Interpersonal relationships: types and features. Coursework: Interpersonal relationships and communication Interpersonal relationships and mutual understanding of communication

The interaction of a person with the outside world is carried out in a system of objective relations that develop between people. Objective relations and connections inevitably and naturally arise in any real group. A reflection of these objective relationships between group members are the subjective interpersonal relationships that social psychology studies.

The main way to study interpersonal interaction and interaction within a group is an in-depth study of various social factors, as well as the interaction of people who are part of this group. No human community can carry out a full-fledged joint activity if contact is not established between the people included in it, and a proper mutual understanding is not reached between them.

The classical definition of personality relations was given by V.N. Myasishchev: "Relations are an integral system of individual, selective, conscious connections of a person with different aspects of objective reality, including three interrelated components: a person's attitude to people, to himself, to objects of the outside world" .

According to A.V. Petrovsky, interpersonal relations are "subjectively experienced relationships between people, objectively manifested in the nature and methods of mutual influences exerted by people on each other in the process of joint activities and communication; it is a system of attitudes, orientations, expectations, stereotypes through which people perceive and evaluate each other.

The definition of "interpersonal" indicates not only that the object of the relationship is another person, but also the mutual orientation of the relationship. Interpersonal relationships differ from such types as self-attitude, attitude towards objects, intergroup relations.

The concept of "interpersonal relations" focuses on the emotional and sensory aspect of interaction between people and introduces the time factor and the analysis of communication, since under the condition of interpersonal communication, through the continuous exchange of information, there is a dependence of people who have come into contact with each other, and mutual responsibility for the existing relationship.

The interaction of a person with the social system is carried out through a set of connections, thanks to which he becomes a personality, a subject of activity and an individuality. Relationships that arise between people in the process of communication affect all aspects of people's lives. In their interpersonal communication, one way or another, the whole system of existing social relations, including economic, political, legal, moral, aesthetic, religious, etc., is manifested.

G.M. Andreeva emphasizes that the existence interpersonal relationships within various forms of social relations is the realization of social relations in the activities of specific people, in the acts of their communication and interaction. Public relations are official, formally fixed, objectified, effective connections. They are leading in the regulation of all types of relationships, including interpersonal ones.

Interpersonal communication is carried out in a certain integral environment, in a single emotional atmosphere of communication, with a change in the dynamics of the activity of the participants in the interaction based on mutual reflection. With this type of interaction, the result, as a rule, is the generation of new information at all levels (mastering new aspects of the ecological space, changing the system of meanings, experiencing new affective states, both positive and negative, mastering new knowledge). The structure of a communicative act in the case of interpersonal communication can be clearly presented in Appendix 2.

Interpersonal relationships are based on certain feelings of people, their attitude towards another person. There are formal and informal interpersonal relationships. Relations that develop between people by virtue of their official position are called official (for example, a teacher - a student, a school principal - a teacher, the President of the Russian Federation - the head of the Government of the Russian Federation, etc.). Such relations are built on the basis of officially approved rules and norms (for example, on the basis of the Charter educational institution, the Constitution of the Russian Federation, etc.), in compliance with any formalities. Relationships that arise between people in connection with their joint work can also be called business. Informal relationships (often referred to as personal relationships) are not regulated by law, and there is no appropriate legal basis for them. They develop between people regardless of the work performed and are not limited by established formal rules.

Currently in domestic psychology There are a large number of studies devoted to various aspects of the problem of interpersonal relationships. So, in the monograph by N.N. Obozov "Interpersonal Relations" conducted a deep and thorough study of this problem, which still retains its relevance. The developments of domestic psychologists are based on the ideas of B.G. Ananiev and V.N. Myasishchev about the nature of interpersonal interaction, in which three components can be distinguished: people's knowledge of each other, the relationship to each other in the form of an emotional response and the treatment of a person with a person in the process of communication. V.N. Myasishchev considered communication as a process of interaction between specific individuals, influencing each other in a certain way. In his works, he analyzed the influence of conditions that can promote or hinder interpersonal interaction, as well as the role of communication in personality development. Myasishchev V.N. developed a theory of relations, in which the attitude of a person is always structural and includes the simplest emotional experiences, noting that through the inclusion of evaluative relations in connection with norms and normative criteria, beliefs are formed. B.G. Ananiev considers communication as a social and individual phenomenon, simultaneously manifested in information, communication and transformation. inner world person, what happens in different specific situations communication and interaction between people. At the same time, he establishes the relationship between external conditions and interpersonal communication, and also makes an attempt to determine the optimal amount of communication that is necessary for the development of the personality as a whole. He considered the main directions of the influence of communication on the formation of the mental world of the individual and the relationship of communication with other types of professional activity personality . In the studies of A.A. Bodalev considers interpersonal communication that occurs in the process of joint activity and is its means. It is noted that in the process of officially business communication all components of interpersonal communication are present, but they acquire the character of the most important factor in the effectiveness of professional activity

Style features of interpersonal interaction were studied by T.E. Argentova, G.A. Berulava, L.I. Wasserman, V.A. Goryanina, E.A. Klimov, V.N. Kunitsyna, V.V. Latynov, V.S. Merlin and others. Analysis of interpersonal family relations conducted by A.N. Volkova, V.P. Levkovich, A.E. Lichko, T.M. Mishina, A.N. Obozova, T.G. Rybakova, V.A. Smekhov, T.M. Trapeznikova, A.M. Shershevsky, E.G. Eidmiller, V.V. Yustitsky and others. The study of interpersonal relations at the interethnic level was carried out by L. Anert, M.I. Volovikova, L.R. Goldberg, V.V. Znakov, A.G. Shmelev, A.I. Egorova and others, who in their research drew attention to the influence of interethnic differences on the nature of interpersonal relations. The role and place of interpersonal relations in the educational space was emphasized by A.A. Rean, Ya.L. Kolominsky, D.N. Isaev, V.E. Kagan, N.E. Kolyzaeva, I.S. Kon, V.A. Losenkov, T.V. Kornilova, E.L. Grigorenko, T.S. Koshmanova, N.V. Kuzmin and others. The study of interpersonal relations based on the activity approach was carried out by E.V. Zalyubovskaya, N.V. Kuzmin and others. The influence of feelings and emotions on the nature of relationships between people was studied by D.I. Dzhidaryan, K.E. Izard, I.S. Cohn, V.A. Labunskaya, N.D. Levitov, K.S. Lewis, Yu.A. Mendzheritskaya, K. Muzdybaev, I.M. Paley and others. In the study of various problems of management psychology (E.E. Vendrov, F. Genov, B.F. Lomov, V.M. Shepeli and others), the important role of interpersonal communication in achieving the final result of professional activity is also noted, while psychological features such communication is mainly determined by the goals, objectives, and structure of a particular professional activity.

Thus, interpersonal communication is communication between individuals, due to the circumstances of the natural and social environment, as well as personal motives, manifested in the corresponding needs, interests, goals and ideals of certain people. Interpersonal communication, as a rule, is emotionally colored.

Relations that arise between people in the process of communication can be industrial, political, legal, moral, religious, psychological and others. At the same time, we note that recently there have been many works that deal with the problems of interpersonal communication among youth groups, including student groups. This is due to the fact that the turbulent political, economic and social changes that took place in Russia after 1991 created a fundamentally new situation not only in our country, but throughout the world.

The emergence and formation of interpersonal relationships. Types of relationships. relationship levels.

status and role relationships.

Communication, its functions and structure.

Means and types of communication.

1. Interpersonal (human) relationships- a set of interactions between individuals that make up the social hierarchical ladder. Human relations are predominantly based on the connections that exist between members of society due to different types communication: primarily visual (or non-verbal connections, which include both appearance, and body movements, gestures), linguistic (oral speech), affective, as well as languages built as a result of the development of complex societies (economic, political, etc.).

Classification of interpersonal relationships:

primary relationship : those that are established between people as necessary in themselves.

secondary relationships : those that arise from the need for help or some function that one person performs in relation to another.

stand out social (conventional), emotional (unconventional) and sexual ( intimate ) relations. OR business, marital, parental, related.

Depending on the number of participants : interpersonal (subjective), between an individual and a group, intergroup.

social norms - these are the rules of conduct that regulate the relationship between people and their associations.

The main types of social norms:

Law  these are generally binding, formally defined rules of conduct that are established or sanctioned, and also protected by the state.

moral standards (morality) - the rules of behavior that have developed in society, express people's ideas about good and evil, justice and injustice, duty, honor, dignity. The action of these norms is ensured by internal conviction, public opinion, measures of public influence.

Norms of customs - these are the rules of behavior, which, having developed in society as a result of their repeated repetition, are executed by force of habit.

Norms of public organizations (corporate norms) - these are the rules of conduct that are independently established by public organizations, enshrined in their charters (regulations, etc.), operate within their limits and are also protected from violations by them through certain measures of public influence.

Among social norms there are: religious norms; political norms; aesthetic standards; organizational norms; cultural norms, etc.

2. Status and role relationships

A person daily interacts with different people and social groups. It rarely happens when he fully interacts only with members of one group, for example, a family, but at the same time he can also be a member of a labor collective, public organizations, etc. Entering many social groups at the same time, he occupies in each of them a corresponding relationship with other members of the group. To analyze the degree of inclusion of an individual in various groups, as well as the positions that he occupies in each of them, the concepts of social status and social role are used.

status (from lat. status- position, state) - the position of a citizen.

social status is usually defined as the position of an individual or group in a social system that has features specific to that system. Each social status has a certain prestige.

All social statuses can be divided into two main types: those that are assigned to the individual by society or a group, regardless of his abilities and efforts, and those that the individual achieves through his own efforts.

Variety of statuses

There is a wide range of statuses: prescribed, attainable, mixed, personal, professional, economic, political, demographic, religious, and consanguineous, which are of a variety of basic statuses.

In addition to them, there are a huge number of episodic, non-main statuses. These are the statuses of a pedestrian, a passer-by, a patient, a witness, a participant in a demonstration, a strike or a crowd, a reader, a listener, a TV viewer, etc. As a rule, these are temporary states. The rights and obligations of holders of such statuses are often not registered in any way. They are generally difficult to determine, say, a passerby. But they are, although they affect not the main, but the secondary features of behavior, thinking and feeling. So, the status of a professor determines a lot in the life of a given person. And his temporary status as a passer-by or a patient? Of course not.

So, a person has basic (determining his life activity) and non-basic (affecting the details of behavior) statuses. The first are significantly different from the second.

Behind each status - permanent or temporary, basic or non-basic - there is a special social group or social category. Catholics, conservatives, engineers (basic statuses) form real groups. For example, patients, pedestrians (non-basic statuses) form nominal groups or statistical categories. As a rule, carriers of non-basic statuses do not coordinate their behavior with each other and do not interact.

People have many statuses and belong to many social groups, the prestige of which in society is not the same: businessmen are valued above plumbers or laborers; men have more social "weight" than women; belonging to a titular ethnic group in a state is not the same as belonging to a national minority, etc.

Over time, public opinion is developed, transmitted, supported, but, as a rule, no documents register a hierarchy of statuses and social groups, where some are valued and respected more than others.

A place in such an invisible hierarchy is called rank, which can be high, medium, or low. Hierarchy can exist between groups within the same society (intergroup) and between individuals within the same group (intragroup). And the place of a person in them is also expressed by the term "rank".

The mismatch of statuses causes a contradiction in the intergroup and intragroup hierarchy, which arises under two circumstances:

When an individual occupies a high rank in one group, and a low rank in the second;

When the rights and obligations of one person's status conflict with or interfere with the rights and obligations of another.

A highly paid official (high professional rank) will most likely also have a high family rank as a person who ensures the family's material well-being. But it does not automatically follow from this that he will have high ranks in other groups - among friends, relatives, colleagues.

Although statuses enter into social relations not directly, but only indirectly (through their carriers), they mainly determine the content and nature of social relations.

A person looks at the world and treats other people in accordance with his status. The poor despise the rich, and the rich despise the poor. Dog owners do not understand people who love cleanliness and order on lawns. A professional investigator, albeit unconsciously, divides people into potential criminals, law-abiding and witnesses. A Russian is more likely to show solidarity with a Russian than with a Jew or a Tatar, and vice versa.

Political, religious, demographic, economic, professional statuses of a person determine the intensity, duration, direction and content social relations of people.

Role (French) role) - the image embodied by the actor.

social role is the behavior expected of someone who has a certain social status. or social role a model of human behavior, objectively set by the social position of the individual in the system of social institutions, social and personal relations, i.e. behavior that is expected of a person holding a certain status. Position social place, position of an individual or group in the system of relations in society, determined by a number of specific features and regulating the style of behavior.

Social roles are a set of requirements imposed on an individual by society, as well as actions that a person who occupies a given status in the social system must perform. A person can have many roles.

The status of children is usually subordinate to adults, and children are expected to be respectful towards the latter. The status of soldiers is different from that of civilians; the role of soldiers is associated with risk and fulfillment of the oath, which cannot be said about other groups of the population. The status of women is different from that of men, and therefore they are expected to behave differently from men. Each individual can have big number statuses, and others have the right to expect him to perform roles in accordance with these statuses. In this sense, status and role are two sides of the same phenomenon: if status is a set of rights, privileges and duties, then a role is an action within this set of rights and duties. The social role consists of:

from role expectation (expectation) and

performance of this role (game).

Social roles can be institutionalized and conventional.

Institutionalized: institution of marriage, family (social roles of mother, daughter, wife)

Conventional: accepted by agreement (a person may refuse to accept them)

Cultural norms are assimilated mainly through role training. For example, a person who masters the role of a military man joins the customs, moral norms and laws that are characteristic of the status of this role. Only a few norms are accepted by all members of society, the adoption of most norms depends on the status of a particular person. What is acceptable for one status is unacceptable for another. Thus, socialization as a process of learning the generally accepted ways and methods of action and interaction is the most important process of learning role-playing behavior, as a result of which the individual really becomes part of society.

The social role is interpreted as an expectation, type of activity, behavior, representation, stereotype, social function, and even a set of norms. We consider the social role as a function of the social status of the individual, realized at the level of social consciousness in expectations, norms and sanctions in the social experience of a particular person.

Types of social roles

The types of social roles are determined by the variety of social groups, activities and relationships in which the individual is included. Depending on social relations, social and interpersonal social roles are distinguished.

Social roles associated with social status, profession or type of activity (teacher, pupil, student, seller). These are standardized impersonal roles based on rights and obligations, regardless of who fills these roles. Allocate socio-demographic roles: husband, wife, daughter, son, grandson ... Man and woman are also social roles, biologically predetermined and involving specific ways of behavior, enshrined in social norms and customs.

Interpersonal roles are associated with interpersonal relationships that are regulated on an emotional level (leader, offended, neglected, family idol, loved one, etc.).

In life, in interpersonal relationships, each person acts in some kind of dominant role. social role, a kind of social role as the most typical individual image, familiar to others. It is extremely difficult to change the habitual image both for the person himself and for the perception of the people around him. The longer the group exists, the more familiar the dominant social roles of each member of the group become for others and the more difficult it is to change the stereotype of behavior familiar to others.

The main characteristics of the social role

The main characteristics of the social role are highlighted by the American sociologist Talcott Parsons. He suggested the following four characteristics of any role.

By scale. Some roles may be strictly limited, while others may be blurred.

According to the method of receipt. Roles are divided into prescribed and conquered (they are also called achieved).

Degree of formalization. Activities can proceed both within strictly established limits, and arbitrarily.

By type of motivation. The motivation can be personal profit, public good, etc.

Role Scale depends on the range of interpersonal relationships. The larger the range, the larger the scale. So, for example, the social roles of spouses have a very large scale, since a wide range of relationships is established between husband and wife. On the one hand, these are interpersonal relationships based on a variety of feelings and emotions; on the other hand, relations are regulated by normative acts and in a certain sense are formal. The participants in this social interaction are interested in the most diverse aspects of each other's lives, their relationships are practically unlimited. In other cases, when the relationship is strictly defined by social roles (for example, the relationship of the seller and the buyer), the interaction can be carried out only on a specific occasion (in this case- purchases). Here the scope of the role is reduced to a narrow range of specific issues and is small.

How to get a role depends on how inevitable the given role is for the person. So, the roles of a young man, an old man, a man, a woman are automatically determined by the age and sex of a person and do not require much effort to acquire them. There can only be a problem of matching one's role, which already exists as a given. Other roles are achieved or even won in the course of a person's life and as a result of purposeful special efforts. For example, the role of a student researcher, professors, etc. These are almost all roles associated with the profession and any achievements of a person.

Formalization as a descriptive characteristic of a social role is determined by the specifics of interpersonal relations of the bearer of this role. Some roles involve the establishment of only formal relations between people with strict regulation of the rules of conduct; others, on the contrary, are only informal; still others may combine both formal and informal relationships. Obviously, the relationship of the representative of the traffic police with the violator of the rules traffic should be determined by formal rules, and relations between close people - by feelings. Formal relationships are often accompanied by informal ones, in which emotionality is manifested, because a person, perceiving and evaluating another, shows sympathy or antipathy towards him. This happens when people interact for a while and the relationship becomes relatively stable.

Motivation depends on the needs and motives of the person. Different roles are due to different motives. Parents, caring for the welfare of their child, are guided primarily by a feeling of love and care; the leader works in the name of the cause, etc.

The influence of social role on personality development

The influence of the social role on the development of the individual is quite large. The development of personality is facilitated by its interaction with persons playing a number of roles, as well as its participation in the largest possible role repertoire. The more social roles an individual is able to play, the more adapted to life he is. Thus, the process of personality development often acts as the dynamics of mastering social roles.

Equally important to any society is the prescribing of roles according to age. The adaptation of individuals to constantly changing ages and age statuses is an eternal problem. The individual does not have time to adapt to one age, as another one immediately approaches, with new statuses and new roles. As soon as a young man begins to cope with embarrassment and complexes of youth, he is already on the threshold of maturity; as soon as a person begins to show wisdom and experience, old age comes. Each age period is associated with favorable opportunities for the manifestation of human abilities, moreover, it prescribes new statuses and requirements for learning new roles. At a certain age, an individual may experience problems in adapting to new role status requirements. A child who is said to be older than his years, i.e., has reached the status inherent in the older age category, usually does not fully realize his potential childhood roles, which negatively affects the completeness of his socialization. Often such children feel lonely, flawed. At the same time, immature adult status is a combination of adult status with the attitudes and behaviors of childhood or adolescence. Such a person usually has conflicts in the performance of roles appropriate to her age. These two examples show an unfortunate adjustment to the age statuses prescribed by society.

Learning a new role can go a long way in changing a person. In psychotherapy, there is even an appropriate method of behavior correction - image therapy (image - image). The patient is offered to enter into a new image, to play a role, as in a play. At the same time, the function of responsibility is not borne by the person himself, but by his role, which sets new patterns of behavior. A person is forced to act differently, based on a new role. Despite the conventionality of this method, the effectiveness of its use was quite high, since the subject was given the opportunity to release repressed desires, if not in life, then at least during the game. The sociodramatic approach to the interpretation of human actions is widely known. Life is seen as a drama, each participant in which plays a specific role. Playing roles gives not only a psychotherapeutic, but also a developing effect.

3. Communication  this is the process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities and consisting in the exchange of information, interaction and perception of a person by a person.

Social meaning communication lies in the fact that it acts as a way of transferring forms of culture and social experience.

Psychological sense communication lies in the fact that in the course of it the subjective, inner world of one person is revealed to another and there is a change in the thoughts, feelings and behavior of interacting people.

Structure of communication (according to G.M. Andreeva):

Communicative side is the exchange of information between people. At the same time, information is not only transmitted, but also formed, refined, and developed. The main goal of information exchange in communication is the development of a common meaning, a common point of view and agreement on various situations and problems.

Interactive side is an exchange, not of information, but of actions in the process of organizing and implementing interaction between people. This side of communication can be manifested in the coordination of actions, the distribution of functions, the impact on the mood, behavior or beliefs of a partner.

Perceptual side this is the process of perception by partners of each other, their external appearance and inner world. The effectiveness of perception (perception) is associated with socio-psychological observation, which allows external manifestations an individual to capture its essential features and predict behavior.

The main mechanisms of social perception:

Identification(assimilation) consists in trying to put oneself in the place of a partner. Close to identification is the mechanism of empathy. However, with empathy, there is not a rational understanding of the problems of another person, but the desire to respond to them emotionally.

Reflection this is the individual's awareness of how he is perceived by a communication partner.

In the process of social perception, attitudes play an important role, leading to the following psychological effects:

halo effect when previously developed ideas about a person interfere with seeing his real qualities.

novelty effect when in a situation of perception of a familiar person, new information about him turns out to be more significant.

Effect of stereotyping when the perceived person is related to one of the famous people. Stereotyping simplifies the process of social perception, but, unfortunately, at the cost of distorting the real essence of the partner.

Communication functions:

pragmatic function communication reflects its need-motivational reasons and is realized through the interaction of people in the process of joint activities. At the same time, communication itself is very often the most important need.

The function of formation and development reflects the ability of communication to have an impact on partners, developing and improving them in all respects. Communicating with other people, a person learns universal human experience, historically established social norms, values, knowledge and methods of activity, and is also formed as a person.

Confirmation function provides people with the opportunity to know, approve and confirm themselves.

Function of uniting-separating people , on the one hand, by establishing contacts between them, it contributes to the transfer of necessary information to each other and sets them up for the implementation of common goals, intentions, tasks, thereby connecting them into a single whole, and on the other hand, it can contribute to the differentiation and isolation of individuals in the result of communication.

The function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships serves the interests of establishing and maintaining sufficiently stable and productive ties, contacts and relationships between people in the interests of their joint activities.

intrapersonal function communication is realized in a person’s communication with himself (through internal or external speech, completed according to the type of dialogue). Such communication can be considered as a universal way of human thinking.

Parties of communication  its specific characteristics, showing its unity and diversity:

Interpersonal side communication reflects the interaction of a person with the immediate environment: with other people and those communities with which he is associated with his life.

Cognitive side communication allows you to answer questions about who the interlocutor is, what kind of person he is, what can be expected from him, and many others related to the personality of the partner. It covers not only the knowledge of another person, but also self-knowledge.

Communication and information the side of communication is an exchange between people of various ideas, ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, etc.

Emotive side communication is associated with the functioning of emotions and feelings, moods in personal contacts of partners. They are manifested in the expressive movements of the subjects of communication, their actions, deeds, behavior.

Conative (behavioral) sides and communication serves the purpose of reconciling internal and external contradictions in the positions of partners. It provides a controlling influence on a person in all life processes, reveals a person’s desire for certain values, expresses the motivating forces of a person, and regulates the relationship of partners in joint activities.

4. Means and types of communication: (should be shortened)

language ensuring mutual understanding of partners; the occurring misunderstanding of each other often occurs due to the fact that the interlocutors attach a different subjective meaning to the words used;

intonation;

facial expressions- the movement of the facial muscles, expressing the internal state of mind;

poses, distance, relative positions of partners;

glances, "eye contact";

gestures.

Types of communication:

verbal - non-verbal;

contact - distant;

direct - indirect;

oral - written;

dialogic - monologue;

interpersonal - mass;

private - official (business);

sincere - manipulative.

Each type of communication has its own characteristics. For example, business communication code contains seven principles:

the principle of cooperativeness (your contribution should be the one required by the jointly adopted direction of the conversation);

the principle of sufficiency of information (say no more and no less than required in this moment);

the principle of information quality (do not lie);

the principle of expediency (do not deviate from the topic, be able to find a solution);

the principle of eloquence (express a thought clearly and convincingly);

the principle of assertiveness (be able to listen and understand the right thought);

the principle of an individual approach (be able to take into account individual characteristics interlocutor).

Stages of communication:

the emergence of a need for communication, as well as the intention to make contact;

orientation in goals, in a situation of communication;

orientation in the personality of the partner;

planning the content of communication (usually unconsciously);

unconscious or conscious choice of means, phrases, manners of behavior;

perception and evaluation of the response, the establishment of feedback;

adjustment of the direction and style of communication.

Behavior strategies:

a) cooperation, which implies the maximum achievement by the participants of interaction of their goals;

b) rivalry, which involves focusing only on one's own interests, without taking into account the interests of a partner;

c) a compromise, involving a private, intermediate (often temporary) achievement of the partners' goals for the sake of maintaining conditional equality and maintaining relations;

d) compliance, which involves sacrificing one's own needs in order to achieve the partner's goals;

e) avoidance, which involves avoiding contact, refusing to strive to achieve one's goals in order to exclude the gain of another.

Non-verbal means of communication

The Australian specialist A. Pease claims that 7% of information is transmitted with the help of words, 38% of sound means, 55% of facial expressions, gestures, postures. In other words, it is not so important what is said, but how it is done.

And although the opinions of experts in assessing the exact figures differ, it is safe to say that more than half of interpersonal communication is non-verbal communication. Therefore, listening to the interlocutor also means understanding sign language.

Charlie Chaplin and other silent film actors were the pioneers of non-verbal communication, for them it was the only means of communication on the screen. Each actor was classified as good or bad based on how they could use gestures and other body movements to communicate. When sound films became popular and less attention was paid to the non-verbal aspects of acting, many silent film actors left the stage, and actors with pronounced verbal abilities began to predominate on the screen.

Learning to understand the language of non-verbal communication is important for several reasons. Firstly, only factual knowledge can be conveyed in words, but to express feelings, words alone are often not enough. Feelings that are not amenable to verbal expression are transmitted in the language of non-verbal communication. Secondly, knowledge of this language shows how much we can control ourselves. Non-verbal language tells us what people really think of us. And finally, non-verbal communication is especially valuable because it is spontaneous and manifests itself unconsciously. Therefore, despite the fact that people weigh their words and control their facial expressions, it is often possible for hidden feelings to leak through gestures, intonation and voice coloring. That is, non-verbal communication channels rarely provide false information, as they are less controllable than verbal communication.

In socio-psychological studies, various classifications of non-verbal means of communication have been developed, which include all body movements, intonation characteristics of the voice, tactile impact, and spatial organization of communication.

It should be noted that the non-verbal behavior of a person is polyfunctional. Non-verbal behavior:

Creates an image of a communication partner;

Expresses the quality and change in the relationship of communication partners, forms these relationships;

It is an indicator of the actual mental states of the individual;

Acts as a clarification, a change in the understanding of a verbal message, enhances the emotional richness of what was said;

Maintains an optimal level of psychological closeness between communicating;

It acts as an indicator of status-role relations.

The effectiveness of communication is determined not only by the degree of understanding of the words of the interlocutor, but also by the ability to correctly assess the behavior of the participants in communication, their facial expressions, gestures, movements, posture, gaze orientation, that is, to understand the non-verbal language ( verbal -- "verbal, oral") communication. This language allows the speaker to more fully express his feelings, shows how the participants in the dialogue control themselves, how they really relate to each other.

What non-verbal elements should be paid attention to during communication?

Communication- contact between people, during which a psychological connection appears, manifested in the mutual exchange of information, mutual influence, mutual experience, mutual understanding. Recently, the concept of "communication" has been used in science. Communication is a connection, the interaction of two or more systems, during which a signal is received from system to system, transmitting some information. Communication is the mutual exchange of certain information between people. Therefore, communication is a more specialized concept in comparison with the concept of communication.

The appearance of a person consciously changes and is created by him at a certain level. The appearance is made up of a physiognomic mask, clothes, manners of presenting oneself. The physiognomic mask - the prevailing facial expression of a person - is created under the influence of thoughts, sensual experiences, relationships that often arise in a person. Complements the appearance and clothing, which is often an indicator of the class, estate, professional affiliation of a given person. A person is seen in the manner of holding, his social status, self-esteem, attitude towards the person with whom he communicates.

The dynamic side of communication is manifested in gestures and facial expressions. Mimicry is a dynamic facial expression at the moment of communication. Gesture is a socially practiced movement that conveys a mental state. Both facial expressions and gestures develop as social media, although some of the elements that make them up are innate.

Non-verbal means of communication include the exchange of objects, things. Passing objects to each other, people establish contacts, express relationships.

The means of communication also include tactile-muscular sensitivity. Mutual contact, muscular tension for movement directed at another person, or retention from him - that's it. Its specific manifestations can be a handshake, the presence of a baby in the arms of the mother, the martial arts of athletes. Tactile-muscular sensitivity- the dominant channel for receiving information from the outside world and the main means of communication for people deprived of hearing and vision, and thus - the ability to naturally “use” speech.

In psychological science, a lot of research is carried out in which this or that simpler or more complex phenomenon is illuminated by itself, not in connection with other phenomena, and this always impoverishes the significance of the results obtained, because it is possible to truly understand the essence of any phenomenon, only comprehending it in interaction with other phenomena.

What has been said is fully applicable to the state of studying such a complex psychological phenomenon as communication, as well as such personal formation as attitude. Indeed, to date, a lot of work has been carried out in which communication and relationships are analyzed separately from each other, while they must necessarily be considered in conjugation. Indeed, numerous facts testify that the attitude is manifested and formed, as a rule, in communication. On the other hand, the relations that the communicating persons have always influence many characteristics of this process. Let's try to show this interdependence in more detail. But first, let us recall the content that is customary in psychology to associate with the concepts of communication and relationship.

When talking about communication, they usually mean the interaction between people, carried out using the means of speech and non-verbal influence and pursuing the goal of achieving changes in the cognitive, motivational-emotional and behavioral spheres of the persons participating in communication. By attitude, as is well known, we mean a psychological phenomenon, the essence of which is the emergence in a person of a mental formation that accumulates the results of cognition of a specific object of reality (in communication it is another person or a community of people), the integration of all emotional responses to this object that have taken place, as well as behavioral responses to it.

The most important mental component of the attitude, in which the opinions of many scientists agree, is the motivational-emotional component, which signals the valence of the attitude - positive, negative, contradictory or indifferent.

When one person enters into communication with another, both of them fix the features of each other's external appearance, “read” the experienced states, perceive and interpret behavior in one way or another, decipher the goals and motives of this behavior in one way or another. And the appearance and state, and behavior, and the goals and motives attributed to a person always cause some kind of relationship in the person communicating with him, and it can be differentiated in its character in strength, depending on which side in another person caused it. So, for example, the external appearance of another person can arouse in the person communicating with him a feeling of admiration, or anxiety, or bewilderment, attributed goals and motives can cause a protest. According to their sign, as can be seen from the above example, relations can differ markedly from each other, but they can also coincide, acting as one common positive, negative, indifferent or contradictory attitude towards the individual. In some cases, the named relationships turn out to be the same in their strength, in others - therefore, the show is very dissimilar. There are psychological situations when one side of the relationship more or less significantly dominates the others. For example, someone may like the appearance of another person, the manner of holding on to people, indestructible optimism, but at the same time cause extreme indignation at the political views of the person with whom this person communicates.

In some cases, this dominant aspect can reach such a high degree of intensity that all other aspects of the relationship that are usually actualized in a person when communicating with a certain person are neutralized or inhibited.

This begs the question: what is the reason for the appearance of such a dominant in a relationship?

One possible answer is this: every person has a value system; some of them are always more subjectively significant, others less. In addition, these values are closely related to the material and spiritual needs that he has, which usually differ from each other in their degree of severity. But it can be different: one of these values and the need behind it have a paramount importance, and if another person performs an act that meets the maintenance of this value, a positive attitude is established towards him, which plays an important role in all aspects of his external and internal appearance, leveling the negative attitude to some characteristics, if it was before. In the same way, if another person allows himself an action that goes against the main value of the individual and contradicts his basic need, he will cause a sharply negative attitude towards himself, which will neutralize in best case positive former reactions to manifestations of other aspects of the character of this person. A particular problem in studying the interdependencies of communication and attitudes is to establish the correspondence between the nature and ways of expressing attitudes. Forming as individuals in a particular social environment, people also learn the language of expression of relations characteristic of this environment. It is not in vain to speak now about the peculiarities of expressing relations noted among representatives of various ethnic communities, it is important to keep in mind that even within the boundaries of one ethnic community, but in its different social groups, the named language can have its own very specific specifics.

An intelligent person can express his dissatisfaction in a correct form that does not degrade the dignity of another person. A completely different form of expression of this discontent in a poorly educated, rude person. Even among representatives of the same social subgroup, the manifestations of relations can be different if, for example, they have different types of temperament. Naturally, in order to adequately perceive and understand his attitude when communicating with another person, one must show very subtle observation, including in relation to the form of expression of this attitude. Of course, one should not think that the attitude is transmitted only through speech and voice. In live, direct communication, both facial expressions and pantomime serve this purpose. And, finally, both action and deed can become a form of expression of attitude.

However, it should be noted that there are not only customized molds expressions of the same attitude - there are cases when a person in communication skillfully imitates the manifestation of some kind of attitude, without actually experiencing it. Such a person is not necessarily a hypocrite. Most often, such imitation takes place for a completely different reason: from the desire in the eyes of people whose opinion we value, to appear better than we really are. We envy our more successful colleague, but pretend to rejoice in his success. We do not like the leadership style of our boss, and we not only do not argue with him, but we loudly approve of his deeds. Of course, in such cases, people enter into a deal with their conscience, and the moral price is the higher, the greater the social consequences of our duplicity.

The foregoing does not at all mean a call never, under any life circumstances, not to hide your true attitude to something or to someone. For example, in the work of a doctor, an investigator, a trainer, situations sometimes arise when they cannot solve their professional tasks without masking the attitude they are experiencing.

Interpersonal communication differs from inter-role communication in that the participants in such communication try, when solving their problems, to make an adjustment when choosing the behavior that conveys the attitude, for individually unique features of each other. It is appropriate to add that the ability to psychologically skillfully instrument the form of expression of their relations is extremely necessary for people whose main activity is the upbringing of children, youth, and adults.

Discussing the problem of the relationship between communication and attitude, as well as the relationship between the content of the attitude and the form of its expression, it should be emphasized that a person’s choice of the most psychologically appropriate form of expressing his attitude in communication occurs without tension and conspicuous deliberateness, if he has formed mental personality traits, essential for successful interpersonal communication. This is, first of all, the ability to identify and decentralize, empathy and self-reflection.

The above analysis of the relationship between communication and attitude is somewhat simplified, since it was mainly about the attitude of only one of the participants in communication to another; in addition, the listed dependences were considered to a large extent in statics, and not in dynamics.

In real communication, even between two people, everything looks much more complicated: the implementation by each of the participants of certain goals under the influence of a variety of motives, the use of various methods of influence for this; fixing by them changes in the emotional mood of each other, assumptions about the intentions of the communication partner; guesses of each participant about how he is perceived and how his partner treats him; more or less adjustment by each of his behavior; really manifested in communication about, communication, after all, can only just begin between people who have become acquainted, so to speak, here and now, but it can also occur between people who have known each other for a long time, belonging to the same community or to completely different social associations of people.

All this means that for the actual completeness of the analysis of communication and its connections with relationships, it is necessary to evaluate at least the main objective and subjective characteristics of this process, also bearing in mind both one and the other people interacting in it.

The fact that the participants in communication experience a deeply hostile attitude towards each other or equally strongly sympathize with each other necessarily affects the ease and sincerity of communication, the degree of ease of developing a common opinion, and the psychological consequences with which each of the participants “leaves” the communication that took place. The psychological mechanism of the effect of attitude on the unfolding process of communication is quite understandable: a hostile attitude makes a person blind to the merits of a communication partner and pushes him to underestimate positive steps on his part aimed at a successful outcome of communication, if any. In the same way, a hostile attitude provokes a person to behavior that does not lead to a deepening of mutual understanding of those communicating, to the establishment of genuine cooperation between them. On the contrary, the attitude of sympathy contributes to the predominant fixation in the external and internal appearance of the other participant in communication, in his behavior of positive characteristics, "works" for the creation of a common attitude, for mutual understanding, for the maximum success of communication.

If the relationship of the participants in communication is, so to speak, asymmetrical, for example, one of the communicants shows ardent love for the other, and this other feels hostility and even, perhaps, hatred towards his communication partner, normal interpersonal communication will not happen. Most often, on the part of one of the communicators, there will be an attitude of one of its participants to another, attempts at genuine interpersonal interaction, and on the part of the other, either communication at a formal level, or rude attempts to put the communication partner in his place, or frank avoidance of communication.

The connection between relationship and communication under consideration also has a more general social significance. The facts, when the general situation in which people find themselves, deeply affecting their motivational-need sphere, encourages them, if we use the words of A.N. Radishchev, to be indignant, to grieve and through communication to weaken the experienced state of internal tension, everyday life gives us a lot. If the communicators were interested in each other and, being in the same position, more or less successfully normalized their state through direct interaction, then we can recall a large number of other situations from life when, in the presence of a positive attitude towards each other and a general attunement to communication, its participants enter this communication with a diametrically opposite emotional personal attitude: if one, tormented by some problem, seeks to pour out his soul, then the second, showing participation, patiently listens to the story of the first and thus helps him reduce or completely remove internal tension.

We traced the influence of the nature of the treatment of those communicating with each other on the formation of their relationship, as well as the already existing relationship on the form of their behavior in communication. But the attitude to a lesser extent determines the content of communication. If a person is deeply interested in the personality and activities of Peter the Great and he is introduced to a historian - an expert on Peter's Russia and the reforms of this reforming tsar, naturally, he will turn the conversation with a specialist historian into the area of interest to him. Thus, interest will directionally influence the content of communication. Or let's take another case. A person is suspiciously worried about the state of his health and he is presented with a good fellow who, from a frail and weak man, has made himself immune to the usual ailments of most people and physically strong, which he is also very proud of. Quite obviously, and here the attitude will affect the content of communication.

From all that has been said above about attitude, it also follows that it also carries an incentive to action. Its strength as a Motivation is directly dependent on the degree of involvement of the attitude in the system of human values and its connection in this system with the dominant values. For example, if the main value for a person is money, his attitude towards them will be the stimulus of actions aimed at their accumulation, and if the norms of high morality are not included in the value system of this person, then this accumulation will be achieved by him by any means.

The role of attitude as an incentive to action cannot be underestimated in any way, since the nature of the personality's activity, primarily the direction of this activity and its level, including in communication, depends on the characteristics of the relations formed by individuals. On the other hand, it is clear that the course and results of communication have the strongest influence on the relations of the communicants, strengthening or weakening them, and sometimes even reshaping them to the opposite. It turns out that a person, prompted to communicate by one attitude, continues his communication or stops it, prompted by a completely different attitude.

So, having joined in communication under the influence of the urge to break the protracted silence that seemed unnatural, a person suddenly discovers that the subject with whom he spoke is his opposite in assessing the events taking place in society. This fact gives rise to a new attitude - annoyance due to the fact that a new acquaintance is not like-minded, and immediately there is an impulse to try to convince him or, if there is no hope of success, to stop communicating with him.

At the same time, a person entering into communication with another person does not necessarily have an unambiguous attitude towards the object, about which he enters into interaction with this person.

It can also be contradictory. For this reason, the impulses that force a person to be active in communication make her behavior inconsistent.

These connections of different characteristics of communication and attitude traced in the very first approximation show how great their significance is in the subjective world of each person, how significant their role is in determining the mental well-being of a person, in determining the pattern of his behavior. Therefore, it is extremely important to develop systematic research at the theoretical, experimental and applied levels of all the most significant aspects of the interdependence of communication and attitude. In planning these studies, it must be clearly seen that all major areas must take part in the study of the relationship of communication and relationships. psychological science and necessarily teachers involved in the development of the theory and methodological tools of education.

Communication - it is one of the fundamental forms of social interaction between people. In the structure of any communication (official or unofficial) there are three sides: Communicative side is the exchange of information between people. At the same time, information is not only transmitted, but also formed, refined, and developed. The main goal of information exchange in communication is the development of a common meaning, a common point of view and agreement on various situations and problems.

Interactive side It is not an exchange of information, but actions in the process of organizing and implementing interaction between people. This side of communication can be manifested in the coordination of actions, the distribution of functions, the impact on the mood, behavior or beliefs of a partner.

Perceptual side- this is the process of perception by partners of each other, their external appearance and inner world. The effectiveness of perception (perception) is associated with socio-psychological observation, which allows, by external manifestations of an individual, to capture its essential features and predict behavior.

The main mechanisms of social perception:

Reflection - this is an individual's awareness of how he is perceived by a communication partner.

In the process of social perception, attitudes play an important role, leading to the following psychological effects:

halo effect - when previously developed ideas about a person interfere with seeing his real qualities.

novelty effect- when in a situation of perception of a familiar person, new information about him turns out to be more significant.

Effect of stereotyping- when the perceived person is related to one of the famous people. Stereotyping simplifies the process of social perception, but, unfortunately, at the cost of distorting the real essence of the partner.

Types of communication:

^ verbal - non-verbal; ^ contact - distant;

direct - indirect; ^ oral - written; ^ interpersonal - mass; ^ private - official (business); ^ sincere - manipulative.

Each type of communication has its own characteristics. For example, the Code of Business Communication contains seven principles:

^ the principle of cooperativeness (your contribution should be the one required by the jointly adopted direction of the conversation);

^ the principle of sufficiency of information (say no more and no less than what is required at the moment);

^ the principle of information quality (do not lie);

^ the principle of expediency (do not deviate from the topic, be able to find a solution);

^ express thought clearly and convincingly;

^ be able to listen and understand the right thought;

^ be able to take into account the individual characteristics of the interlocutor.

Stages of communication:

^ the emergence of the need for communication, as well as the intention to make contact;

^ orientation in goals, in a situation of communication;

^ orientation in the partner's personality;

^ planning the content of communication (usually unconsciously);

^ unconscious or conscious choice of means, phrases, manners of behavior;

^ perception and evaluation of the response, the establishment of feedback;

^ adjustment of the direction and style of communication.

Means of communication:

Language - providing mutual understanding of partners; the occurring misunderstanding of each other often occurs due to the fact that the interlocutors attach a different subjective meaning to the words used";

67- intonation - thanks to which the words "I love you" can have a stronger effect than "I love you very much";

Facial expressions - the movement of facial muscles, expressing the internal state of mind;

Postures, distance, relative positions of partners;

Glances, eye contacts;

Studies show that the share of words in establishing mutual understanding is 7%, intonation - 38%, non-verbal interaction - 53%.

Interpersonal interaction is conditioned by psychological mechanisms of social perception, causal attribution and attitudes.

social perception- the mechanism of perception and evaluation by the individual of various social objects, people, events, etc.

Causal attribution- subjective explanation of the motives of the behavior of other people and their personal properties.

Attitudes - stable attitudes of people towards each other.

In the structure of human interaction, social psychologists distinguish various types of interpersonal relationships: attachment, friendship, love, pastime, play, competition, cooperation, conflicts, ritual interaction, and others.

The dynamics of the development of interpersonal relationships goes through several stages. For example: an acquaintance that turns into friendly, comradely and friendly relations can develop into love.

Friendship and love outwardly similar to a pastime, but there is always a clearly fixed partner in relation to whom sympathy is felt. Friendship includes a factor of sympathy and respect, love differs from friendship in an enhanced sexual component (love = sexual attraction + sympathy + respect). In the case of falling in love, there is only a combination of sexual attraction and sympathy.

Mutual affection or sympathy, which are characteristic of stable interpersonal relationships, is called attraction by psychologists. Formation attractions contribute to the following factors:

frequency of mutual social contacts;

physical attractiveness (like beauty);

the phenomenon of "equals" in terms of intellectual level and level of attractiveness;

the effect of "amplification" when we find in someone features similar to ours;

similarity of social origin, interests, views.

Close positive interpersonal relationships that provide friendly support are usually associated with a feeling of happiness, improve health, and prolong a person's life.