features of children of primary schoolchildren. Age features of younger students. Age and individual characteristics of younger students
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on the topic: “Age features of the younger school age»
1. Mental characteristics of children of primary school age
2. Development interpersonal relationships primary school age in the peer group
3. Imagination and creativity junior schoolchildren
1. Mental features dechildren of primary school age
Primary school age (from 6-7 to 9-10 years old) is determined by an important external circumstance in a child's life - admission to school.
A child who enters school automatically occupies a completely new place in the system of human relations: he has permanent responsibilities associated with educational activities. Close adults, the teacher, even strangers communicate with the child not only as a unique person, but also as with a person who has taken upon himself the obligation (whether voluntarily or under duress) to study, like all children at his age. The new social situation of development introduces the child into a strictly normalized world of relationships and requires him to be organized arbitrariness, responsible for discipline, for the development of performing actions associated with the acquisition of skills. learning activities as well as mental development. Thus, the new social situation of schooling toughens the child's living conditions and acts as a stressful one for him. Every child who enters school has increased mental tension. This affects not only the physical health, but also the behavior of the child.
Before school, the individual characteristics of the child could not interfere with his natural development, since these characteristics were accepted and taken into account by close people. The school standardizes the conditions of a child's life. The child will have to overcome the trials that have piled on him. In most cases, the child adapts himself to standard conditions. Education becomes the leading activity. In addition to assimilating special mental actions and actions serving writing, reading, drawing, labor, etc., the child, under the guidance of a teacher, begins to master the content of the main forms of human consciousness (science, art, morality, etc.) and learns to act in accordance with traditions and new people's social expectations.
According to the theory of L.S. Vygotsky, school age, like all ages, opens with a critical, or turning point, period, which was described in the literature earlier than others as a crisis of seven years. It has long been noted that in the transition from preschool to school age a child changes very sharply and becomes more difficult to educate than before. This is some kind of transitional stage - no longer a preschooler and not yet a schoolboy.
Recently, a number of studies devoted to this age have appeared. The results of the study can be schematically expressed as follows: a 7-year-old child is distinguished, first of all, by the loss of childish spontaneity. The immediate cause of childish immediacy is the lack of differentiation between inner and outer life. The child's experiences, desires and expression of desires, i.e. behavior and activity usually represent an insufficiently differentiated whole in the preschooler. The most significant feature of the crisis of seven years is usually called the beginning of differentiation of the inner and outer sides of the child's personality.
The loss of immediacy means the introduction into our actions of an intellectual moment that wedged between experience and immediate action, which is in direct contrast to the naive and direct action characteristic of the child. This does not mean that the crisis of seven years leads from direct, naive, undifferentiated experience to the extreme pole, but, indeed, in each experience, in each of its manifestations, a certain intellectual moment arises.
At the age of 7, we are dealing with the beginning of the emergence of such a structure of experience, when the child begins to understand what it means "I rejoice", "I am upset", "I am angry", "I am kind", "I am evil", i.e. . he has a meaningful orientation in his own experiences. Just as a three-year-old child discovers his relationship with other people, so a seven-year-old discovers the very fact of his experiences. Thanks to this, some of the features that characterize the crisis of seven years come to the fore.
Experiences acquire meaning (an angry child understands that he is angry), thanks to this, the child develops such new relationships with himself that were impossible before the generalization of experiences. As on a chessboard, when with each move completely new connections between the pieces arise, so here completely new connections between experiences arise when they acquire a certain meaning. Consequently, the whole character of the child's experiences is rebuilt by the age of 7, just as a chessboard is rebuilt when the child has learned to play chess.
By the time of the crisis of seven years, for the first time, a generalization of experiences, or an affective generalization, the logic of feelings, arises. There are deeply retarded children who experience failure at every turn: ordinary children play, an abnormal child tries to join them, but he is refused, he walks down the street and is laughed at. In a word, he loses at every step. In each individual case, he has a reaction to his own insufficiency, and in a minute you look - he is completely pleased with himself. Thousands of individual failures, but no general feeling of little value, he does not generalize what has happened many times already. A generalization of feelings arises in a child of school age, i.e., if some situation happened to him many times, he develops an affective formation, the nature of which also relates to a single experience, or affect, as a concept relates to a single perception or memory . For example, a child of preschool age does not have real self-esteem, pride. The level of our requests to ourselves, to our success, to our position arises precisely in connection with the crisis of seven years.
A child of preschool age loves himself, but self-love as a generalized attitude towards himself, which remains the same in different situations, but self-esteem as such, but a generalized relationship to others and an understanding of his value in a child of this age is not. Consequently, by the age of 7, a number of complex formations arise, which lead to the fact that the difficulties of behavior change dramatically and radically, they are fundamentally different from the difficulties of preschool age. imagination creativity junior schoolboy
Such neoplasms as pride, self-esteem remain, but the symptoms of the crisis (manipulation, antics) are transient. In the crisis of seven years, due to the fact that differentiation of the internal and external arises, that for the first time a meaningful experience arises, an acute struggle of experiences also arises. A child who does not know whether to take bigger or sweeter candies is not in a state of internal struggle, although he hesitates. The internal struggle (contradictions of experiences and the choice of one's own experiences) becomes possible only now.
A characteristic feature of primary school age is emotional impressionability, responsiveness to everything bright, unusual, colorful. Monotonous, boring classes sharply reduce cognitive interest at this age and give rise to a negative attitude towards learning. Going to school makes a big difference in a child's life. A new period begins with new duties, with the systematic activity of teaching. The life position of the child has changed, which makes changes in the nature of his relations with others. The new circumstances of the life of a small schoolboy become the basis for such experiences that he did not have before.
Self-esteem, high or low, gives rise to a certain emotional well-being, causes self-confidence or disbelief in one's own strength, a feeling of anxiety, an experience of superiority over others, a state of sadness, sometimes envy. Self-esteem is not only high or low, but also adequate (corresponding to the true state of affairs) or inadequate. In the course of solving life problems (educational, everyday, gaming), under the influence of achievements and failures in the activities performed, the student may experience inadequate self-esteem - increased or decreased. It evokes not only a certain emotional reaction, but often a long-term negatively colored emotional well-being.
Communicating, the child simultaneously reflects in the mind the qualities and properties of a communication partner, and also cognizes himself. However, now in the pedagogical and social psychology not developed methodological foundations the process of formation of younger schoolchildren as subjects of communication. By this age, the basic block of the psychological problems of the personality is structured and the mechanism of development of the subject of communication changes from imitative to reflexive.
An important prerequisite for the development of a younger student as a subject of communication is the appearance in him, along with business communication a new extra-situational-personal form of communication. According to M.I. Lisina, this form begins to develop from the age of 6. The subject of such communication is a person. The child asks the adult about his feelings and emotional states, and also tries to tell him about his relationships with peers, demanding from the adult an emotional response, empathy with his interpersonal problems.
2. Development of interpersonal relationships of primary school age in a peer group
The peer group also includes the peer group of primary school age.
A junior student is a person who actively masters communication skills. At this age there is an intensive establishment of friendly contacts. Acquiring the skills of social interaction with a peer group and the ability to make friends is one of the most important developmental tasks at this age stage.
With the arrival at school, there is a decrease in collective ties and relationships between children of primary school age compared with preparatory group kindergarten. This is due to the novelty of the team and new educational activities for the child.
Acquiring the skills of social interaction with a group of peers and the ability to make friends is one of the most important tasks in the development of a child at this age stage.
The new social situation and new rules of behavior lead to the fact that in the first year of education the level of comfort of children increases, which is a natural consequence of entering a new group. Communication with peers plays an important role at this age. It not only makes self-esteem more adequate and helps the socialization of children in new conditions, but also stimulates their learning.
The relationship of first graders is largely determined by the teacher through the organization educational process. It contributes to the formation of statuses and interpersonal relationships in the classroom. Therefore, when conducting sociometric measurements, it can be found that among the preferred ones are often children who study well, who are praised and singled out by the teacher.
By grades II and III, the teacher's personality becomes less significant, but ties with classmates become closer and more differentiated.
Usually children begin to communicate on sympathy, commonality of any interests. The proximity of their place of residence and gender also plays a significant role.
A characteristic feature of the relationship between younger schoolchildren is that their friendship is based, as a rule, on the commonality of external life circumstances and random interests; for example, they sit at the same desk, live side by side, are interested in reading or drawing ... The consciousness of younger schoolchildren has not yet reached the level to choose friends according to any essential personality traits. But in general, children in grades III-IV are more deeply aware of certain qualities of personality and character. And already in grade III, if necessary, choose classmates for joint activities. About 75% of third-grade students motivate their choice by certain moral qualities of other children.
The materials of sociometric studies confirm that success in school is accepted by students as main characteristic personality. Answering questions, with whom do you want to sit at a desk and why? Who do you want to invite to your birthday and why him?
85% of students in grade I and 70% in grade II motivated their choice by the success or failure of their peers in school, and if the choice fell on an unsuccessful student, help was offered. Very often, in their assessments, the guys referred to the teacher.
It is at primary school age that the socio-psychological phenomenon of friendship appears as an individually selective deep interpersonal relationship of children, characterized by mutual affection based on a feeling of sympathy and unconditional acceptance of the other. At this age, group friendships are most common. Friendship performs many functions, the main of which is the development of self-awareness and the formation of a sense of belonging, connection with a society of their own kind.
According to the degree of emotional involvement of the child's communication with peers, it can be comradely and friendly. Friendly communication - emotionally less deep communication of the child, is realized mainly in the classroom and mainly with the same sex. Friendly - both in the classroom and outside it, and also mostly with the same sex, only 8% of boys and 9% of girls with the opposite sex. The relationship between boys and girls in the lower grades is spontaneous.
The main indicators of humanistic relations between boys and girls are sympathy, camaraderie, friendship. With their development, there is a desire for communication. Personal friendship in elementary school is very rarely established in comparison with personal camaraderie and sympathy. The teacher plays an important role in these processes.
Typical inhumane relations between boys and girls are (according to Yu.S. Mitina):
The attitude of boys towards girls: swagger, pugnacity, rudeness, arrogance, refusal of any relationship ...
The attitude of girls towards boys: shyness, complaints about the behavior of boys ... or in some cases the opposite phenomena, for example, children's flirting.
Relationships between boys and girls need constant attention and adjustment, they should be intelligently managed, not relying on the fact that they will develop correctly on their own.
Thus, it can be concluded that the interpersonal relationships of peers of primary school age depend on many factors, such as academic success, mutual sympathy, common interests, external life circumstances, gender characteristics. All these factors influence the choice of the child's relationship with peers and their significance.
Pupils treat their comrades differently: the student chooses some classmates, does not choose others, rejects others; relation to some is stable, to others is not stable.
There are three social circles for each student in each class. In the first circle of communication are those classmates who are the object of constant stable choices for the child. These are the students for whom he experiences steady sympathy, emotional attraction. Among them there are those who, in turn, sympathize with this student. Then they are united by a mutual connection. Some students may not even have a single comrade for whom he would feel stable sympathy, that is, this student does not have the first circle of desired communication in the class. The concept of the first circle of communication includes both a special case and a grouping. The grouping consists of students who are united by a mutual connection, that is, those who are in the first circle of communication with each other.
All classmates, to whom the student feels more or less sympathy, make up the second circle of his communication in the class. The psychological basis of the primary team becomes such a part of the general team, where the students mutually make arcs for each other the second circle of desired communication.
These circles are certainly not a frozen state. A classmate who used to be in the second round of communication for the student can enter the first one, and vice versa. These circles of communication also interact with the widest third circle of communication, which includes all students in this class. But schoolchildren are in personal relationships not only with classmates, but also with students from other classes.
In the primary grades, the child already has a desire to occupy a certain position in the system of personal relationships and in the structure of the team. Children often have a hard time with the discrepancy between the claims in this area and the actual state.
The system of personal relationships in the classroom develops in the child as he masters and school reality. The basis of this system is made up of direct emotional relationships that prevail over all others.
In the manifestation and development of children's need for communication, students primary school there are significant individual differences. Two groups of children can be distinguished according to these characteristics. For some, communication with comrades is mainly limited to school. For others, communication with comrades already occupies a considerable place in life.
Primary school age is a period of positive changes and transformations that occur with the child's personality. That is why the level of achievements made by each child at this age stage is so important. If at this age the child does not feel the joy of learning, does not gain confidence in his abilities and capabilities, it will be more difficult to do this in the future. And the position of the child in the structure of personal relationships with peers will also be more difficult to correct.
The position of the child in the system of personal relationships is also influenced by such a phenomenon as speech culture.
The speech culture of communication consists not only in the fact that the child pronounces correctly and correctly selects the words of politeness. A child who has only these capabilities can cause peers to feel a condescending superiority over him, since his speech is not colored by his volitional potential, expressed in expression, self-confidence and self-esteem.
It is the means digested and used by the child effective communication First of all, the attitude of the people around him will be determined. Communication becomes a special school social relations. The child still unconsciously discovers the existence of different styles of communication. It is in conditions of independent communication that the child discovers various styles of possible relationship building.
Thus, the development of relationships in the group is based on the need for communication, and this need changes with age. She is satisfied with different children differently. Each member of the group occupies a special position both in the system of personal and in the system of business relations, which are influenced by the success of the child, his personal preferences, his interests, speech culture, and at the end of grades III-IV and individual moral qualities.
3. Imagination and creativity of younger students
The first images of the child's imagination are associated with the processes of perception and his play activity. A one and a half year old child is still not interested in listening to stories (fairy tales) of adults, since he still lacks the experience that generates perception processes. At the same time, one can observe how, in the imagination of a playing child, a suitcase, for example, turns into a train, a silent, indifferent to everything that happens, a doll into a crying little man offended by someone, a pillow into an affectionate friend. During the period of speech formation, the child uses his imagination even more actively in his games, because his life observations are sharply expanded. However, all this happens as if by itself, unintentionally.
Arbitrary forms of imagination "grow up" from 3 to 5 years. Imagination images can appear either as a reaction to an external stimulus (for example, at the request of others), or initiated by the child himself, while imaginary situations are often purposeful, with an ultimate goal and a pre-thought-out scenario.
The school period is characterized by the rapid development of the imagination, due to the intensive process of acquiring versatile knowledge and using it in practice.
Individual features of the imagination are clearly manifested in the process of creativity. In this sphere of human activity, imagination about significance is placed on a par with thinking. It is important that for the development of imagination it is necessary to create conditions for a person under which freedom of action, independence, initiative, and looseness are manifested.
It has been proven that imagination is closely connected with other mental processes (memory, thinking, attention, perception) that serve learning activities. Thus, not paying enough attention to the development of imagination, primary teachers reduce the quality of education.
In general, primary schoolchildren usually do not have any problems associated with the development of children's imagination, so almost all children who play a lot and in a variety of ways in preschool childhood have a well-developed and rich imagination. The main questions that in this area may still arise before the child and the teacher at the beginning of training relate to the connection between imagination and attention, the ability to regulate figurative representations through voluntary attention, as well as the assimilation abstract concepts which are difficult to imagine and imagine for a child, as well as for an adult.
Senior preschool and junior school age are qualified as the most favorable, sensitive for the development of creative imagination, fantasies. Games, conversations of children reflect the power of their imagination, one might even say, a riot of fantasy. In their stories and conversations, reality and fantasy are often mixed, and the images of the imagination can, by virtue of the law of the emotional reality of the imagination, be experienced by children as quite real. The experience is so strong that the child feels the need to talk about it. Such fantasies (they are also found in adolescents) are often perceived by others as lies. Parents and teachers often turn to psychological counseling, alarmed by such manifestations of fantasy in children, which they regard as deceit. In such cases, the psychologist usually recommends that you analyze whether the child is pursuing any benefit with his story. If not (and most often it happens that way), then we are dealing with fantasizing, inventing stories, and not with lies. This kind of storytelling is normal for kids. In these cases, it is useful for adults to join the children's game, to show that they like these stories, but precisely as manifestations of fantasy, a kind of game. Participating in such a game, sympathizing and empathizing with the child, an adult must clearly designate and show him the line between the game, fantasy and reality.
At primary school age, in addition, there is an active development of the recreative imagination.
In children of primary school age, several types of imagination are distinguished. It can be recreative (creating an image of an object according to its description) and creative (creating new images that require the selection of material in accordance with the plan).
The main trend that occurs in the development of children's imagination is the transition to an increasingly correct and complete reflection of reality, the transition from a simple arbitrary combination of ideas to a logically reasoned combination. If a child of 3-4 years old is satisfied with two sticks laid crosswise for the image of an airplane, then at 7-8 years old he already needs an external resemblance to an airplane ("so that there are wings and a propeller"). A schoolboy at the age of 11-12 often designs a model himself and demands from it an even more complete resemblance to a real aircraft ("so that it would be just like a real one and would fly").
The question of the realism of children's imagination is connected with the question of the relation of the images that arise in children to reality. The realism of the child's imagination is manifested in all forms of activity available to him: in play, in visual activity, when listening to fairy tales, etc. In play, for example, a child's demands for credibility in a play situation increase with age.
Observations show that the child strives to depict well-known events truthfully, as happens in life. In many cases, the change in reality is caused by ignorance, the inability to coherently, consistently portray the events of life. The realism of the younger schoolchild's imagination is especially evident in the selection of game attributes. For a younger preschooler in the game, everything can be everything. Older preschoolers are already selecting material for the game according to the principles of external similarity.
The younger student also makes a strict selection of material suitable for play. This selection is carried out according to the principle of maximum closeness, from the point of view of the child, of this material to real objects, according to the principle of the possibility of performing real actions with it.
The obligatory and main protagonist of the game for schoolchildren in grades 1-2 is a doll. With it, you can perform any necessary "real" actions. She can be fed, dressed, she can express her feelings. It is even better to use a live kitten for this purpose, since you can already really feed it, put it to bed, etc.
The corrections to the situation and images made during the game by children of primary school age give the game and the images themselves imaginary features, bringing them closer and closer to reality.
A.G. Ruzskaya notes that children of primary school age are not deprived of fantasizing, which is at odds with reality, which is even more typical for schoolchildren (cases of children's lies, etc.). “Fantasying of this kind still plays a significant role and occupies a certain place in the life of a younger student. Nevertheless, it is no longer a simple continuation of the fantasizing of a preschooler who himself believes in his fantasy as in reality. A 9-10 year old student already understands the “conventionality "his fantasies, his inconsistency with reality."
Concrete knowledge and fascinating fantastic images built on their basis coexist peacefully in the mind of a junior schoolchild. With age, the role of fantasy, divorced from reality, weakens, and the realism of children's imagination increases. However, the realism of a child's imagination, in particular the imagination of a younger schoolchild, must be distinguished from its other feature, close, but fundamentally different.
The realism of the imagination involves the creation of images that do not contradict reality, but are not necessarily a direct reproduction of everything perceived in life.
The imagination of a younger schoolchild is also characterized by another feature: the presence of elements of reproductive, simple reproduction. This feature of children's imagination is expressed in the fact that in their games, for example, they repeat the actions and situations that they observed in adults, play out stories that they experienced, which they saw in the cinema, reproducing the life of the school, family, etc. without changes. The theme of the game is the reproduction of impressions that took place in the lives of children; the storyline of the game is a reproduction of what was seen, experienced, and necessarily in the same sequence in which it took place in life.
However, with age, the elements of reproductive, simple reproduction in the imagination of a younger student become less and less, and more and more creative processing of ideas appears.
According to L.S. Vygotsky, a child of preschool and primary school age can imagine much less than an adult, but he trusts the products of his imagination more and controls them less, and therefore imagination in the everyday, "cultural sense of the word, i.e. something like what is real, imaginary, in a child, of course, more than in an adult.However, not only the material from which the imagination builds is poorer in a child than in an adult, but also the nature of the combinations that are added to this material, their quality and the variety is considerably inferior to the combinations of an adult.Of all the forms of connection with reality that we have listed above, the child's imagination, to the same extent as the adult's imagination, has only the first, namely, the reality of the elements from which it is built.
V.S. Mukhina notes that at primary school age, a child in his imagination can already create a variety of situations. Being formed in the game substitutions of some objects for others, the imagination passes into other types of activity.
In the process of educational activity of schoolchildren, which goes in the primary grades from living contemplation, an important role, as psychologists note, is played by the level of development cognitive processes: attention, memory, perception, observation, imagination, memory, thinking. The development and improvement of the imagination will be more effective with purposeful work in this direction, which will entail the expansion of the cognitive capabilities of children.
At primary school age, for the first time, there is a division of play and labor, that is, activities carried out for the sake of pleasure that the child will receive in the process of the activity itself and activities aimed at achieving an objectively significant and socially assessed result. This distinction between play and work, including educational work, is an important feature of school age.
The importance of imagination in primary school age is the highest and necessary human ability. However, it is this ability that needs special care in terms of development. And it develops especially intensively at the age of 5 to 15 years. And if this period of imagination is not specially developed, in the future there will be a rapid decrease in the activity of this function.
Along with a decrease in a person’s ability to fantasize, a person becomes impoverished, the possibilities of creative thinking decrease, interest in art, science, and so on goes out.
Younger students carry out most of their vigorous activity with the help of imagination. Their games are the fruit of the wild work of fantasy, they enthusiastically engage in creative activity. The psychological basis of the latter is also creative imagination. When, in the process of learning, children are faced with the need to comprehend abstract material and they need analogies, support with a general lack of life experience, imagination also comes to the aid of the child. Thus, the significance of the function of imagination in mental development is great.
However, fantasy, like any form of mental reflection, must have a positive direction of development. It should contribute to a better knowledge of the world around self-disclosure and self-improvement of the individual, and not develop into passive daydreaming, replacing real life dreams. To accomplish this task, it is necessary to help the child use his imagination in the direction of progressive self-development, to enhance the cognitive activity of schoolchildren, in particular the development of theoretical, abstract thinking, attention, speech and overall creativity. Primary school children love to play artistic creativity. It allows the child to reveal his personality in the most complete free form. All artistic activity is based on active imagination, creative thinking. These features provide the child with a new, unusual view of the world.
Thus, one cannot but agree with the conclusions of psychologists and researchers that imagination is one of the most important mental processes and the level of its development, especially in children of primary school age, largely depends on the success of mastering the school curriculum.
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The onset of school maturity. During ten school years, a child goes a long way, during which he grows, matures and reaches a mature type of functioning of his body, intelligence is formed.
Children grow and develop unevenly. Periods of intensive growth processes are replaced by their inhibition, periods of elongation alternate with periods of rounding. Throughout the individual development of the organism, constant, regular changes occur both in the size of the body and in the functional characteristics of organs and systems.
As a result of changes at each stage of ontogenesis, specific properties of individual systems and the organism as a whole are formed for each stage. Accounting for these properties is necessary when planning and conducting both pedagogical and hygienic, recreational and sports events.
Entering school, the beginning of children's education in school, marks a major change in their lives. It changes completely, especially the mode of work and rest. Taking the first step in classroom Having got into the atmosphere of the lesson for the first time, the child finds himself in completely new conditions for him. These conditions are accompanied by the necessary long-term and sustained attention, limitation of physical activity, which makes the beginning of schooling one of the most difficult stages in a child's life. In addition, the beginning of schooling is one of the three critical periods of postnatal ontogenesis. It is this fact that needs to be paid attention to by experienced teachers in whose hands we will give our children. Therefore, before moving on to the characteristics of school age, let us dwell on the age of the first year of schooling.
The first year of schooling falls on a very important age period, characterized by accelerated morphological and functional transformations in the child's body. In the works of a number of authors Tsyganov G.V. (1996), Feldman R.I. (1996), A. Boraito Perez et al (1998) noted that the limitation of motor activity associated with an increase in the volume and intensity of mental load, especially with the inclusion in learning programs various forms of education, has a significant impact on the child's body, including the cardiovascular system. So in many children there is a change in the T wave of the electrocardiogram, which indicates a decrease in metabolic processes in the myocardium, which in turn leads to a slowdown in the development of the heart muscle (G.V. Tsyganov, 1996). The P wave remains at a high level, which indicates a large sympathetic functional effect on the heart, and this allows you to keep the heart in constant tension even at rest. These changes are largely worrisome and the main reason for them is the decrease in physical activity in children in the first year of schooling.
By the time the child enters school, his height reaches ½ the length of the body of an adult (this period, 5-7 years in age physiology, is called the stretching period). The development of the organism of children of this age is characterized by heterochrony: the length of the body and the size of the head increase to a lesser extent than the length of the limbs of the arms and legs. The muscles of the hand reach a significant, but not final, development. Already by the time they enter school, their coordination becomes quite fine, which contributes to mastering the skills of drawing, modeling, however, as we have already indicated, this age is characterized by heterochrony, which leads to more intensive development of large muscles, which makes it difficult to perform fine precise movements. Therefore, it is at this age that spelling is difficult for children.
During the first year of study, the morphological and functional development of the nervous system continues. Despite the end of the morphological development of the cerebral cortex (the size of the cortical zones is 80% of the size of an adult), the instability of nervous processes is still characteristic of higher nervous activity during this period. In the behavior of children of this age great importance has imitation, creativity and initiative are shown.
To ensure the functioning of the brain as a whole, the degree of maturation of connections between different structures is important. The development of these connections does not end by the age of 6-7, the connections of the frontal regions with other areas of the cortex and subcortical structures are formed the latest (by the age of 15-16) (D.A. Farber et al. 1990). This means that although by the beginning of schooling the child's brain is largely structurally mature, the connections of the cerebral cortex continue to develop. This happens under the influence of external influences: education and training. That is why games are of great importance for the development of children of this age. And as P.P. Lesgaft: “Play is an exercise through which a child prepares for life.”
At the age of 6-7 years, the skeletal system also undergoes changes. So, for example, at this age, the ribs grow, their position changes. Due to the change in the shape of the chest caused by the growth of the ribs, the nature of breathing also changes: if earlier breathing was mainly “abdominal”, then from this age it becomes “chest-abdominal”. Thus, in the mechanism of inhalation and exhalation, the intercostal muscles begin to play a leading role.
This age is characterized by a high level of metabolic processes in all tissues of the body. At rest, the energy consumption by the body of a child of 6-7 years old is 2-3 watts / kg of body weight. This high level of energy consumption in children is provided by more intensive work of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. That. children of the first year of schooling are characterized by a high respiratory rate of 24-26 respiratory cycles per minute, a small breathing depth of 140-150 ml. Heart rate - 95-98 beats / min. The relative volumetric blood flow rate (per unit body weight) in children is 2 times higher than in adults, which is the reason for providing tissue metabolic processes with oxygen.
From the age of 6, rapid improvement of vasomotor reactions of peripheral vessels begins. That is why various hardening procedures are effective at this age.
So, the age of 6-7 years, the age of the first year of schooling is one of the main stages of adaptation to the new conditions of social existence.
Special studies have shown that some 6-7-year-old children who have not yet reached school maturity, during the entire academic year, poorly adapt to new conditions, show low working capacity and educational activity compared to "mature" peers. These qualities in "immature" children persisted for the next 3 years.
That is why, the question of how to improve, optimize the functional state of the nervous system of first-graders, how to reduce the negative consequences of neuropsychic stress becomes very strict.
It has been found that aerobic physical exercises have a particularly favorable effect on the central nervous system of children.
Studies (R.A. Abzalov, 1985, 1988; R.R. Nigmatullina et al., 1992; JS Harrell et al 1997; T.G. Kirillova 2000) have shown that the limitation of the motor activity of a developing organism affects not only the central nervous system, but also on the functioning of the cardiovascular system. In children of the first year of schooling, insufficient physical activity hinders the growth of stroke minute blood volume and age-related decrease in heart rate. In the conditions of daily physical exercises in children of the first year of schooling, the development of fitness bradycardia, an increase in stroke and minute blood volume, and an increase in the efficiency of the pumping function of the heart occur (T.G. Kirillova, 2000). In addition, physical exercises are necessary to improve the regulation of the functional state of the central nervous system, increase its adaptive capabilities during mental and physical stress.
Junior school age. Subsequent years of schooling, i.e. in the primary grades, there is a slowdown in the rate of growth in length. This period falls on the age of 7-10 years and is referred to as the primary school age.
This period, according to A.A. Markosyan, is called the second childhood and is the most calm in the development of children: there is a smooth change in the structures and functions of the body. Despite the slowdown in growth rates, the length of the body increases more intensively than the mass.
During the development of children, the process of ossification of the skeleton occurs, i.e. replacement of cartilage with bone. The timing of bone tissue formation is closely related to certain stages of physical and sexual development and is a kind of its barometer. So, for example, the appearance of ossification points of the styloid process in girls and boys occurs at the age of 7, while in the pisiform bone, ossification points appear at 9 years old in girls and only at 11 years old in boys. By the age of 9-11, ossification of the phalanges of the fingers ends, and the pelvic bones develop intensively from the age of 8-10, especially in girls. At this age, due to changes in the structure of the ligamentous apparatus, cartilaginous and bone elements of the spine, the curves of the spine are gradually formed: by the age of 7, the cervical and thoracic curvatures are established, and only by the age of 12 - the lumbar. The spine is most mobile until the age of 8-9, as a result of which cases of posture disorders and spinal deformities are often noted in younger schoolchildren. All these features of the formation of the skeleton must be taken into account when building physical education classes in schools, as well as training processes. Excessive loads on the lower limbs, sharp shocks when jumping, especially on one leg, can cause displacement of the pelvic bones, lead to flat feet. Greater intensity and volume of physical activity at this age lead to significant energy consumption, which can lead to growth retardation.
At primary school age, muscles have thin fibers, are poor in protein and fats, contain a lot of water, so they need to be developed gradually, diversified. The ratio of muscle fiber types changes: the number and relative area of red and intermediate fibers increase compared to white ones. So, at this age, you can begin the gradual development of endurance. In children 7-10 years old, the bulk of skeletal muscles consists of type I fibers. It is known that type I is characterized by a predominance of aerobic energy, which is associated with oxidation processes in mitochondria (Kositsky, 1985). The aerobic way of obtaining energy is more economical, it is retained for a long time than the anaerobic (oxygen-free), which leads to rapid fatigue.
The concentration and activity of enzymes responsible for oxidative processes in the muscles are also very high - almost as high as athletes
(D.A. Farber, 1990). The morphological structure of the muscles is such that each fiber is in close contact with the capillaries that deliver blood to the muscles, and with it oxygen and nutrients. Children of this age are characterized by a high need for oxygen despite the relatively low mass of skeletal muscles, the ratio of maximum oxygen consumption (MOC) at the age of 9-10 years is almost 2 times higher than that of adults. An interesting fact is that after this age - junior school, such phenomena are no longer observed.
A high need for oxygen is also characteristic of the tissues of internal organs, as well as the brain. At primary school age, a child's brain consumes twice as much oxygen as an adult's brain.
The structure and functional activity of the brain undergoes significant changes. At this age, the growth and structural differentiation of nerve cells ends. However, the functional indicators of the nervous system are still far from perfect. In the cortical-subcortical interaction, the cortex is in the lead. The maturation of the cerebral cortex is reflected in the EEG and indicates a high degree of formation of the state of rest for receiving and processing information coming from outside. Strengthening the influence of the cortex in relation to subcortical structures contributes to an increase in restraint in the manifestation of emotions, comprehension of behaviors. According to Swedish scientists, one cannot ignore the fact that the female brain functions differently from the male one. It has been established that girls learn information with amazing ease at primary school age. Therefore, the commission of the Ministry of Education came to the conclusion that they should study the exact sciences in the lower and middle grades, while boys - in the older ones.
During the primary school age, the prerequisites are created for the perfect recognition of visual stimuli, the selection of the most significant information is improved according to a predetermined instruction or internal impulse, which is primarily associated with increased involvement in the process of perception of the frontal sections of the cerebral cortex (D.A. Forber, 1990). The emotional characteristics of the stimulus and its greater informational significance begin to play a smaller role. Thus, primary school age is the age of transition from reflex emotionality to the intellectualization of emotions.
Despite the completion of the morphological development of the nervous system, the excitation process still prevails, which leads to rapid fatigue. High excitability, high plasticity of the nervous system contributes to better and faster mastering of breathing skills. At the age of 7-10 years, children can easily master technically complex forms of movement. At the same time, they have a pronounced transcendental inhibition and weak resistance to the effects of extraneous stimuli.
Age-related changes in the cardiovascular system in primary school age are characterized by uniformity, relatively slower rates of increase in the volume of the heart compared to the total lumen of the vessels. The mass of the heart at this age is 83-122 gr. One of the reasons for the relatively low blood pressure at the age of 7-10 years is the relatively large lumen of the precapillary and capillary network. Those. at this age is SD = 100-105 mm. rt. Art., DD = 53-62 mm. rt. Art. A regular decrease in heart rate with age is associated with the morphological and functional formation of the heart, an increase in systolic blood volume (by the age of 7 years, CO = 23 ml, by 10 years - 37 ml), the appearance and formation of centers of the vagus nerve. So, at the age of 7-8 years, heart rate = 80-92 beats / min, and by the age of 10 it is 76-84 beats / min.
With the emergence of vagal innervation and a further increase in its severity in ontogenesis, the activity of the heart becomes more economical, and the reserve of its performance and stability increases. Strengthening parasympathetic influences on the heart is closely related to the development of strong muscles. However, at primary school age, sympathetic influences on the heart are still more pronounced than parasympathetic ones. In children 7-10 years old, the contractility of the myocardium is still insufficient and its functional reserve is small, which is associated with the predominance of sympathetic influences on the heart. Despite the fact that the heart of younger schoolchildren can quite easily adapt to physical activity and quickly recover when resting to its original level, its activity is often unstable. As a result, children may experience various cardiac arrhythmias and sudden changes in blood pressure.
Up to 7-8 years of age, the indicators of the respiratory system continue to increase. Thus, the volume of the lungs increases by 8 times, and by the age of 10 - 10 times compared with newborns and is ½ of the lung volume of an adult organism. Moreover, the increase in volume occurs not due to an increase in the number of alveoli, but due to an increase in their volume. With age, the ratio of the frequency and depth of breathing changes. So, if at the age of 7 the respiratory rate is 23, by the age of 10 there is a decrease to 18-20 cycles per minute. The depth of breathing, on the contrary, increases: at 7 years old - 165 ml, and at 10 years old - 255 ml. Until the age of 8, the minute volume of respiration (MOD) in boys and girls has equal absolute values, and then it becomes higher in boys. This is due to the prepubertal differentiation of types of breathing - abdominal in boys and chest in girls. The relative value of the MOD in younger schoolchildren is higher than in adolescents and young men and is in the range of 3500 - 4400 ml. At this age, children can already control their breathing at rest. The breath holding time on exhalation is 26-39 seconds, on inspiration - 17-20 seconds.
However, with intense muscular work, breathing in children becomes uneven, superficial, more frequent than in adults, the maximum values of pulmonary ventilation in 8-year-olds are only 30-40 l / min, in 10-year-olds 40-50 l / min, which is much less. is a consequence of the predominant influence of sympathetic influence on the body of a younger student.
Among the factors providing a sharp increase with age in the reliability of physiological systems, an important role is played by energy. In children of primary school age, the necessary daily energy consumption is very high, which is associated with a greater intensity of oxidative processes. Daily energy consumption is 2.400-2.800 kcal. A more intense energy metabolism in children prevents the accumulation of significant reserves of energy substrates in their tissues, i.e. reserve energy potential is relatively small. This makes all the functions of the child's body less reliable, therefore, the reaction of the body of younger schoolchildren to physical activity is marked by a significant originality, which is especially noticeable in terms of respiratory and circulatory functions. With a prolonged load, younger students have lower values of the IPC. So, in boys of 8-9 years old, the IPC reaches only 1.5 l / min, and in girls - 1.0 l / min.
Oxygen consumption during low physical activity in younger schoolchildren is higher than in adolescents and even young men, while the percentage of oxygen use, i.e. its disposal, below. This means that when performing work of equal volume, younger schoolchildren experience greater total energy expenditure and a lower oxygen pulse (the amount of oxygen in ml per heart beat): 8-9 year old boys - 8 ml / bpm, girls - 5.4 ml/sp. In children of this age, anaerobic productivity is also reduced, i.e. limited ability to work in oxygen duty. Younger schoolchildren stop intense physical activity when the KD is only 800-1200 ml. Another equally important factor of less reliability is the immaturity of the body's regulatory systems.
In this regard, and also because of the lack of reserves, any physiological reaction involves in vigorous activity not only those tissues and organs that are directly necessary for its implementation, but also others that can help achieve the ultimate goal. This generalized type of response is uneconomical and is not commonly seen in adults. In children, any tension in the body is always associated with an active restructuring of the work of almost all organs and systems, which entails a high price of adaptation in primary school age to changes in external conditions. As the majority of first-graders adapt to school conditions, the stress of physiological functions decreases. However, by the end of the school year, fatigue accumulates and tension increases again. It is interesting to note that girls experience significantly less stress and adapt more easily to new conditions. Most children, of course, safely go through a difficult period of adaptation to school, but for some, the associated stress is excessive. Such children of primary school age may experience a variety of functional disorders, such as growth retardation, changes in blood composition, decreased reactivity and resistance, as well as a decrease in physical and mental performance. All this has a negative effect on the ability to assimilate educational material, complicates the psycho-physiological state of the child, which is already in tension. And it is only on the professionalism of teachers that the definition of the first signs of overstrain depends, the creation, if necessary, of a gentle regime by reducing study load and social assistance.
All these features of the organism of primary school age must be taken into account, first of all, for the subsequent harmonious development of children.
Middle school age. Adolescence is the years of transition to adulthood, both socio-psychologically and biologically.
Adolescence is characterized by the maximum growth rate of the whole organism, an increase in oxidative processes, an increase in the functional reserves of the body, activation of assimilatory processes, and an increase in the processes of morphological and functional differentiation of the brain and internal organs. To a large extent, the specificity of this age is determined by a biological factor - the process of puberty. Puberty is characterized by accelerated sexual development, which ends with puberty. Girls in puberty are 1-2 years ahead of boys, and there are also individual differences in terms and rates.
The process of puberty proceeds under the control of the central nervous system and endocrine glands. The leading role in it is played by the hypothalamic - pituitary system. In the very center of the base of the brain is the hypothalamus - a complex of nerve nuclei, which is evolutionarily the most ancient center for regulating the functions of internal organs and endocrine glands. This nerve center is directly adjacent to the main endocrine gland - the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus controls the activity of the pituitary gland, which, in turn, with the help of special hormones produced by it, controls most of the other glands in the body. These are the so-called tropic hormones, these include somatotropin, which activates growth processes, and gonadotropic, which increase the production of sex hormones in the adrenal glands and gonads. In the adrenal cortex, androgens begin to be intensively produced, which ensure the appearance and development of secondary sexual characteristics, affect the growth and development of muscles, and the process of maturation of the skeleton. Under the influence of pituitary hormones, the activity of the thyroid gland increases and metabolism changes. Entering the blood, hormones become powerful regulators of the growth and development of the body, lead to the formation of secondary sexual characteristics, i.e. those external properties that are characteristic of an adult and reflect his gender.
Puberty, accompanied by a significant increase in sympathetic effects on the body, an increase in the excitability of the cerebral cortex and an increase in the general reactivity of the nervous system, contributes to an increase in emotionality, causes a change in blood pressure, the rhythm of cardiac activity and respiration. Increased excitability and insufficient balance of the main nervous processes can contribute to a temporary disruption of the interactions of motor and autonomic functions, cause less rational adaptive reactions of respiration and blood circulation, which is especially pronounced during muscle efforts.
In adolescence, the skeletal system is in a state of increased growth. The long tubular bones of the upper and lower extremities grow especially rapidly, the growth of the vertebrae in height accelerates. The growth of the bones in width is insignificant. The spine is still mobile and supple. Therefore, due to the lag in the development of muscle tissue from the growth of the bone skeleton, under adverse conditions and at this age, various postural disorders or spinal deformities may occur. The use of excessive muscle loads accelerates the process of ossification and can cause a slowdown in the growth of tubular bones in length. By the age of 12-13, ossification of the wrist and metacarpus ends. The development of bone tissue is largely dependent on the growth of muscle tissue.
The muscular system develops rapidly during puberty. Excitability increases, functional mobility (lability) of muscles increases. They acquire the ability to reproduce a higher rhythm of irritations. By the age of 14-15, muscles in their properties already reach the data of adults. A sharp jump in magnification total weight muscle development occurs at 13 years of age. So, if at 8 years old muscles make up 27% of body weight, at 12 years old - about 29%, at 15 years old already about 33%. The diameter of the muscle fibers changes. But the functionality of the muscles is still much lower than in adults. So, in 12-year-olds, muscle strength is 65% compared to 20-30-year-olds, and in 15-year-olds - 92%. The productivity of work per unit of time in 14-15-year-olds is 65-70% of the productivity of adults. At this age, the development of the innervation apparatus of muscles, coordination of movements basically ends. Long-term performance of finely differentiated movements becomes possible.
Restructuring in the structure of skeletal muscles cannot but affect muscle performance. There is a slight increase in the ability of adolescents to perform cyclic work, especially in areas of high and moderate power, i.e. under such loads, where the main source of energy is the aerobic process. The power that a teenager can develop due to aerobics is growing, and the duration of continuous retention of a load of such power is also growing, i.e. workload. At this stage of puberty, general endurance training is effective, however, it must be remembered that pubertal changes in the body are still far from complete and care should be taken in increasing the intensity and volume of training sessions. On the other hand, the training of strength and speed-strength qualities during this period is ineffective, and the use of such loads in the normal and non-workout forms should be limited. At this age, the maturation of fast musculoskeletal fibers and nerve spinal centers that control their contraction significantly reduces the time of motor reactions, improves dexterity and other manifestations of movement coordination. The angularity of movements disappears, therefore, at this age, adolescents begin to get involved in dancing (D.A. Farber et al., 1990).
Deep changes occurring in the cardiovascular system increase the risk of vegetative dystonia and adolescent hypertension. This must be taken into account both by doctors conducting medical examinations, and by teachers and parents who regulate the school load of adolescents. At this stage, the development of the heart is characterized by the most pronounced and rapidly growing changes. The mass of the ventricles increases especially noticeably, and more - the left one. The mass of the heart at this age is 258-260 gr. (300 gr. for an adult). The volume of the heart increases even faster, which is explained by the stimulating effect of the endocrine glands, and hence the increased protein synthesis in the myocardium. If 12-year-olds have an average heart volume of 460 ml, then 15-year-olds have 620 ml.
At this age, the heart is deficient, and in its structural parameters (except for size) it becomes similar to the heart of an adult. However, it should be remembered that often during puberty there is a violation in the harmony of growth in mass and total body size and an increase in the size of the heart, this occurs more often in adolescents with an accelerated type of development. In these cases, the activity of the heart is characterized by low efficiency, insufficient functional reserve and a decrease in adaptive capabilities to physical exertion. The increase in IOC during physical activity occurs mainly due to an increase in heart rate with a slight increase in CO (less than when the size of the heart corresponds to the mass and total body size).
Children of middle school age are characterized by a noticeable increase in daily food requirements. Compared to primary school age, the daily requirement is 2,900 kcal. However, this value is average, since it is necessary to take into account individual fluctuations in the daily requirement, depending on the physique of the adolescent, on the level of basal metabolism per unit of time, etc. Not all body tissues expend energy equally. For example, fat cells and bone tissue are characterized by an insignificant exchange, while the heart, liver, brain, kidneys bear a significant share of the total energy costs of the body. The ratio of different tissues in the body is also individual in nature and depends on gender, age and physique. So in adolescents of the digestive body type, a significant part of the body weight is inert fat, the value of the basal metabolism per unit body weight is much lower than in representatives, for example, of the asthenic type. In addition, in adolescents of the digestive type, puberty ends on average 2 years earlier.
All changes in the process of puberty, namely in the motor functions of growth processes, metabolic processes associated with increased secretion of hormones, purposefully entail changes in brain function. These changes in the functioning of the brain in adolescence are primarily associated with a change in the activity of the hypothalamus, it is here that the centers are located that regulate the activity of the heart, blood vessels, metabolism, and respiration. In addition, many cells of the hypothalamus have the ability to secrete hormones.
In cortical-subcortical interaction, subcortical structures are in the lead. A significant increase in the activity of subcortical structures, especially at the initial stage of puberty, leads to negative changes in the mechanisms of perception and attention. And only at the final stages of puberty, when the sex glands begin to function actively, the activity of the hypothalamus decreases, and the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres begins to dominate in the cortical-subcortical interaction. This dominance leads to the restoration and development of the mechanism of voluntary attention and selective perception. In girls, this occurs by the age of 15, and in boys only by the age of 16-17.
Improving the systemic organization of the physiological functions of adolescence leads to an increase in the functional and adaptive organism of the student. The degree of stress of physiological systems during the school year decreases, fatigue decreases, mental performance indicators improve. However, the body of middle school children is still extremely unstable and prone to diseases and breakdowns. Therefore, during sports, strict medical control over the volume and intensity of loads should be exercised in order to prevent overwork and overstrain of the body. A sensitive, sparing approach to them is necessary especially in those periods when increased demands are placed on a growing and developing organism, when maximum mobilization of all its functions is needed (for example, during intensive mental work, participation in competitions). At the same time, it should be remembered that a rationally constructed sports training helps to overcome temporary contradictions and difficulties of adolescence, and physical inactivity aggravates them.
Teachers should remember that the emotions of adolescents are mobile, changeable, contradictory: hypersensitivity is often combined with callousness, shyness with deliberate swagger, excessive criticism and intolerance towards parental care appear. It is during this period that adolescents especially need and important the sensitive attitude of parents and teachers. You should not specifically draw the attention of adolescents to complex changes in their body, psyche, however, it is necessary to explain the regularity and biological meaning of these changes.
The period of adolescence is characterized by the emergence of a sense of one's identity, individuality. When they are not developed, a diffuse, vague “I”, role and personal uncertainty arises. A teenager, on the one hand, is still a child, and on the other hand, he is already connected to adult life, i.e. its internal position is dual, therefore this age is called “transitional” or “critical”. Teenagers are looking for social roles to follow. The established norms of adults are problematic situations. A teenager is looking for patterns of behavior in the environment that would help him to carry out his line of behavior. He tries on different ways of relationships with people, with peers, the manner of dressing. He pays close attention to his strong-willed qualities. Finds out the intensity of the responses of the environment in response to their forms of behavior, comments, statements, words, facial expressions, gestures, etc. the search activity of a teenager, as it were, is looking for obstacles in order to determine the limits of acceptable norms of behavior. A sharp discrepancy between the knowledge about oneself, the world around, acquired at an earlier age, and the knowledge that a teenager acquires on the basis of interaction with social reality, can lead to internal conflicts, to inadequate actions. A teenager, as it were, probes the norms of society, their stability, limits in different situations, their behavior within these norms.
Adolescents with deviant forms of behavior very often have a low level of intellectual development. Often children who grew up in unfavorable family conditions do not have any pattern of behavior, they lack moral principles. Therefore, deviant forms of behavior arise - alcoholism, drug addiction, early prostitution, etc.
Adolescents are characterized by sharp mood swings due to physiological changes and their intermediate position in society. They are capable of both high emotional feelings - love, self-sacrifice, as well as aggression, negativism. During this period, sympathies, attachments, erotic feelings are formed. Models of sexual behavior are formed. There is a search for your path in life, your calling. Partnership is established in sexual, comradely, professional terms.
The success of education is very dependent on the physiological state, and during puberty, especially in girls, it is often not very good. In girls, the first menstruation is often accompanied by blood loss, negative reactions (vomiting, fever) and weakness. In order to maintain an active state, a teenager needs a certain diet with enough vitamins, alternation of work and rest, mental work and physical work. Due to the psychophysiological characteristics of adolescents, it is much more difficult at this age than at a younger age to introduce them to work, to the ability to organize their activities, to overcome difficulties: many defects in education that were made earlier affect the skills, abilities, personal qualities of adolescents. They have a great desire to feel like adults. However, puberty is not the end of biological maturation, much less social. Age-related transformations of physiological systems continue in senior school age.
Senior school age. Senior school age (15-17 years) is referred to as adolescence and is a crucial stage of development in the life of a student. It is believed that by the beginning of adolescence, the main physiological systems have already matured. However, recent data indicate that this is far from the case.
At that age, the growth and development of the organism continues, differing from previous periods with new features. So, the growth of the body in length slows down and growth in width clearly predominates. Gender differences become clearer. By the age of 17-18, not only growth, but also ossification of the bones is actually completed (complete completion of ossification of the phalanges of the toes, pelvic bones is completed at 20-25 years). At the age of 15-16, ossification of the upper and lower surfaces of the vertebrae begins. The spinal column becomes stronger, and the chest continues to develop successfully and can withstand significant loads by this age. The ossification of the foot and hand is completed.
Muscles in their composition, structure, properties approach the muscles of adults. The musculoskeletal system can withstand significant static stresses and performs quite a long work. The development of the muscular system occurs due to the growth of the diameter of the muscle fiber. Increasingly, there is an increase in muscle mass. In girls, there is a greater increase in body weight than the development of muscle strength. The muscles of young men are elastic, have good nervous regulation, their ability to contract and relax is quite large.
In adolescence, the development of the central nervous system is completed, the analyzer-synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex is significantly improved. Nervous processes are distinguished by great mobility, although excitation still continues to predominate over inhibition.
In older schoolchildren, working capacity is noticeably increased, oxygen divisions become more economical during physical exertion. The body's ability to work in debt is noticeably increased; increased anaerobic performance. Oxygen debt, in which older students stop working, approaching the level of adults.
MPC (anaerobic capacity) in young men increases unevenly. In the period from 15 to 16 years old, there is a distinct increase in the BMD, however, not as large as at 13-14 years old, and after 16 years old it is hardly noticeable. And in girls, already after 14 years, a certain stabilization of the BMD is observed, and its relative value can even decrease, which occurs due to the growth of adipose tissue. The relative value of the IPC is practically approaching the level of adults, at 15-17 years old it is 65-75 ml / atom / m (for average schoolchildren 56 ml / atom / m).
In older schoolchildren, the body's resistance to various environmental factors is lowered, immunological, adaptive mechanisms are imperfect. This dictates the need for special hardening events, especially with young athletes, because. heavy loads, causing a certain tension in the activity of organs and systems, can, under unfavorable conditions, lead to a decrease in the body's resistance. For example, the predominance of loads in the lessons aimed at developing strength and speed-strength qualities contributes to a general increase in motor fitness, but the body's aerobic capabilities do not develop. On the contrary, endurance loads have a positive effect on the development of aerobic capacity, but have little effect on the development of other motor qualities. Only a comprehensive development aimed at all-round development. It describes in detail each stage of school age, starting from the moment of school maturity, exactly when physical activity plays the most important role in improving the growing organism.
Improving the motor qualities leads to the optimal ratio of various aspects of the physical capabilities of high school students.
At senior school age, the structural maturation of the cerebral cortex continues: the ensemble organization of its nerve elements becomes more complex, the concentration of nucleic acids in brain cells increases, and the metabolic capabilities of neurons expand. The results of electrophysiological studies indicate that by the age of 17 the mechanisms of the functional organization of the brain are improved both at rest and during various forms of mental activity. The role of the frontal areas of the cortex in the perception of external information increases, specialization of the hemispheres occurs in this process: at the stage of analyzing the physical characteristics of the signal, the right hemisphere predominates, their classification is carried out with the predominant participation of the frontal segments of the left hemisphere. The specialization of brain structures in perception provides a faster and more accurate response to environmental influences. In adolescence, interhemispheric relations characteristic of an adult are formed during mental activity: the right hemisphere is mainly activated during visual-spatial activity, and the left hemisphere during speech and abstract. Along with this, the role of interhemispheric interaction is increasing.
The cardiovascular system also continues to develop at this age. In 16-17 year old boys, the average volume of the heart is 720 ml, and at the age of 18 it reaches the size of an adult heart. By this time, the ratio of the wall thickness of the left and right ventricles becomes the same as in adults (2.5:I). Sex differences in the size of the heart are especially pronounced: in girls, further growth of the heart muscles occurs two years earlier. The absolute and relative value of the IOC, as well as the value of CO, approaches the values characteristic of adults. So, in 17 year olds, the IOC is 4 l / ml., CO - 60 ml.
Due to the continued increase in vagal tone, resting heart rate reaches adult levels. It should be emphasized that in all age groups, especially older ones, the heart rate of girls is noticeably more frequent than that of boys. The blood pressure rises, however, in young men its increase occurs gradually, and in girls it is slightly undulating, with the greatest development at the age of 15. Therefore, at this age, both systolic and diastolic blood pressure are higher in girls. At the age of 16-17, these differences are smoothed out. At the age of 18, the level of diastolic pressure becomes higher in boys than in girls. You should also take into account a number of factors affecting the magnitude of blood pressure: first of all, blood pressure depends on the physique - it is higher in hypersthenics. In addition, the higher the level of physical development and the degree of puberty, the higher the blood pressure. In older schoolchildren, as in children of middle school age, juvenile hypertension (DM more than 140 ml Hg) may occur, which is associated primarily with an increase in vascular tone due to hormonal hyperfunction in combination with other unfavorable factors. The maximum increase in heart rate in young men is achieved with greater power to work than in adolescents.
At senior school age, there are difficulties associated with the intensity of the study load and emotional stress, which is inevitable during the period of choosing a profession and preparing for entry into adulthood.
A large mental load, sometimes excessive amount of training tasks lead to the fact that in this period of development, which is so important for the formation of a healthy body and lifestyle, the physical activity of young men and especially girls is steadily declining, which is fraught with many negative consequences for their health in the future. Insufficient development of the mechanisms of physiological regulation of vegetative functions, lack of skill in their training is a direct path to the early development of pathological changes in the metabolism, cardiovascular, and immune systems of the body. The high morbidity of the adult population is largely a consequence of insufficient attention to the physical development of young men.
Children grow, develop and change all the time. More recently, you ran after your child to the garden, but now he is already 7 years old, it's time to go to school. And parents are afraid. How to behave with younger students? How not to harm the child and make this period as comfortable as possible?
The most important thing is that your child has remained the same, he just has new interests and responsibilities. And to help him, you just need to know the age characteristics of younger students. Brief characteristics described in the table below.
Junior school age is the period from 6-7 to 10 years. Now the child is changing physiologically. Features of development in this period - muscles grow, the child wants activity and mobility. Particular attention should be paid to posture - it is formed precisely at the age of 6-7 years. Remember - calmly a younger student can sit at the table for ten minutes at most! Therefore, it is very important to correctly organize his workplace, follow the right light in order to protect his eyesight.
Particular attention should be paid to the psychological and age characteristics of younger students. Attention at this age is not stable enough, limited in volume. They can not sit still, a frequent change in the type of activity is necessary. The main way to get information is still the game - children perfectly remember what causes them emotions. Visualization and bright, positive emotions allow younger students to easily memorize and assimilate the material. Use various tables, drawings, toys when working with a child at home. But everything needs a measure. Small physical exercises 
allow you to relieve muscle tension, relax and switch from study to rest, thereby increasing the motivation for learning. It is now that the child's attitude to learning is being formed - faith in one's own strength, the desire to learn and gain knowledge.
Younger students are very active and proactive. But do not forget that at this age they are very easily influenced. environment. Children realize themselves as individuals, compare themselves with others, and begin to build relationships with peers and adults. Psychological feature junior schoolchildren - compliance, gullibility. An important role for children at this age is played by authority. And here it is very important to control the environment in which the child is located. Keep track of who your baby is talking to. But the most important thing should still be the authority of the parents. Communicate with your child, express your point of view, listen to him. Mutual understanding is very important for younger students, because it is now that their own position and self-esteem are beginning to form. And you must fully support him and help in this.
Age features of children of primary school age
Knowing and taking into account the age characteristics of children of primary school age make it possible to correctly build educational work in the classroom. Every teacher should know these features and take them into account when working with primary school children.
Junior school age is the age of 6-11-year-old children studying in grades 1 - 3 (4) of primary school.
This is the age of relatively calm and even physical development. The increase in height and weight, endurance, vital capacity of the lungs is quite even and proportional. The skeletal system of a junior schoolchild is still in the formative stage. The process of ossification of the hand and fingers at primary school age is also not yet completely completed, so small and precise movements of the fingers and hand are difficult and tiring. There is a functional improvement of the brain - the analytical-systematic function of the cortex develops; the ratio of the processes of excitation and inhibition gradually changes: the process of inhibition becomes more and more strong, although the process of excitation still predominates, and younger students are highly excitable and impulsive.
The beginning of schooling means the transition from playing activity to learning as the leading activity of primary school age. Going to school makes a huge difference in a child's life. The whole way of his life, his social position in the team, family changes dramatically. Teaching becomes the main, leading activity, the most important duty is the duty to learn, to acquire knowledge. And teaching is a serious work that requires organization, discipline, strong-willed efforts of the child.
It takes a long time for younger students to form the right attitude towards learning. They do not yet understand why they need to study. But it soon turns out that teaching is labor that requires strong-willed efforts, mobilization of attention, intellectual activity, and self-restraint. If the child is not used to this, then he gets disappointed, a negative attitude towards learning arises. In order to prevent this from happening, it is necessary to instill in the child the idea that learning is not a holiday, not a game, but serious, hard work, but very interesting, as it will allow you to learn a lot of new, entertaining, important, necessary things.
At first, elementary school students study well, guided by their relationships in the family, sometimes a child studies well based on relationships with the team. Personal motive also plays an important role: the desire to get a good grade, the approval of teachers and parents.
At first, he develops an interest in the very process of learning activity without realizing its significance. Only after the emergence of interest in the results of their educational work, an interest is formed in the content of educational activities, in the acquisition of knowledge. It is this basis that is a fertile ground for the formation in the younger schoolchild of the motives for teaching a high social order, associated with a responsible attitude to studies.
The formation of interest in the content of educational activities, the acquisition of knowledge is associated with the experience of schoolchildren a sense of satisfaction from their achievements. And this feeling is reinforced by the approval, praise of the teacher, who emphasizes every, even the smallest success, the smallest progress forward. Younger students experience a sense of pride, a special upsurge of strength when the teacher praises them.
Educational activity in the primary grades stimulates, first of all, the development of mental processes of direct knowledge of the surrounding world - sensations and perceptions. Younger students are distinguished by sharpness and freshness of perception, a kind of contemplative curiosity. The younger student perceives the environment with lively curiosity.
At the beginning of primary school age, perception is not sufficiently differentiated. Because of this, the child "sometimes confuses letters and numbers that are similar in spelling (for example, 9 and 6 or the letters I and R). Although he can purposefully examine objects and drawings, they stand out, just as in preschool age, the most striking, "conspicuous" properties - mainly color, shape and size. If preschoolers were characterized by analyzing perception, then by the end of primary school age, with appropriate training, a synthesizing perception appears. Developing intellect creates an opportunity to establish connections between the elements of the perceived. This can be easily seen when children describe the picture. Age stages of perception:
- 2-5 years - the stage of listing objects in the picture;
- 6-9 years old - description of the picture;
- after 9 years - interpretation of what he saw.
The next feature of the perception of students at the beginning of primary school age is its close connection with the actions of the student. Perception at this level of development is connected with the practical activity of the child. To perceive an object for a child means to do something with it, to change something in it, to perform some action, to take it, to touch it. A characteristic feature of students is a pronounced emotionality of perception.
In the process of learning, perception deepens, becomes more analyzing, differentiating, and takes on the character of organized observation.
It is during the early school years that it develops Attention. Without the formation of this mental function learning process is impossible. A younger student can focus on one thing for 10-20 minutes.
Some age features are inherent in the attention of primary school students. The main one is the weakness of voluntary attention. If older students maintain voluntary attention even in the presence of distant motivation (they can force themselves to focus on uninteresting and difficult work for the sake of a result that is expected in the future), then a younger student can usually force himself to work with concentration only if there is a close motivation (the prospect of getting an excellent mark, earn the praise of the teacher, do the best job, etc.).
Involuntary attention is much better developed at primary school age. Everything new, unexpected, bright, interesting by itself attracts the attention of students, without any effort on their part.
The individual characteristics of the personality of younger schoolchildren influence the nature of attention. For example, in children of a sanguine temperament, apparent inattention manifests itself in excessive activity. The sanguine person is mobile, restless, talks, but his answers in the lessons indicate that he is working with the class. Phlegmatic and melancholy are passive, lethargic, seem inattentive. But in fact, they are focused on the subject being studied, as evidenced by their answers to the teacher's questions. Some children are inattentive. The reasons for this are different: some have laziness of thought, others have a lack of a serious attitude to learning, others have an increased excitability of the central nervous system, etc.
Age features of memory in primary school age develop under the influence of learning. Primary schoolchildren have a more developed visual-figurative memory than a verbal-logical one. They better, faster remember and more firmly retain in memory specific information, events, persons, objects, facts than definitions, descriptions, explanations. Younger students are prone to rote memorization without realizing the semantic connections within the memorized material.
Memorization techniques serve as an indicator of arbitrariness. First, this is a multiple reading of the material, then the alternation of reading and retelling. To memorize the material, it is very important to rely on visual material (manuals, models, pictures).
Repetitions should be varied, some new educational task should become before the students. Even the rules, laws, definitions of concepts that need to be learned verbatim can not just be memorized. To memorize such material, the younger student must know why he needs it. It has been established that children memorize words much better if they are included in a game or some kind of labor activity. For better memorization, you can use the moment of friendly competition, the desire to get the teacher's praise, an asterisk in a notebook, a good mark. The productivity of memorization also increases the comprehension of the memorized material. Ways of understanding the material are different. For example, to keep in memory some text, story, fairy tale, drawing up a plan is of great importance.
It is accessible and useful for the smallest to draw up a plan in the form of a sequential series of pictures. If there are no illustrations, then you can name which picture should be drawn at the beginning of the story, which one later. Then the pictures should be replaced with a list of main thoughts: "What is said at the beginning of the story? What parts can the whole story be divided into? What is the name of the first part? What is the main thing? Thus, they learn to remember not only individual facts, events, but also the connections between them.
Among schoolchildren, there are often children who, in order to memorize the material, only need to read a section of the textbook once or carefully listen to the teacher's explanation. These children not only memorize quickly, but also retain what they have learned for a long time, and easily reproduce it. There are also children who quickly memorize educational material, but also quickly forget what they have learned. In such children, first of all, it is necessary to form an attitude for long-term memorization, to teach them to control themselves. The most difficult case is slow memorization and quick forgetting of educational material. These children must be patiently taught the techniques of rational memorization. Sometimes poor memorization is associated with overwork, so a special regimen is needed, a reasonable dosage training sessions. Very often, poor memory results do not depend on a low level of memory, but on poor attention.
The main trend in the development of imagination in primary school age is the improvement of the recreative imagination. It is associated with the presentation of previously perceived or the creation of images in accordance with a given description, diagram, drawing, etc. The recreating imagination is improved due to an increasingly correct and complete reflection of reality. Creative imagination as the creation of new images, associated with the transformation, processing of impressions of past experience, combining them into new combinations, combinations, is also developing.
The dominant function in primary school age becomes thinking. School education is structured in such a way that verbal logical thinking receives priority development. If in the first two years of education children work a lot with visual samples, then in the next classes the volume of such activities is reduced. Figurative thinking is becoming less and less necessary in educational activities.
Thinking begins to reflect the essential properties and features of objects and phenomena, which makes it possible to make the first generalizations, the first conclusions, draw the first analogies, and build elementary conclusions. On this basis, the child gradually begins to form elementary scientific concepts.
Motives for learning
Among the various social motives for learning, the main place among younger students is occupied by the motive of getting high marks. High grades for a small student are a source of other rewards, a guarantee of his emotional well-being, a source of pride.
In addition, there are other motives:
Internal motives:
1) Cognitive motives- those motives that are associated with the content or structural characteristics of the educational activity itself: the desire to acquire knowledge; the desire to master the ways of self-acquisition of knowledge; 2) Social motives- motives associated with factors influencing the motives of learning, but not related to educational activities: the desire to be a literate person, to be useful to society; the desire to get the approval of senior comrades, to achieve success, prestige; the desire to master ways of interacting with other people, classmates. Achievement motivation in primary school often becomes dominant. Children with high academic performance have a pronounced motivation to achieve success - the desire to do the task well, correctly, to get the desired result. Motivation to avoid failure. Children try to avoid the "deuce" and the consequences that a low mark entails - teacher dissatisfaction, parents' sanctions (they will scold, forbid walking, watching TV, etc.).
External motives- study for good grades, for material reward, i.е. The main thing is not getting knowledge, but some kind of reward.
The development of learning motivation depends on the assessment, it is on this basis that in some cases there are difficult experiences and school maladaptation. School assessment directly affects the formation self-esteem. Children, guided by the teacher's assessment, consider themselves and their peers as excellent students, "losers" and "triples", good and average students, endowing the representatives of each group with a set of appropriate qualities. Assessment of progress at the beginning of schooling, in essence, is an assessment of the personality as a whole and determines social status child. High achievers and some well-performing children develop inflated self-esteem. For underachieving and extremely weak students, systematic failures and low grades reduce their self-confidence, in their abilities. Educational activity is the main activity for a younger student, and if the child does not feel competent in it, his personal development is distorted.
Special attention is always required for hyperactive children with attention deficit disorder.
It is necessary to form voluntary attention. Training sessions must be built according to a strict schedule. Ignore defiant actions and pay attention to good deeds. Provide motor discharge.
Left-handed, who have a reduced ability of visual-motor coordination. Children draw images poorly, have poor handwriting, and cannot keep a line. Distortion of form, specular writing. Skipping and rearranging letters when writing. Errors in determining "right" and "left". Special strategy of information processing. Emotional instability, resentment, anxiety, reduced performance. Special conditions are necessary for adaptation: a right-hand spread in a notebook, do not require a continuous letter, it is recommended to plant by the window, to the left at the desk.
Children with disorders of the emotional-volitional sphere. These are aggressive children, emotionally disinhibited, shy, anxious, vulnerable.
All this must be taken into account not only by the teacher in the classroom, but first of all at home, by the people closest to the child, on whom it largely depends on how the child will react to possible school failures and what lessons he will learn from them.
Primary school age is the age of a fairly noticeable formation of personality. At primary school age, the foundation of moral behavior is laid, the assimilation of moral norms and rules of behavior takes place, and the social orientation of the individual begins to form.
The nature of younger students differs in some features. First of all, they are impulsive - they tend to act immediately under the influence of immediate impulses, motives, without thinking and weighing all the circumstances, for random reasons. The reason is the need for active external discharge with age-related weakness of volitional regulation of behavior.
An age-related feature is also a general lack of will: the younger student does not yet have much experience in a long struggle for the intended goal, overcoming difficulties and obstacles. He can give up in case of failure, lose faith in his strengths and impossibilities. Often there is capriciousness, stubbornness. The usual reason for them is the shortcomings of family education. The child is accustomed to the fact that all his desires and requirements are satisfied, he did not see a refusal in anything. Capriciousness and stubbornness are a peculiar form of a child's protest against the firm demands that the school makes on him, against the need to sacrifice what he wants for the sake of what he needs.
Younger students are very emotional. Everything that children observe, what they think about, what they do, evokes an emotionally colored attitude in them. Secondly, younger students do not know how to restrain their feelings, control their external manifestation, they are very direct and frank in expressing joy, grief, sadness, fear, pleasure or displeasure. Thirdly, emotionality is expressed in their great emotional instability, frequent mood swings. Over the years, the ability to regulate their feelings, to restrain their undesirable manifestations, develops more and more.
Great opportunities are provided by the primary school age for the education of collectivist relations. For several years, with proper education, the younger student accumulates the experience of collective activity, which is important for his further development - activity in the team and for the team. The upbringing of collectivism is helped by the participation of children in public, collective affairs. It is here that the child acquires the basic experience of collective social activity.
The beginning of school age is determined by the moment the child enters school. Initial period school life occupies the age range from 6-7 to 10-11 years (grades 1-4). At primary school age, children have significant reserves of development. During this period, the further physical and psychophysiological development of the child takes place, providing the possibility of systematic education at school.
Physical development. First of all, the work of the brain and nervous system is improved. According to physiologists, by the age of 7 the cerebral cortex is already largely mature. However, the most important, specifically human parts of the brain, responsible for programming, regulation and control of complex forms of mental activity, have not yet completed their formation in children of this age (development of the frontal parts of the brain ends only by the age of 12). At this age, there is an active change of milk teeth, about twenty milk teeth fall out. The development and ossification of the limbs, spine and pelvic bones are at a stage of great intensity. Under unfavorable conditions, these processes can proceed with large anomalies. Intensive development of neuropsychic activity, high excitability of younger schoolchildren, their mobility and acute response to external influences are accompanied by rapid fatigue, which requires careful attitude to their psyche, skillful switching from one type of activity to another.
Harmful influences, in particular, can be exerted by physical overload (for example, prolonged writing, tiring physical work). Improper seating at the desk during class can lead to curvature of the spine, the formation of a sunken chest, etc. At primary school age, uneven psychophysiological development is noted in different children. Differences in the rates of development of boys and girls also persist: girls continue to outpace boys. Pointing to this, some scientists come to the conclusion that in fact in the lower grades “children of different ages sit at the same desk: on average, boys are younger than girls by a year and a half, although this difference is not in the calendar age.” essential physical feature younger schoolchildren is an increased growth of muscles, an increase in muscle mass and a significant increase in muscle strength. The increase in muscle strength and the general development of the motor apparatus determine the greater mobility of younger students, their desire for running, jumping, climbing and the inability to stay in the same position for a long time.
During the primary school age, significant changes occur not only in the physical development, but also in the mental development of the child: the cognitive sphere is qualitatively transformed, the personality is formed, a complex system of relations with peers and adults is formed.
cognitive development. The transition to systematic education makes high demands on the mental performance of children, which is still unstable in younger students, resistance to fatigue is low. And although these parameters increase with age, in general, the productivity and quality of work of junior schoolchildren is about half as high as the corresponding indicators of high school students.
Educational activity becomes the leading activity in primary school age. It determines the most important changes taking place in the development of the psyche of children at this age stage. Within the framework of educational activity, psychological neoplasms are formed that characterize the most significant achievements in the development of younger students and are the foundation that ensures development at the next age stage.
Primary school age is a period of intensive development and qualitative transformation of cognitive processes: they begin to acquire a mediated character and become conscious and arbitrary. The child gradually masters his mental processes, learns to control perception, attention, memory. First grader in terms of mental development remains a preschooler. It retains the peculiarities of thinking inherent in preschool age.
Thinking becomes the dominant function in primary school age. Thought processes themselves are intensively developing and restructuring. The development of other mental functions depends on the intellect. The transition from visual-figurative to verbal-logical thinking is being completed. The child develops logically correct reasoning. School education is structured in such a way that verbal-logical thinking is predominantly developed. If in the first two years of schooling children work a lot with visual samples, then in the following classes the volume of this kind of work is reduced.
Figurative thinking is becoming less and less necessary in educational activities. At the end of primary school age (and later) there are individual differences: among children. Psychologists single out groups of "theorists" or "thinkers" who easily solve learning problems verbally, "practitioners" who need reliance on visualization and practical actions, and "artists" with vivid imaginative thinking. Most children show a relative balance between different types thinking.
The perception of younger students is not sufficiently differentiated. Because of this, the child sometimes confuses letters and numbers that are similar in spelling (for example, 9 and 6). In the process of learning, perception is restructured, it rises to a higher level of development, takes on the character of a purposeful and controlled activity. In the process of learning, perception deepens, becomes more analyzing, differentiating, and takes on the character of organized observation.
It is in early childhood that attention develops. Without the formation of this mental function, the learning process is impossible. At the lesson, the teacher draws the attention of students to the educational material, holds it for a long time. A younger student can focus on one thing for 10-20 minutes.
Some age features are inherent in the attention of primary school students. The main one is the weakness of voluntary attention. The possibilities of volitional regulation of attention, its management at the beginning of primary school age are limited. Involuntary attention is much better developed at primary school age. Everything new, unexpected, bright, interesting by itself attracts the attention of students, without any effort on their part.
The sanguine person is mobile, restless, talks, but his answers in the lessons indicate that he is working with the class. Phlegmatic and melancholy are passive, lethargic, seem inattentive. But in fact, they are focused on the subject being studied, as evidenced by their answers to the teacher's questions. Some children are inattentive. The reasons for this are different: some have laziness of thought, others have a lack of a serious attitude to learning, others have an increased excitability of the central nervous system, etc.
Primary schoolchildren initially remember not what is most significant from the point of view of learning objectives, but what made the greatest impression on them: what is interesting, emotionally colored, unexpected or new. Younger students have a good mechanical memory. Many of them mechanically memorize study tests throughout their education in elementary school, which leads to significant difficulties in the middle classes, when the material becomes more complex and larger in volume.
Among schoolchildren, there are often children who, in order to memorize the material, only need to read a section of the textbook once or carefully listen to the teacher's explanation. These children not only memorize quickly, but also retain what they have learned for a long time, and easily reproduce it. There are also children who quickly memorize educational material, but also quickly forget what they have learned. Usually on the second or third day they already poorly reproduce the learned material. In such children, first of all, it is necessary to form an attitude for long-term memorization, to teach them to control themselves. The most difficult case is slow memorization and quick forgetting of educational material. These children must be patiently taught the techniques of rational memorization. Sometimes poor memorization is associated with overwork, so a special regimen is needed, a reasonable dosage of training sessions. Very often, poor memory results do not depend on a low level of memory, but on poor attention.
Communication. Usually the needs of younger students, especially those who were not brought up in kindergarten, are initially personal orientation. A first-grader, for example, often complains to the teacher about his neighbors who allegedly interfere with his listening or writing, which indicates his concern for personal success in learning. In the first class interaction with classmates through the teacher (me and my teacher). Grade 3 - 4 - the formation of a children's team (we and our teacher).
There are likes and dislikes. There are requirements for personal qualities.
A children's team is formed. The more referential the class, the more the child depends on how his peers evaluate him. In the third - fourth grade, there is a sharp turn from the interests of an adult to the interests of peers (secrets, headquarters, ciphers, etc.).
Emotional development. The instability of behavior, depending on the emotional state of the child, complicates both the relationship with the teacher and the collective work of children in the classroom. In the emotional life of children of this age, first of all, the content side of experiences changes. If the preschooler is happy that they play with him, share toys, etc., then the younger student is mainly concerned about what is connected with teaching, school, and the teacher. He is pleased that the teacher and parents are praised for academic success; and if the teacher makes sure that the feeling of joy from educational work arises in the student as often as possible, then this reinforces the positive attitude of the student to learning. Along with the emotion of joy, emotions of fear are of no small importance in the development of the personality of a junior schoolchild. Often, because of fear of punishment, children tell lies. If this is repeated, then cowardice and deceit are formed. In general, the experiences of a younger student are sometimes very violent. At primary school age, the foundation of moral behavior is laid, the assimilation of moral norms and rules of behavior takes place, and the social orientation of the individual begins to form.
The nature of younger students differs in some features. First of all, they are impulsive - they tend to act immediately under the influence of immediate impulses, motives, without thinking and weighing all the circumstances, for random reasons. The reason is the need for active external discharge with age-related weakness of volitional regulation of behavior.
An age-related feature is also a general lack of will: the younger student does not yet have much experience in a long struggle for the intended goal, overcoming difficulties and obstacles. He can give up in case of failure, lose faith in his strengths and impossibilities. Often there is capriciousness, stubbornness. The usual reason for them is the shortcomings of family education. The child is accustomed to the fact that all his desires and requirements are satisfied, he did not see a refusal in anything. Capriciousness and stubbornness are a peculiar form of a child's protest against the firm demands that the school makes on him, against the need to sacrifice what he wants for the sake of what he needs.
Younger students are very emotional. Emotionality affects, firstly, that their mental activity is usually colored by emotions. Everything that children observe, what they think about, what they do, evokes an emotionally colored attitude in them. Secondly, younger students do not know how to restrain their feelings, to control their external manifestation. Thirdly, emotionality is expressed in their great emotional instability, frequent mood swings, a tendency to affect, short-term and violent manifestations of joy, grief, anger, fear. Over the years, the ability to regulate their feelings, to restrain their undesirable manifestations, develops more and more.
