Streets alternating sounds. Positional and historical alternations of sounds. Positional alternation of vowels depending on the position in relation to the stressed syllable. Methods and techniques of experimental phonetics
The system of main phonemes of the Proto-Slavic language, which subsequently served as the basis for the development of the phonological system of each Slavic language, developed on the basis of the Indo-European language. In the Indo-European the vowel system differed 5 monophthongs, which could be long and short. Subsequently, they were transformed into sounds that no longer had differences in longitude and brevity.
Long* i - and, * and - s, * e - b, * o - a, * a - a (sound rather long gave a)
Brief * i - b, * i - b, * e - e, * o - o, * a - o.
Thus, these sounds began to alternate. Alternation is a regular change of sounds within the same morpheme.
Since each vowel could alternate with a number of other vowels, there are whole chains of alternating sounds ( I take - collect - collect, e//o//i, e goes back to *e kr., and → *and dol., o → *o,*a cr.).
alternation- this is a natural change of sounds within the same morpheme. Since the vowel could alternate with other vowels, then in other Russian language and in SRY there are whole chains of turns (I take-collect-collect
Methodology for conducting phonetic analysis at school.
Phonetic parsing is one of the most effective practical work according to the r.yaz. (5-11 cells). Used: in the study of phonetic topics; when repeated to deepen and expand knowledge, improve skills and abilities. Depending on the learning objectives background analysis of m / w full or selective, written or oral, classroom or home, training or control. Includes: 1) analysis of sounds in the flow of speech (in phrases, sentences); 2) analysis of the qualitative and quantitative composition; 3) analysis of the methods and conditions for their formation; 4) analysis of the role in the formation of words and their forms; 5) characteristics of the letters that designate them. All within the school phonetic minimum.
The order of the f-th analysis: 1) syllables, stress; 2) vowels: stressed and unstressed; what letters are indicated; 3) consonants: voiced and deaf, hard and soft; what letters are indicated; 4) the number of sounds and letters.
Example: Russian.
Oral analysis
Speak the word Russian.
1) This word has 2 syllables: Russian, the stressed syllable is the first, the second unstressed.
2) Vowels: the sound [y] is percussive, indicated by the letter at, sound [and] - unstressed, it is pronounced and heard less distinctly than under stress, indicated by the letter and.
3) Consonant sounds: [r] - voiced, solid, designation. letter R, [s] - long, deaf, hard, indicated by a combination of two letters with, [k`] - deaf, soft, indicated by the letter to, [j] - voiced, always soft, indicated by the letter th.
In the word Russian- 6 sounds and 7 letters. There are more letters than sounds, because long sound [s] is indicated by two letters with.
Written analysis
r - [r] - consonant, voiced, solid, designation. letter R,
y - [y] - vowel, stressed, indicated by the letter at,
ss - [s] - consonant, long, deaf, hard, indicated by a combination of two letters with,
k - [k`] - consonant, deaf, soft, indicated by the letter to,
and - [and] - vowel, unstressed, indicated by the letter and,
th - [j] - consonant, voiced, always soft, indicated by the letter th.
6 sounds, 7 letters.
Starting the background analysis, you can introduce students to the elements of the phonetic recording of a word or phonetic transcription(with the designation of stress, softness of consonants [`], with the transfer of the simplest cases of reduction of vowels - we indicate that vowels are m/b stressed and unstressed, assimilation of consonants on the basis of deafness-voicedness, i.e. we indicate stunning and voicing of consonants) .
It is recommended to first make a spelling of a word, then a phonetic one. First we pronounce the word, then we write it down in elementary background transcription, divide it into syllables and put stress, show unstressed syllables.
The value of working on stress: allows you to work out orthoepic norms (ringing, but ringing `t); variability of the orthoepic norm (from a distance` and from afar`ka); semantic-distinctive function of stress (zamok and zamok); transformation of grammatical forms (da`l, yes`li, but dala`). Work on stress is carried out as a cross-cutting topic in the background analysis when studying phonetics, word-formation, morphology.
Dividing a word into syllables. Open, closed. We do not enter theoretical information. The syllable division rule: noisy + sonorous, noisy + noisy refer to one syllable, and sonor + noisy. - to different (kind, ban-ka). It needs to be learned to transfer. There is also a morphemic transfer (kind).
The sound composition of the word: we start with a stressed vowel. Comparing percussion and bezud. vowels, we teach them to distinguish, we improve the skill of setting stress, we prepare the basis for distinguishing between spellings defined and undefined by pronunciation, we prepare for the conscious assimilation of orthographic rules (in the root, adjective, suf.), we form the norms of lithic pronunciation.
consonant sounds. We draw attention to the fact that they serve to distinguish between the lexical meanings of words and their forms ( steel - steel, glad - row, pond - rod). We show the processes of assimilation in deaf.-sv. (stunning-voicing). We warn you of possible errors of mixing sounds and letters ( raincoat[w`] - letter sch, and the sound sh long soft). When counting the number of letters and sounds, we pay attention to cases where the same letter denotes 2 different sounds and when 2 identical sounds are designated. different letters ( yards[f]), when b, b not designation sound when e, u, i designation 1 or 2 sounds. More difficult cases of spelling - under the guidance of a teacher.
Systematically conducted sound analysis contributes to the development of the correct literal pronunciation, which is an important condition for expressive reading and correct oral speech of schoolchildren.
Ticket number 8. History of the formation of the lexical-semantic system of the Russian language. Native Russian and borrowed vocabulary. Old Slavonicisms, their signs. The concept of active and passive vocabulary. The origin of non-vowel (South Slavic) and full-vowel (Old Russian) vowel combinations.
The vocabulary of the SRL is the result of a long development; all the words of SRL differ in the time of occurrence and origin.
1. ORIGINAL RUSSIAN VOCABULARY .
This is the main layer of the vocabulary of the SRL, more than 90% of the words. This is any word that arose in the Russian language or inherited from a more ancient source language, regardless of what etymological parts (Russian or borrowed) it consists of. For example, lexemes are considered native Russian highway, manicurist, force, and borrowed: highway, manicure, force.
They arose in Russian as words of a certain meaning and word-formation-grammatical structure, in another language they would have been borrowed from the Russian language. It is necessary to distinguish from them cases of word-formation re-arrangement of borrowed words, when a borrowed word acquires a Russian affix in order to enter the lexico-grammatical system of the Russian language: solid, semantic etc. Here -n- and -sk- do not form new words from those already existing in Russian, but only allow introducing foreign adjectives into the system of Russian adjectives (unlike pair-doubles, coach coaching etc.).
Native Russian vocabulary by time of appearance divided by:
1) common Slavic words inherited from the common Slavic language. Used in all modern Slavic languages; it is the core of the modern vocabulary. The most richly represented nouns are:
a) the name of body parts (beard, side, face, forehead, mane, braid, paw, etc.);
b) terms of kinship (father, mother, brother, son, daughter, etc.);
c) the name of the time interval (day, night, month, year, etc.);
d) minerals (gold, silver, iron, etc.);
e) natural phenomena (storm, coast, swamp, water, mountain, hail, earth, etc.);
f) names of flora (beech, spruce, birch, pea, elm, etc.);
g) names of the animal world (wolf, crow, goose, hare, snake, bull, etc.);
h) tools and objects of labor (bucket, spindle, rake, chisel, etc.);
i) names of persons (guest, potter, friend, youth, reaper, etc.);
to) abstract concepts(faith, will, guilt, anger, spirit, pity, etc.).
Verbs: lie down, sit, peck, sing, be able to, read, fight, etc.
Adjectives: designations of the spiritual qualities of people (wise, cunning, kind), physical qualities (naked, bald, young), properties and qualities of things (white, yellow, blond, big, right). And other parts of speech. According to the morphological structure, most of them are root words, with a non-derivative stem.
2) East Slavic vocabulary. Time of appearance - 14-15 centuries. The property of the linguistic community of the ancestors of Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians. Its origin is connected with the existence of the dialect of the Eastern Slavs - the Old Russian language. As a rule, these words are not found in the vocabulary of the southern and western Slavs, although they arose on the basis of the common Slavic vocabulary. They also include borrowings from Turkic, Greek, Germanic languages. Associated with the development in Russia of new, feudal social relations, the progress of culture, science, art, a deeper knowledge of reality.
3) Actually Russian vocabulary is the most numerous and diverse in structural and stylistic terms and in terms of grammatical properties. These are words that arose already in the era of the separate existence of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages (from the 14th century). They represent already a specific affiliation of Russian speech. With regard to the word-formation structure, almost all of them are derivatives in their appearance, with the exception of some nouns formed in a non-affix way (daring, etc.). In terms of meaning, they are mainly a form of expression of new concepts. These include:
a) almost all nouns formed with the help of suffixes -schik-, -ovshchik-, -shchik, -yatin-, -lka-, -ovka-, -stvo-, -tel-, -sha-, -nost-, - capacity-, -shchina-, etc.;
b) nouns formed from verbs in a non-affix way (run, clamp, squat);
c) compound abbreviated nouns (Glavk, university, salary);
d) nouns formed by addition with one of the foreign-language bases (destroyer, Slavophile, heat engineer).
2.BORROWED VOCABULARY . Any word that came into the Russian language from outside, even if in terms of its morphemes it does not differ in any way from native Russian words (when the word is taken from any closely related Slavic language - St. Slavic, Polish, etc.).
1) foreign words. Words are either directly borrowed or tracing. The vast majority of foreign words are characterized by a narrow scope of use, fixed in book speech (terms, professionalisms). Most are borrowed together with a thing, a phenomenon, a concept (umbrella - naked, disk - Greek, monogram - Polish, boxing - English, boulevard - French), and also instead of the former Russian names (voyage, dandy, specific) . Other words have firmly entered the Russian language, have become common (ticket, notebook, beetroot, jury, chest, model). It is necessary to distinguish from them the words originally Russian, which arose on the basis of borrowed ones (hectare - ha, yam - coachman).
2) Staroslav I nisms- borrowings from st.-sl. language. 3 groups of senior-sl.:
1. St.-sl. variants of the words of the common Slavic language, which were also inherited by the Old Russian language, but in the eastern re-voicing (breg, vlasy, power, birth, night, etc.);
2. Specific neoplasms senior-sl. language; they were not in the common Slavic language. They have primordially Russian synonyms, but with a different root, word-formation structure (truth - truth).
3. Semantic st-sl. Common Slavic words received new meanings in the old language and with them entered the other Russian. language. Native Russian words of common Slavic origin coexist with semantically different old Slavicisms (God is rich, fornication is to get lost, sin is a flaw, the Lord is master). St.-sl. differ in phonetic, derivational and semantic signs.
Phonetic cues:
1. Almost every Russian word fully corresponds to Art.-sl. with disagreement (shore - shore, gate - gate, drag - draw).
2. St.-sl. are the initial combinations of ra-, la- in place of Russian ro-, lo- at the beginning of a word (or root) (rook - boat, even - equal, difference - apart).
3. St.-sl. -sh- corresponds to Russian -h- (night - night, stove - stove, lighting - candle, return - I turn around).
4. St.-sl. -zhd- corresponds to Russian -zh- (birth - to give birth, cooling - I will cool).
5. Preservation of -i- in the basis of nouns on -i, -i, -i (Mary, judge, life). In Russian - -ya, -ye, -y.
6. Pronunciation -e- under stress before TV. acc. (godfather, sky). In Russian, there was 3 labialization (godfather, palate).
7. St.-sl. e- at the beginning of the word corresponds to Russian o- (single - one, esen - autumn, if - if). word-building signs:
1. Suffixes -en-, -ennj- (killing, revelation), -stv- (betrayal), -zn- (execution, life), -yn- (pride, shrine), -tv- (prayer, battle), -u-, -nn-, -esn- (coming, stinking, blessed, incorporeal).
2. Prefixes from-, down-, up- (overthrow, proceed, ascend).
Municipal budgetary educational institution
Petrovskaya middle comprehensive school
143395, Moscow region, Naro-Fominsk municipal district,
with. Petrovskoe
Historical grammar. History of alternations.
Teacher Adamich Elena Viktorovna teacher of Russian language and literature
The content of the work
Introduction………………………………………………………… page 3
Chapter 1. History of the language…………….…………………………… page 4
Chapter 2. Alternations…………………………………………… page 4
Chapter 3
Chapter 4 eight
Conclusion……………………………………………………….page 9
Literature used……………………………………….page 10
Applications
Introduction
Many peoples believed that language and speech is a miracle given to us by the gods. The Russian writer A. I. Kuprin remarked: “Now he will enter, and the most ordinary and most incomprehensible thing in the world will happen between us: we will start talking. The guest, giving sounds of different heights and strengths, will express his thoughts, and I will listen to these sound vibrations of the air and guess what they mean ... "
I think that the most amazing thing is not that the gods gave us language, but that we create it ourselves - all the time, every day. Moreover, it is not academics who do this, but every person. Our language is not something frozen, dead. The Russian language lives: words become obsolete and appear, endings change, intonation changes, norms are polished, spelling is developing. Words in it, as in a living organism, are born, improved, and sometimes die. I wanted to explore some aspects of the life of the Russian language, explain to myself and my classmates how it develops. In the Russian language textbook for grade 5, authors T.A. Ladyzhenskaya, L.A. Trostentsova and others in the section “Morfemics. Spelling. The culture of speech ”is paragraphs 78 and 79, in which alternations are studied. (Appendix 1) I was very interested in this topic. I decided to study it more deeply. And I began with historical grammar, more precisely, with the history of some alternations. I put in front of goals:
trace the history of alternations;
find out when and why they arose.
To achieve these goals, I needed to solve the following tasks:
collect the necessary material;
identify historical changes in words;
explain modern orthograms (alternations) from the point of view of historical grammar.
I divided the whole work into several stages:
study of theoretical information about alternations in the Russian language;
word analysis;
systematization of the received information, formulation of the conclusion.
Chapter 1. History of language
The Russian language belongs to the Indo-European family, the East Slavic group, this also includes Belarusian and Ukrainian languages. Linguistic scholars believe that the Slavic languages go back to a common one, which is conditionally called the Proto-Slavic language. (Annex 2)
A special role in the development of these languages was played by the emergence of writing and the first bookish language - Old Church Slavonic. It was the merit of Cyril and Methodius, who created the alphabet and translated Christian church books into Slavic. (Appendix 3) Rewriting, the scribes introduced features of their native language. Church Slavonic is the language of church texts. Living languages interacted with it. He played a huge role in the development of the Russian literary language. V.V. Vinogradov noted: "To study the history of individual words, it is necessary to reproduce the contexts of their use in different periods of the history of the language."
Linguistic scholars claim that our ancient language sounded very beautiful: our ancestors practically sang, stretching or deliberately reducing some sounds. Now this ability of our language is lost.
Chapter 2
In the pre-literate period of the development of the Slavic languages in the word, all syllables were open, that is, the syllable boundary was the vowel as the most sonorous, so it was possible to stretch the sounds. This is the law of the open syllable. The action of this law determined the development of the phonetic system and the formation of alternations in the Russian language of vowels and consonants. In paragraphs 78 and 79 of the Russian language textbook for grade 5, the authors T.A. Ladyzhenskaya, L.A. Trostentsova and others talk about such a phenomenon. Alternation is the replacement of one sound by another as part of a single morpheme. Only vowels can alternate with vowels, consonants with consonants. This happens under certain conditions:
in the formation of single-root words friend - friends - make friends g / / s / / f,
plant - grew a / / o
when changing the form of a word highlander - highlander, Caucasian - Caucasian (zero sound alternates with ez)
as a result of the action of the analogy, a new sound appears where it did not appear phonetically: take - take - collect
Alternating sounds are different morphemes and can occur in different morphemes, except for endings. Alternations are positional and historical. I have already noted that the alternations of sounds operate in a certain period of the language and are due to phonetic laws. If the laws cease to operate, and the alternations persist, then they are used in the language as a means for the formation of new words and are considered historical alternations. For example: carry - carry
Chapter 3. History of diphthongs
The action of an open syllable led to a change in diphthongs. Diphthongs are a combination of two vowels in one syllable, not separated by consonants. Consonants g, k, x changed in h, c, w before vowels b, and which are derived from diphthongs. So there were alternations g//z; sk//n; x//w. For example: friend - friends, air - airy, shine - shines.
So the history of diphthongs explains the alternation of the vowel s with a combination of sounds av in words repute and glory.
It turns out that the noun glory in modern Russian has the same meaning as in Old Russian. We actively use in our speech proverbs that arose during the period of oral folk art. For example: Good glory lies, and the thin one runs along the path. For an hour the mind will not become, for a century you will be known as a fool. As you live, so you will be known. The earth will not cover bad glory. Although the money is not a penny, but the glory is good. As he swam, so he was known.
In ancient times, the root -slav- broke up into two sounds before a vowel, and before a consonant contracted into one - s. Happened glory-a - to be heard. (to be heard, i.e be famous).
But the most striking example of the development of alternations is the formation of non-vowel and full-vowel combinations in the language. Diphthongic combinations of vowels with sonorants changed if they were before consonants. There was a consensus. In the Proto-Slavic language it was:
⃰ ol → la, olo
⃰ about r → ra, oro
⃰ er → re, ere.
Dissonance prevailed in Church Slavonic - ra, la, re, a, in Old Russian - full agreement - oro, olo, here.
Church Slavonic
Old Russian
gate
gates
hail
city
shore
shore
guardian
watchman
chapter
head
voice
tree
wood
We can note that these words were used almost identically in the language at that time. However, words with disagreement are still more bookish. (Appendix 4) At first they were used in lives, teachings, where ancient preachers, using, for example, the word “beach” - the edge of the earth near water, warned believers against mistakes. In modern Russian, there is also the word "breg", and it has retained a high poetic coloring and is used in poetic speech. I found examples in the fairy tales of A.S. Pushkin.
1. Here the prince opened his eyes;
Shaking the dreams of the night
And wondering in front of you
Sees it's a big city...
Mother and son go to the city.
Just stepped on the fence
deafening chime
Will spill in a noisy run,
And find themselves on the shore
In scales, like the heat of grief,
A.S. Pushkin "Ruslan and Lyudmila"
Near the seaside there is a green oak;
Golden chain on an oak tree:
And day and night the cat is a scientist
Everything goes around in circles...
Many of these paired correspondences are now in the language, but they differ in lexical meanings or stylistic characteristics.
For example: Kaliningrad - Zvenigorod, Volgograd - Novgorod, Milky Way- dairy products, the voice of the people - a pleasant voice.
Chapter 4
The appearance of alternation with zero sound can be shown in the following examples. At the root of the word father - father in ancient times there was a reduced vowel b, which could be either in a strong or in a weak position. In the XII century, in a strong position, it changed to e, and was lost in a weak one. So a runaway vowel appeared.
Reduction - the weakening of vowel sounds in an unstressed position. The position of unstressed vowels in the pre-stressed syllable differs from the position in the rest:
head - [head], giant - [v'l'ikan]
a→b, u→ b
Consider alternation: at the root of words book - bookstore there is also alternation g//f which is explained historically. For example, in the old Russian word book reduced b disappeared because he was in a weak position. A hard consonant G remained unchanged before a vowel a. In the word booklet hard consonant G before b relented and moved on well soft, but reduced b disappeared because he was in a weak position. But in shape genitive plural book this b was in a strong position and changed into e(hence the modern books). Note that a soft hissing sound well solidified by the 14th century. Now it's [f]- solid, and here is also a stun [book]. That is why we check the spelling of a dubious consonant (spelling No. 3). Preserved fluent vowel e with suffix book - books.
Conclusion
In the lessons of the Russian language and literature, we often have to deal with such facts of the language, the explanation of which requires knowledge of historical grammar. An excursion into the history of language, a comparison of language processes show that modern norms language are the result of its development and improvement. After reviewing the history of some alternations, I explained the rules of modern spelling. Turning to the facts of historical grammar allows us to more consciously and firmly master the rules of the modern Russian language, understand the ways of its development, explain some phenomena in modern spelling, the origin of a particular word, and help write correctly. Finally, this is just interesting...
Used Books
Ladyzhenskaya T.A., Korovin M.T., Trostentsova L.A. and others. Russian language. Grade 5 – M.: Enlightenment, 2011.
Borkovsky V.I., Kuznetsov P.S. Historical grammar of the Russian language. - Chapter "History of alternations". - M .: Book house "Librocom", 2009.
Lopushanskaya S.P., Gorban O.A., Sheptukhina E.M. Pages of the history of the Russian language. – M.: Enlightenment, 2007.
Rosenthal D.E. Russian language. – M.: Bustard, 2000.
Linguistics. Encyclopedia for children. – M.: Avanta+, 1999.
Pushkin A.S. Fairy tales. - M .: Children's literature, 1977.
Lavrova S.A. Russian language. History pages. – M.: Bely Gorod, 2012.
Proverbs of the Russian people. Moscow. "Terra", 1996.
Appendix 1
Annex 2
The development of the Slavic languages can be represented as follows:
Appendix 3
A special role in the development of the Slavic language was played by the emergence of writing and the first bookish language, Old Church Slavonic. It was the merit of Cyril and Methodius, who created the alphabet and translated Christian church books into Slavic.
Appendix 4
A.S. Pushkin "The Tale of Tsar Saltan, of his glorious and mighty son Prince Gvidon Saltanovich and the beautiful Swan Princess":
1. Here the prince opened his eyes;
Shaking the dreams of the night
And wondering in front of you
Sees it's a big city...
Mother and son go to the city.
Just stepped on the fence
deafening chime
He rose from all sides ... (oro / / ra)
2. The guests came out on the shore;
Tsar Saltan invites them to visit ...
Will spill in a noisy run,
And find themselves on the shore
In scales, like the heat of grief,
Thirty-three heroes ... (re / / re)
Issues under consideration:
1. Types of sound alternations.
2. Positional alternations of sounds:
a) positional alternations of vowels;
b) positional alternations of consonants.
3. Historical alternations of sounds.
4. Phonetic transcription.
5. Rules for transcription (pronunciation) of vowels and consonants.
Key concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, position of sound, positional alternations of sounds, combinatorial alternations of sounds, accommodation, quantitative and qualitative reduction, assimilation, dissimilation,contraction, diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, stunning consonants at the end of a word, historical alternations sounds, phonetic transcription.
1. Types of sound alternations
In the process of speech, some sounds can be replaced by others. If this substitution is permanent, regular, due to the same causes, then we say that there is a process of alternation, and not an erroneous pronunciation. The relations of regular replacement of one sound by another in the same phonetic conditions are called alternation.
The alternations associated with the position of the sound are called position alternations. Alternations due to phonetic processes that took place in the past are called historical alternations.
All types of sound alternations can be represented in the form of the following table:
Types of sound alternations
|
positional (sound changes related to their position) |
historical (changes in sounds due to phonetic processes that took place in the past) |
|
|
actually positional (sound changes related only to the position of the sounds) |
combinatorial (changes related to the position of sounds and the influence of sounds on each other) |
|
|
vowel reduction; stun at the end of a consonant word |
accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation, contraction, diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution |
|
Despite the alternations, we recognize sounds, and therefore words, since alternations are associated with the relationship of sounds (phonemes) within the system, where units are bound friend with a friend in any way. The language distinguishes two main (global) types of interactions, interconnections (relations) of units: syntagmatic(linear) - relations of mutual influence of neighboring units and paradigmatic(non-linear, vertical) - relations of association of homogeneous units based on associations.
In phonetics, the influence of adjacent sounds on each other is a syntagmatic relationship, and the recognition of similar sounds and mentally linking them into the same sound, regardless of the sound, are paradigmatic (for example, when the speaker recognizes that the sounds [b], [b ' ], [n] in the words [oaks], , [du΄p] is the same typical sound).
2. Positional alternations of sounds (Syntagmatic relations)
Sounds in the speech stream are pronounced with different strength and clarity, depending on sound positions.Sound position - this is its immediate environment, as well as the position at the beginning, at the end of the word, at the junction of morphemes, and for vowels - the position in relation to stress.
There are two types of changes in sounds in the speech stream.
Positional changes - these are sound changes associated with its position (for example, stunning at the end of a word, weakening unstressed vowels [o], [a], [e]). Types of positional changes: stun at the end of a word , reduction (weakening of sound), assimilation, dissimilation, contraction of sounds, loss (diaeresis), epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, accommodation.
Combinatorial changes - these are changes associated with the influence of sounds on each other. Combinatorial changes include all types of positional changes, except for stunning at the end of a word and reduction, since these processes are associated only with the position in the word, and not with the influence of other sounds.
2 a) Positional vowel alternations
The main type of positional changes in vowels is reduction. Reduction happens quantitative and qualitative. quantitative reduction – decrease in longitude and strength of sound - typical for sounds [and], [s], [y] not under stress. Compare, for example, the pronunciation [s] in different positions of the word [was - experienced]). Qualitative reduction– attenuation with some change in sound. For example, for sounds [a], [o], [e] - in an unstressed position. Cf .: the sound of vowels in words the hammer and a hammer: [molt], [mult current].
Sounds [a], [o] after solid consonants are pronounced as reduced sounds [L] in the first pre-stressed position and at the absolute beginning of a word and as a reduced sound [b] in other positions (2nd, 3rd syllable before or after stress , For example, milk- [milko], beard- [barLda]. After soft consonants, the sounds [a], [o], [e] are pronounced as reduced sounds [and e], [b] - Rowan[r "and e b" ying], hourly[ h "s Lvoi].
The sound [e] in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced as the sound [ and e ], in the rest - [b]. For example: flight- [n "bp" and e l "otʹ].
In foreign words, the qualitative reduction of vowels [o], [e] appears irregularly: piano- [рLjа́л "], but boa[boa], remark[r "and e mark], but underground[m "etroʹ].
Positional changes in vowels undergoing reduction can be represented in the form of the following table:
|
accent strong position |
Unstressed positions |
|||
|
absolute beginning of a word, the beginning of the word after [j], first prestressed syllable 1 weak position |
other pre-shock and post-shock positions 2 weak position |
|||
|
after tv. |
after soft |
after tv. |
after soft |
|
|
clouds |
five [p'i e t'i] |
field [p'l'i e howl] |
Private [r'dLvoy] |
|
|
wife [zhe na] |
forests [l and e sa] |
tin [zhus't'i e noi] |
heroism [g'rLizm] |
|
combinatorial changes vowels arise as a result of the adaptation of the articulation of the vowel to the articulation of the preceding and subsequent sound and are called accommodation. Wed pronunciation [o] in words they say[say], a piece of chalk[m’ hol], mole[mo l']. Accommodation can be progressive (®): a piece of chalk[m 'hol] and regressive (¬): mole[mo l'].
Thus, characterizing the changes in vowel sounds in a word, we consider two aspects: 1. Positional - in relation to stress (qualitative reduction, quantitative reduction or vowel without change); 2. Combinatorial - the presence in the neighborhood (right and left) of soft consonants (progressive, regressive, progressive-regressive accommodation or no accommodation). For example, Birch[b'i e r'oz] :
[and e] - positional changes(in relation to stress): qualitative reduction; combinatorial changes (depending on the influence of neighbors): progressive-regressive accommodation.
[·о] – there are no positional changes, because vowel under stress; combinatorial changes - progressive accommodation.
[b] – positional changes: qualitative reduction; combinatorial changes are absent.
2 b) Positional alternations of consonants
As a result of the adaptation of the consonant to the articulation of the subsequent sound (usually a rounded vowel), a process arises consonant accommodation. Wed sound [t] in words - So and that: [so] - [to from].
Much more often than accommodation, there are other changes in consonant sounds.
Assimilation – similarity in some way. Assimilation happens:
- in the vicinity of the affecting sound : contact or distant;
- by the nature of the change by deafness/voicedness and hardness/softness;
- in the direction of impact - progressive(impact from left to right (®) and regressive(impact of sounds from right to left (¬);
- by completeness of assimilation: complete and partial.
The Russian language is characterized by contact, regressive assimilation. For example: story- [kask] - voiced [h] under the influence of the deaf [k] assimilated into the deaf paired sound[with]. This assimilation is contact partial regressive in deafness.
Hissing consonants before hissing as a result complete assimilation turn into hissing: I drive .
D assimilation - distribution of sounds. In Russian, this process is rare. As a result of the process, the sound changes its characteristics according to the method or place of formation: r ® x soft- [m "ahk" y], easy- [l "ohk" y]. Dissimilation is subjected to pairs of the same way or place of formation of sound or similar sounds. Dissimilation can be contact and distant,progressive and regressive.
Distant progressive dissimilation has occurred, for example, in the literary language in the word February from February, in the vernacular corridor from corridor. Replacing one of the two [p] with [l] is a distant dissimilation. (Not to be confused with the pronunciation norm: thu, th like [sh] - what[what] and - wow, his like [ova], [yva]: blue- [with "in" bb]! These alternations are carried out regularly, in the same positions without exception, and have the character of a law.)
contraction– coincidence in the articulation of two sounds in one. For example, urban® [grutskaya ® grtskaya], [ts] ® [c].
With the contraction of groups of consonants, sound loss can be observed: sun- [sun]. Usually these are combinations [vst], [ntsk], [stl], etc.
Changes based on the phenomena of assimilation and dissimilation:
Prolapse (miscarriages, diaeresis)- (from the Greek diaresis - gap) - the omission of one of the sounds in a combination of three or four consonants. For example, giant- [g'igansky].
Haplology- (from the Greek gaplos - simple + logos - concept) the omission of one or two identical adjacent syllables, due to dissimilation. For example, mineralogy instead of mineralogy, standard-bearer, instead of standard-bearer.
Metathesis- (from the Greek metathesis - permutation) permutation of sounds or syllables in the composition of a word on the basis of assimilation or dissimilation. For example, palm from dolon, plate from talerka.
Epenthesis- (from Greek epenthesis - insertion) insertion of sounds, For example, indrav instead of temper, scorpionjon instead of scorpion in colloquial speech, the sound [th] in the word coffee(from coffee), the sound [in] in the word singer(from sang) in literary speech.
substitution- (from Latin - substitution) the replacement of one sound with another, more often when replacing sounds uncharacteristic for the language in borrowed words. For example, in the word William[v] instead of [w].
3. Historical alternations of sounds
Regular changes in sounds, not related to the position in the word, but explained by the laws of the phonetic system that existed in the past, are called historical alternations. The main historical alternations associated with the processes of falling reduced, palatalization of consonants or their changes under the influence of softening [Ĵ]:
vowel alternation:
[ e] - [ and] - [ o] - [ a] - [Ø] // sound zero: died - to die; pestilence - to die - I will die; I take - collect - collect - collect;
[e] - [Ø] zero sound: stump - stump; true - true; wind - winds;
[o] - [Ø] - zero sound: forehead - forehead; bottomless - the bottom; lie - lie;
[ s] - [ Ø] - zero sound: send -ambassador - send.
Vowels can alternate with consonants or with vowels + consonant:
[and] - [th] - [she] - [oh]: drink - drink - drink - swill; beat - beat - beat - fight;
[s] - [oh] - [ov] - [av]: dig - swarm - ditch; swim - swimmer - swim; cover - cut - cover;
[y] - [ov] - [ev]: kuyu - to forge; draw - draw; peck - peck;
[a] - [im] - [m]: reap - shake - shake;
[a] - [in] - [n]: reap - reap - reap.
consonant alternation:
[g] - [g] - [s]: friend - make friends - friends; run - run; moisture - wet;
[k] - [h]: shout - shout; hand - manual; peku - bakes;
[x] - [w]: quiet - silence; dry - land; stuffy - stuffy;
[s] - [s "] - [g]: thunderstorm - to threaten - to threaten; to carry - I drive; smear - I smear; climb - get along;
[s] - [s"] - [w]: bringing - to wear - a burden; scythe - mow - koshu; ask - demand - petition; high - height - higher;
[t] - [t "] - [h] - [w"]: light - shine - candle - lighting; return - return - return;
[d] - [f] - [f]: gardens - soot - planting;
[n] - [n "]: change - change; torn - tear;
[l] - [l "]: business - efficient; prick - prickly;
[p] - [p "]: hit - hit; heat - heat; steam - steam;
[b] - [b "] - [bl"]: rowing - rowing - rowing;
[n] - [n "] - [pl"]: pour - rash - pour;
[in] - [in "] - [vl"]: trapper - catching - catching;
[f] - [f"] - [fl"]: graph - graph - graph;
[sk] - [st] - [s"t"] - [w":]: shine - shine - shine - shine; start - let - omit;
[sk] - [w":]: crack - crack;
[st] - [w "]: whistle - whistle
4. Phonetic transcription
Phonetic transcription is a recording of sounding speech with special characters. There are several transcription systems that differ in the degree of accuracy in conveying the shades of sound. You are offered the most common phonetic transcription, created on the basis of the Russian alphabet. Not all letters of the Russian alphabet are used in transcription. Phonetic transcription does not use letters e, yo, yu, i. Letters b, b are used in a different sense. Some letters of the foreign alphabet are added - j , γ , as well as superscript and subscript characters: È …. Z. The main signs adopted in phonetic transcription:
– square brackets to highlight transcribed sounding units;
/ - a sign above the letter to indicate stress;
’ - a sign to the right of the letter to indicate the softness of the sound;
L- a sign for designating sounds [a] or [o] in the first syllable before stress after solid consonants or at the beginning of a word not under stress: [sLdy],;
b- a sign for denoting unstressed sounds [a], [o] after solid consonants in all unstressed syllables except the first syllable and the beginning of a word: gardener- [sedLvo΄t], young- [mlLdo΄y], as well as an unstressed sound [e] after unmitigated [g], [w], [c] in all unstressed positions, except for the first one before the stress: cement- [ts'm'i en nt'i΄rv't'].
b- a sign for vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants, except for the first syllable before stress: hourly- [h’ sLvo΄y], arborist- [l'sLvo΄t];
and e- a sign for vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants in the first syllable before stress: forest- [l'i e sleepy]; nickel- [p'i e so].
s e – a sign for sound in place of the letter E in the first pre-stressed syllable after always hard consonants w, w, c: regret- [zhy e l’et’], price- [tsy e na΄],
γ – letter to represent a fricative consonant denoted by a letter G in words: yeah, sir;
È - the bow under the line between the words indicates the continuous pronunciation of the service and independent words: in rows- [p È r 'and e da΄m];
j- a letter for the sound [th] at the beginning of words on e,yo,yu, i, as well as between two vowels and after hard or soft signs: spruce – , climb- [pLdjo΄m], his- [svj and e v΄];
Ç - the bow above the combinations of consonants (dz, j) indicates their continuous pronunciation: [d Ç zhy΄nsy].
/ - a sign of a bar pause during the transcription of a sounding speech: [s’i e rg’e΄y / my friend//]
// - a sign of a phrasal pause in the transcription of sounding speech:
[home / and È s’t’e΄ny pmLga΄jut //] .
Phonetic transcription conveys the exact pronunciation of words and is used in the study of dialects and dialects, when the features of the pronunciation of a word of a particular locality are recorded, in the study of children's speech, as well as in mastering the correct literary pronunciation of words.
The literary pronunciation of the words of the Russian language implies the observance of certain norms, which are reflected in the transcription rules.
5. Rules for transcription (pronunciation) of vowels and consonants
Rules for transcription (pronunciation) of vowels:
1. The vowels O, A, E (in the spelling E) in an unstressed position are subject to reduction (weakening) and are not pronounced clearly.
2. In all unstressed positions after solid consonants, except for the first unstressed syllable, A and O are written with the sign b: balalaika- [b llla΄yk]; garden .
The vowels I, S, Y do not change during pronunciation.
3. In the first pre-stressed syllable, O and A are pronounced as open A, in transcription it is conveyed by the sign - [vLdaʹ]. This type of pronunciation is called akanem. The norm of the literary language is an aka pronunciation.
4. The sign also reflects the pronunciation of the initial unstressed O and A: district– . If the word is with a preposition, it is one phonetic word in the speech stream and is transcribed in accordance with the general rule: to the garden[in glro΄t];
5. After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed position, the sound A (letter Y) is pronounced like AND and transcribed using the icon [and e]: clock[ch'i e sy].
6. The vowel E (in the spelling E) in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced like AND and transcribed using the sign [and e]: forest[l'i e sno΄y]. In other positions, except for the first pre-stressed syllable, E is pronounced indistinctly and is transcribed after soft consonants using the [b] sign: arborist- [l'sLvo΄t], copse- [p'yr 'and e l'e΄sk].
7. The letters E, Yo, Yu, I are not used in transcription, in their place are written the corresponding pronunciation (audible) sounds: ball[m'ach'], ball[m'i e ch'a΄], Apple , climb[pLd j o΄m], spacious[prLside jb].
8. After the solid consonants Zh, Sh, Ts in the first pre-stressed syllable, in place of the letter E, the sign [s e] is written in the transcription: want- [zhy e lat '], price- [tsy e na]. In other positions, unstressed E after hard ones is transmitted with the sign [b]: yellowish[yellow].
9. After Zh, Sh, Ts in a stressed position, instead of the spelling rule And, the pronunciation [s] is written in the transcription: number- [cy΄fr], lived- [life], sewed- [shyl].
Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) consonants:
In the flow of speech, consonants are subject to mutual influence, as a result of which the processes of assimilation, dissimilation, contraction, loss, etc. occur. Voiced consonants at the end of a word in Russian are stunned. The processes of accommodation of consonant sounds (for example, the roundness of the sound [to] in the word here) are usually not reflected in the transcription used by us.
Historical vowel alternations
1. In modern Russian, the letters b and b are used, which do not represent sounds. However, in the Old Russian writing, the letters ъ and ь denoted independent phonemes ‹ъ› and ‹ь›.
These phonemes were embodied in special sounds [b] was close to [o], and [b] - to [e]. The sounds [b] and [b] were shorter than other vowels, so they were called reduced.
In the XI-XII centuries. in the Russian language, the process of dropping reduced vowels took place and the phonemes ‹ъ› and ‹ь› disappeared. But their disappearance occurred differently in different positions. At the end of the word ‹ъ› and ‹ь› ceased to be pronounced. In other positions [b] moved to [o], [b] - [e].
For example, in the Old Russian words sn, mh, rb the final [b] was lost, and the first passed into [o]. Russian words appeared sleep, moss, mouth.
In indirect cases of these words there were forms sleep, moha, rota, which have changed in sleep, moss, mouth. This is how the alternation of [o] with zero sound arose.
2. The alternation ‹o//a› is observed in verbs: comes out - nurses, demolishes - wears out, catches - catches, breaks off - breaks off, salts - salts.
In the Proto-Slavic language, before the suffix -iva-, the vowel was extended, later the long vowel [o] turned into the vowel [a].
3. In modern Russian there is an alternation ‹∙e / ∙o›: fun - cheerful, rural - villages, Petya - Peter, mob - black. This alternation arose as a result of the action of the phonetic law of the change of shock [e] into [o] after a soft consonant before a hard one.
Previously, these words were pronounced with [e] before soft and hard. This pronunciation was typical of the high style of speech in the poetry of the first half of the 19th century:
When comrades agree No On the hills of the gun subdued,
It's not their business sing d no. Chased away your hungry roar.
(Krylov) (Pushkin)
Historical consonant alternation
In modern Russian, there are a number of historical consonant alternations. They arose as a result of the action of phonetic processes that occurred in the Proto-Slavic and Old Russian languages. Changes in sounds also arose under the influence of the Old Slavonic language.
The alternation of posterior lingual consonants with hissing and whistling arose as a result of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd palatalization: doctor - I'm flying, friend - friends, spirit - soul
The sound [j] caused the following alternations of consonants:
A) ‹s /s’/sh›: spit - mow - koshu, ‹z /z’/zh›: carry - carry - drive;
B) after the labial consonants [j] changed to [l ']:
‹b / b’ / bl’›: love - love - love, chop - ruble, hence - ruble;
‹p/n’/pl’›: firebox - drown - drown, buy - buy - buy, buy.
‹v / v’ / vl’›: catch - catch - catch, catch; edit - rule;
‹m / m '/ ml '›: feed - feed - feed, earthly - ground - earth.
C) [t] and [e] with [j] gave different results in Russian and Old Church Slavonic.
In Russian → [h']: light - shine - candle - glow. In the Old Slavonic language [tj] → [sh't '] (u): light - lighting. [dj] in Russian alternated with [zh] (ford - wander) in the Old Slavonic language [dj] → [zh'd '] (drive - driving). This is how the series of alternations [t/t’/h/sh’] and [d/d’zh/zhd’] arose.
The historical alternation of consonants can be represented in the form of a table.
| Labial | back lingual |
||
| sounds | examples | sounds | examples |
| p-p "-pl": | sy P at-sy P b-sy pl Yu | c-c-c: | whether to–whether h ny - whether c about |
| b-b "-bl": | gre b u-gre b yo-gre bl I | g-s "-zh: | podru G a-dru h ya - dru well ba |
| in-in "-vl": | lo in abalone lo in yat-lo ow Yu | x - w: | mo X- m w true |
| f-f "-fl": | gra f a - gra f yat - gra fl Yu | x - s: | trya X poke - shake with at |
| m-m "-ml": | feed-core m yat-kor ml Yu | ||
| Sounds Frontlingual | sounds group of consonants |
||
| t-t "-h-sh" | sve t–sve t yat-sve h u - osve sch at | sk-s "t" -sh: | ble ck- bleu st yat - bleu sch at |
| d-d "-zh-zhd | ro d ow-ro d yat-ro well at-ro railway at | st - s "t" -sh: | svi st- svi st yat - swi sch at |
| s-s "-sh | you with ok - you with b - you w e | zg - zzh: | sconces zg at - bra zzh at |
| z-z "-zh: | gro h a-gro h yat-gro well at | zd-z "d"-zzh | e zd a - e zd yat - e zzh at |
| n-n": | me n a-me n yat | ||
| c-h: | ote c– father h essky | ||
Key words
Syntagmatics, paradigmatics, neutralization, position, exchanges, positional changes, alternation, parallel rows, intersecting rows, historical alternations, morphological composition of speech.
Questions for self-examination
What are the features of syntagmatics and paradigmatics of speech sounds?
What is the difference between strong and weak positions?
When are consonants in a strong position?
Describe weak positions of consonants.
What rows does the positional change of sounds form?
Why are alternations of sounds called historical?
Tests
1. The ability of sound units to vary is called ...
A) * paradigm
B) syntagmatic
B) neutralization
D) opposition
2. Find the positional menu of consonants at the place of formation
A) bra zg at - bra zzh at
B) doctor - I'm flying
B) group - group
D) * sew - sew
3. Positional change is the change of sounds, determined by ...
A) the morphological composition of speech
B) *syntagmatic laws
C) the lexical composition of the language
D) the influence of the Old Church Slavonic language
4. The alternation of sounds is the change of sounds, which ...
A) *determined by the morphological composition of speech
B) depends on the phonetic position
B) is caused by supersegment units
D) is explained by modern laws of phonetics
5. Indicate words with historical alternation in morphemes
A) * food - feed, thunderstorm - threaten
B) gender - floors, life - bit
C) sleep - sleep, home - home
D) hump - humps, moss - moss
Literature:
1. Avanesov R.I. Phonetics of the modern Russian literary language. M.,
2. Bulanin L.L. Phonetics of the modern Russian language. M., 1987.
3. Zinder L.R. General phonetics. L., 1979.
4. Kasatkin L.L. Phonetics of the modern literary language. - M .: from-in Mosk. un-ta, 2003.
5.Matusevich M.I. Modern Russian language. Phonetics. M., 1986.
6. Modern Russian language / Ed. Lekanta P.A. – M.: Bustard, 2002.
LECTURE No. 8. ORPHEPY. GRAPHIC ARTS
Plan
The concept of orthoepy.
Russian literary pronunciation in its historical development.
Pronunciation styles.
5. Theory of writing.
6. Graphics. Features of the Russian alphabet.
7. The syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
The concept of orthoepy
Orthoepy should deal with the normalization of the practical side of phonetics and individual cases of pronunciation of individual words.
Orthoepy -(Greek orthos - “simple, correct, epos - “speech”) is a set of rules for standard literary pronunciation. As in writing, for speed and ease of understanding, the unity of spelling rules is necessary, and in oral speech, for the same purpose, the unity of pronunciation norms is necessary.
Listening to oral speech, we do not think about its sound, but directly perceive the meaning. Each deviation from the usual orthoepic pronunciation distracts the listener from the meaning.
Orthoepy considers the composition of the main sounds of the language - phonemes, their quality and changes in certain phonetic conditions. Phonetics also deals with these issues, but in terms of describing the sound structure of the Russian language.
For orthoepy, it is important to establish the norms of literary pronunciation. The concept of pronunciation includes sound design. But orthoepic rules cover only the area of pronunciation of individual sounds in certain phonetic positions or combinations of sounds, as well as the features of the pronunciation of sounds in certain grammatical forms, in groups of words or individual words.
Compliance with orthoepic rules is necessary, it helps to better understand speech. Pronunciation norms are of a different nature and have different origins.
In some cases, the phonetic system dictates only one possibility of pronunciation. A different pronunciation will be a violation of the laws of the phonetic system.
For example, not distinguishing between hard and soft consonants, or pronouncing only hard or only soft consonants; or distinguish between voiceless and voiced consonants in all positions without exception.
In other cases, the phonetic system allows not one, but two or more possibilities of pronunciation. In such cases, one possibility is recognized as literary correct, normative, while others are evaluated either as variants of the literary norm, or are recognized as non-literary.
Russian literary pronunciation in its historical development
In the development of literary norms, a special role belongs to the Moscow dialect. Already in the XVII century. the main regularities of the modern literary language have developed.
This language was based on the dialect of Moscow, which belongs to the Central Russian dialects, in which the sharpest dialectal features of the northern Great Russian and southern Great Russian dialects are smoothed out.
Old Moscow pronunciation still forms the basis of orthoepic norms, which have somewhat changed in the 20th century.
Russian literary pronunciation evolved over a long period of time. Before the formation of the national language in the XVII century. the normalization of the literary language practically did not concern pronunciation.
Dialect varieties of the Russian language were widespread in different territories. These dialects: Rostov-Suzdal, Novgorod, Tver, Smolensk, Ryazan, etc., were spoken by the entire population of the respective feudal lands, regardless of social affiliation.
Along with the annexation of other principalities to the Moscow Principality, the economic, political, and cultural role of Moscow as the capital of the centralized Russian state grew. In this regard, the prestige of the Moscow dialect also grew. Its norms, including pronunciation, developed into national norms.
Norms of literary pronunciation are both a stable and developing phenomenon. At any given moment, they contain both something that connects today's pronunciation with past eras of the literary language, and something that arises as new in pronunciation under the influence of the live oral practice of a native speaker, as a result of the internal laws of the development of the phonetic system.
There is no exact correspondence between letters and sounds. Is written of course, what to but pronounced horse [w] but, [w] then, [w] toby. And the one who speaks horse [h '] but, [h '] then, [h '] to, makes a spelling error.
Orthoepy establishes and defends the norms of literary pronunciation. The sources of violation of pronunciation norms are: the development of the language, the influence of the dialect language, writing.
The variant of the "younger" norm when it arises, the variant of the "older" norm when it leaves the literary language can be perceived as violations of the norm.
So, at the beginning of the XX century. some orthoepists condemned hiccups, new to the literary language. The pronunciation [p '] is also found in the speech of city dwellers in words such as tse [r '] kov, four [r '] g, previously presented in many words in positions after [e] before labial and back-lingual consonants and previously included in the number of literary norms.
The main trends in the development of modern literary pronunciation go along the line of simplifying too complex orthoepic rules; sifting out all narrow-local pronunciation features that progress under the influence of radio, cinema, theater, school; convergence of exemplary pronunciation with writing.
Pronunciation styles
In oral colloquial speech, its varieties are distinguished, usually called pronunciation styles. The emergence of the doctrine of pronunciation styles is caused by the heterogeneity of pronunciation in different population groups.
L.V. Shcherba proposed to distinguish full style, when words are pronounced deliberately slowly, especially clearly, with emphasized articulation of each sound, and colloquial style, "peculiar to the calm conversation of people."
The followers of L. V. Shcherba called these varieties complete and incomplete pronunciation types. Many phoneticians distinguish high, neutral, and colloquial pronunciation styles.
neutral style does not have a stylistic coloring, it is the basis of a wide variety of oral texts. High style manifested in some features of the pronunciation of individual words in the text. Most of these features are associated with the desire to pronounce the word closer to its spelling. We resort to high style when public speaking, when transmitting important messages, when reading poetic works. The high style is also characterized by some features of the old Moscow pronunciation that are still preserved. For example, the pronunciation of a solid [s] return postfix: collected [s], take care [s], remove [s].
Finally, the third colloquial style. Outside the literary language is colloquial style.
Orthoepic norms in the field of vowels and consonants
The Moscow dialect, which formed the basis of the Russian literary pronunciation, was the dialect of the Akachiy. And in modern literary pronunciation in place of letters a and about in the first pre-stressed syllable, after solid consonants, the sound [a] is pronounced.
Vowel pronunciation is determined by position in prestressed syllables and is based on a phonetic law called reduction. Due to reduction, unstressed vowels are preserved in duration (quantity) and lose their distinct sound (quality).
All vowels undergo reduction, but the degree of this reduction is not the same. So, the vowels [y], [s], [and] in an unstressed position retain their main sound, while [a], [o], [e] change qualitatively.
The degree of reduction [a], [o], [e] depends mainly on the place of the syllable in the word, as well as on the nature of the preceding consonant.
a) In the first prestressed syllable the sound [Ù] is pronounced: [vÙdy / sÙdy / nÙzhy].
After hissing, [Ù] is pronounced: [zhÙra / shÙry].
In place of [e] after the hissing [w], [w], [c], the sound [s e] is pronounced: [tsy e pnoį], [zhy e ltok].
After soft consonants in place [a], [e], the sound [and e] is pronounced: [ch’i e sy / sn’i e la].
b) In the rest of the unstressed syllables, in place of the sounds [o], [a], [e] after solid consonants, the sound [b] is pronounced: [kulkÙla / ts'hÙvoį / par٨vos].
After soft consonants in place of sounds [a], [e], [b] is pronounced: [p'tÙch'ok / ch'mÙdan].
Outlining the basic rules of pronunciation consonants, We focus on the neutral style of speech:
a) the norms of literary pronunciation require a positional exchange of paired deaf and voiced in a position in front of the deaf (only deaf) - voiced (only voiced) and at the end of the word (only deaf): [hl’epʹ] / trʹpkʹ / proʹbʹb];
b) assimilative softening is not necessary, there is a tendency to lose it: [s't'ina] and [st'ina], [z'd'es'] and [zd'es'].
In the pronunciation of some combinations of consonants the following rules apply:
a) in pronominal formations what, to– thu pronounced like [pcs]; in pronominal formations like something, mail, almost the pronunciation [th] is preserved;
b) in a number of words of predominantly colloquial origin, [shn] is pronounced in place ch: [kÙn'eshn / nÙroshn].
In words of book origin, the pronunciation [ch] has been preserved: [ml'ech'nyį / vÙstoch'nyį];
c) in the pronunciation of combinations sun, zdn, stn (hello private holiday) usually there is a reduction or loss of one of the consonants: [prazn'ik], [h'asn'ik], [hello]
Pronunciation of sounds in some grammatical forms
a) pronunciation of the form I.p. unit adjectives without stress: [red / s'in'iį] - under the influence of spelling arose - oh, - oh; after back-lingual g, k, x ® iy: [t'ih'iį], [m'ahk'iį];
b) pronunciation - sya, - sya. Under the influence of spelling, soft pronunciation became the norm: [n'ch'i e las' / n'ch'i e ls'a];
c) pronunciation of verbs in - ive after g, k, x, the pronunciation [g ’], [k ’], [x ’] became the norm (under the influence of spelling): [vyt’ag’ivt ’].
Pronunciation loanwords should be checked in a dictionary. It generally obeys the phonetic system of the Russian language. However, in some cases there are deviations:
a) the pronunciation of [o] in place of [Ù]: [boaʹ / otel '/ poet], although [rÙman / [rÙĵal '/ pretsent];
b) [e] is preserved in unstressed syllables: [Ùtel'ĵeʹ / d'epr'esʹiįb];
c) before [e], g, k, x, l are always softened: [g'etry / k'eks / bÙl'et].
Theory of writing
At first there were drawings on stone, bone, wood. The drawings did not reflect the sound side of the language, were not associated with either a single word or a single sound, and conveyed an idea approximately. Such a letter in science is called pictographic(from lat. pictus- painted, c. grapho- writing).
But gradually the drawing turned into a conventional sign to designate single word with a certain lexical meaning. At this stage, the letter already literally reproduced the content of the speech. But there was still no connection between sign and content. This type of letter is called ideographic(gr. ideas- concept, grapho- writing).
In ideographic writing, a sign acts as a symbol that evokes in the mind of the reader the concept of an object, but does not give any idea of \u200b\u200bhow the word that names this object sounds.
The search for a more convenient letter led to the emergence of a purely syllabic systems, when the sound of a particular syllable is assigned to a sign.
With the further development of society, the syllabary is gradually transformed into sound writing, where the signs represent the sounds of the language.
For the first time signs for individual consonants appeared in Egyptian writing. On the basis of the Egyptian letter, a system for designating consonant sounds in the Phoenician letter, which was borrowed by the Greeks, is being developed. On the basis of the Greek alphabet, the alphabets of the Latin, Etruscan, Gothic and Slavic languages were then created.
Sound, or alphabetic, writing is currently used by most of the peoples of the world. This type of letter is the most convenient and affordable.
With its help, it is possible to convey any content of human speech, regardless of whether we are dealing with concepts specific or abstract, simple or complex.
Alternation - a regular measure of sounds within one morpheme.
There are alternations phonetic, or positional, and historical. Phonetic alternations are observed only in oral speech and are not reflected in writing, for example:
alternation g//k: [kruʹ G ъ] (circle) - [circle to ] (a circle);
alternation of e / / and e: [l̓esʹ] (forest) - [l̓i e saʹ] (forests);
// - alternation sign.
These alternations are fixed in phonetic transcription. They are explained by the laws of the modern phonetic system and are studied in phonetics.
Historical alternations were inherited from ancient epochs and are not explained by modern phonetic laws, although during the periods of their occurrence in previous epochs of the development of the language, these alternations were phonetically determined and can be explained from the point of view of the phonetics of that era, i.e. historically, For example:
alternation of k / / h in the words ru to a - ru h can be historically explained as follows: the sound [ h'] was formed here from backlingual * k in the Proto-Slavic era according to the phonetic law of the 1st palatalization influenced by the subsequent front vowel b, which was here in a weak position (before the vowel of the full formation) and was lost as a result of the fall of the reduced ones (XI-XII centuries);
alternation of y // s in words k at yu - k ov at; can be historically explained as follows: at goes back to diphthong * oṷ, which has changed to monophthong before a consonant in the Proto-Slavic era according to the phonetic law of an open syllable, a ov goes back to diphthong * oṷ which has changed into a free combination of sounds (o-v) before a vowel.
Over time, a number of historical alternations are morphologized, that is, they begin to accompany the formation of words and word forms, for example:
alternation o//ø in word forms with about n - sleep explained phonetic law of falling reduced, which took place in Russian from the 11th-13th centuries; about appeared on the spot b in a strong position b ), ø appeared on the spot b in a weak position 〤 ): with b n〤 → sleep; from〤to → sleep. Having arisen as a phonetic phenomenon, this alternation has turned into a morphological means of forming similar grammatical forms. So, by analogy with the word forms of sleep - sleep, where the fluency of vowels was phonetically determined, the fluency of vowels is noted, for example, in the word forms: ditch - ditch (he was originally a vowel of full formation [o]).
