Modern and Russian literary language. The literary language is not used On what basis the Russian literary language was formed
in office work
household sphere
in oral speech
Functional style is not
official business language
colloquial
professional language
The choice of functional style is determined
sphere of communication
number of participants
the nature of the transmitted information
language means
Emotionally expressive vocabulary is inappropriate
in a conversational style
in a journalistic style
scientific style
in formal business style
Abstract vocabulary is a hallmark of the style
artistic
scientific
colloquial
journalistic
The use of clichés in
colloquial style
journalistic style
formal business style
art style
Which of the following characteristics are mandatory for business communication?
friendliness
officiality
expediency
relevance
Indicate terminological combinations that do NOT characterize the mandatory components of business communication.
psychological aspect
communicative aspect
ethical aspect
aesthetic aspect
9. The quality of speech, which is characterized by compliance with not only linguistic, but also ethical standards:
Accuracy
Right
wealth
The hidden context of communication implies
expression of dissatisfaction with the conversation
degree of acquaintance of communicants
speaker's intentions
Compliance with the rules of speech etiquette is determined
rules of conduct in public places
using typical language constructions in typical situations
availability of information
taking into account the degree of acquaintance of the communicants
Mark the required characteristics of oral speech.
use of non-verbal means
possibility of correction
strict adherence to style
Oral business speech involves
use of cliches
imagery
standard form
officiality
What is the style of the oratory?
journalistic
artistic
official business
Note the characteristic features of written speech.
use of non-verbal means
spelling compliance
spontaneity
strict adherence to style
adherence to phonetic norms
Written business speech does not involve
use of cliches
stereotype
officiality
evaluation of information
Define the meaning of the word "exclusive".
luxurious
exceptional
detailed
Define the meaning of the word "excess".
disappointment
bad joke
inflammation
collision
19. Non-verbal means of communication include:
intonation
rate of speech
Check the excess
identification
reflection
What speech stamps are NOT related to the beginning of a conversation
I think the best place to start our conversation is with a discussion of...
At the end of the conversation, I would like to...
Today I propose to discuss...
I would like to start our conversation with...
Let's sum up our agreements.
I think we should first discuss...
I think we'll start our conversation with...
So we come to the end of our conversation.
I believe that today we have discussed all our issues.
Stages of a business conversation are NOT
start a conversation
informing partners
argumentation of the put forward provisions
making decisions
end of conversation
23. A set of communication effects are:
visual image effect
the effect of the first phrases
argumentation effect
quantum burst effect
questionnaire effect
effect of intonation and pauses
artistic expressiveness
relaxation.
Answer card for the test by discipline
"Business conversation"
| ? | Correct answer | |||||||||
| BUT | B | IN | G | D | E | F | Z | AND | TO | |
Educational and methodological support
disciplines
10.1 Main literature
1. Koshevaya I.P. Professional ethics and psychology of business communication: Tutorial/ I.P. Koshevaya, A.A. Kanke. - M.: Forum: Infra-M, 2011.-304 p. - (Professional education).
2. Silant'eva M.V. Business Communication: Lecture Notes. File DelOb_lek.pdf/ Department of Psychology and Pedagogy. - SPb: SPbGIEU, 2009.
3. Struzhinskaya N.N. Communication Management: Lecture Notes. The file KomMen_lek. pdf/ Department of Public Relations and Mass Communications. - SPb: SPbGIEU, 2010.
10.2 Further reading
4. Vasilenko I.A. The art of international negotiations. – Economics, 2011.
5. Izmailova M.A. Business Communication: Textbook. - 2nd edition. - M.: Dashkov i K, 2009. - 252 p.
6. Sharkov F.I. Communicology. Fundamentals of communication theory. – Dashkov & Co, 2011.
LOGISTICS
EDUCATIONAL PROCESS
For conducting classes, a personal computer, a multimedia projector, a projection screen are used.
STUDENT KNOWLEDGE CONTROL
Forms of current control
The current control of mastering the discipline is carried out in the form of checking independent work according to the point-rating system.
12.2 Form of intermediate control by discipline
Assessment report.
During the semester, the student must score 60 points.
On the test, a student can score 40 points.
To convert the score to the traditional one, the following scale is used:
0-60 points - fail;
61-70 points - satisfactory;
71-85 points - good;
86-100 points - excellent.
An approximate distribution of points by types of student work and forms of current control is shown in Table 4.
After summing up the points obtained during the study of the discipline and on the offset, the student's rating in the discipline is determined.
Table 4
Distribution of points by types of student work and forms of current control
| Topic | Type of occupation | Estimated time for one lesson, h | date of | Grade in points for the type of lesson | Maximum points per topic | |
| Topic 1. Business communications as a socio-psychological mechanism | AR | Lecture | ||||
| Practice | ||||||
| Practice | ||||||
| SR | Abstract preparation | |||||
| Preparation for the test | ||||||
| Topic 2. Business communication tools | AR | Lecture | ||||
| Lecture | ||||||
| Practice | ||||||
| Practice | ||||||
| Practice (testing on the topic) | ||||||
| SR | Abstract preparation | |||||
| Case Solution 1 | ||||||
| Preparation for the test | ||||||
| Topic 3. Psychological impacts in communications | AR | Lecture | ||||
| Lecture | ||||||
| Practice | ||||||
| Practice | ||||||
| Practice (testing on the topic) | ||||||
| SR | Abstract preparation | |||||
| Case 2 solution | ||||||
| Preparation for the test | ||||||
| Topic 4. Forms of business communication. | AR | Lecture | ||||
| Lecture | ||||||
| Practice | ||||||
| Practice | ||||||
| Practice | ||||||
| Practice (testing on the topic) | ||||||
| SR | Abstract preparation | |||||
| Case Solution 3 | ||||||
| Preparation for the test | ||||||
| Topic.5 Ethics and etiquette of business communication | AR | Lecture | ||||
| Lecture | ||||||
| Practice | ||||||
| Practice | ||||||
| Practice | ||||||
| Practice (testing on the topic) | ||||||
| SR | Abstract preparation | |||||
| Case 4 solution | ||||||
| Preparation for the test | ||||||
| Presentation of a report | ||||||
| Report opposition | ||||||
| Points for classroom work | ||||||
| Points for independent work | ||||||
| AR | offset | |||||
| SR | Preparation for the test | |||||
| Active class attendance | ||||||
| Active work in the classroom | ||||||
| no more than 10 points | ||||||
ODA + features
the presence of a corpus of texts;
1) the presence of writing;
6) prevalence;
7) general use;
8) general obligatoriness;
Literary and national language.
Comparison. Literary is included in the national
Non-literary forms of language, dialects.
The national language is a form of language that exists in the era of the nation.
The national language is a hierarchical integrity within which a regrouping of linguistic phenomena takes place.
National language:
· literary language:
written form (book);
oral form (colloquial);
non-literary forms:
territorial dialects;
social phraseological units;
Prison (argotic vocabulary);
vernacular;
jargon
A dialect is a means of communication between people united territorially (national language + ter. features).
Jargon is a social dialect that is distinguished by specific vocabulary, phraseology, expressive means, without affecting the phonetic and grammatical foundations. The main function is to express belonging to an autonomous social group. ( 18th - 19th century based on loanwords)
Slang ( from eng) is a set of special words or meanings of words, also used in various social groups, but with a short lifetime.
Argotic vocabulary is the language of a closed social group, which does not affect the phonetic and grammatical foundations.
Vernacular is a distorted, misused form of lit. language, i.e., in fact, a deviation from the literary language norm. (At all language levels) Opposes all other forms, because it distorts the lexical bases. The main features of colloquialism: carelessness, loss of self-control, fuzzy articulation, the presence of erroneous forms, oversimplification. (oral speech is not the same as vernacular)
The history of the formation of the Russian literary language
Indo-European linguistic unity
Common Slavic 1500 BC - 400 AD
Old Russian language
Beginning of formation 14th century
The special role of the Church Slavonic language
Two elements:
· Old Russian language(mostly without writing);
Church Slavonic (mostly bookish);
Many borrowings of different time and source.
A large number of dialects of the Old Russian language.
The Russian language was originally part of the East Slavic language (Old Russian), which was spoken by the East Slavic tribes that formed the Old Russian people within the Kiev state in the 10th century. With the passage of time (Х1У - ХУ centuries), the Russian language stood out from the general group and formed as independent language, along with ukrainian and belorussian.
The ancient Russian language (the common ancestor of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian) is reflected in the written monuments. Of the surviving and extant manuscripts, the earliest manuscript belongs to the 11th century (dated - 1057).
Until the XIV century. there was an ancient Russian language mutual language ancestors of Ukrainians, Belarusians and Russians. The Russian language belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. This group includes Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. In addition to the eastern group, among the Slavic languages there is also a southern group (Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Macedonian) and a western group of languages (Polish, Slovak, Czech and some other languages). All Slavic languages are closely related, have many common words, and are significantly similar in grammar and phonetics. In the XIV century. there was a separation of this East Slavic language (in connection with the formation of the Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian nation), and since then the Russian language of the Russian people has existed.
From Peter I to the XIX century - the normalization of the Russian language.
Stalinist normalization - Lomanosov.
Later: Ushakov, Vinogradov, Ozhegov...
One can detect the similarity of words in the Indo-European family of languages:
Russian language in the system of languages of the world
Map of language families
Genealogical and typological classifications
language families. Basque language isolated. Japanese isolated. RF (???)
In total, there are about 5,000 languages in the world.
Related languages are called languages that came out of the same “parent” language. All related languages descending from a common ancestor are called language family.
World languages:
· North Caucasian family of languages;
Indo-European family of languages:
Slavic group of languages:
West Slavic subgroup:
· Polish;
· Czech;
East Slavic subgroup:
· Ukrainian;
· Russian;
Belarusian
South Slavic subgroup:
· Bulgarian;
· Macedonian;
Basque family:
The Basque language
Chinese → Eastern language group → Sino-Tibetan language family
There are about 1000 dialects in the Papuan languages *trollface*
Japanese language isolated
Example: the word "house"
Russian language: house
Serbian: house
Polish language: dom
Journalistic style.
A distinctive feature of the journalistic style is considered to be the combination of the opposite in it: standard and expression, strict logic and emotionality, intelligibility and conciseness, informative richness and economy of language means.
The journalistic style is inherent in the periodical press, socio-political literature, political and judicial speeches, etc. It is used, as a rule, for illumination and discussion. actual problems and phenomena of the current life of society, to develop public opinion, which is formed with the aim of solving them. Let's make a reservation that the journalistic style exists not only in verbal (oral and written) form, but also in graphic, pictorial (poster, caricature), photo and cinematographic (documentary film, television) and other forms.
One of the central functions of the journalistic style of speech is the information function. Realizing it, this style performs another function - the impact on the reader and listener. It is associated with the public upholding of certain ideals, with the conviction of others in their justice and justification.
The journalistic style, in contrast to the scientific one, for example, is associated with simplicity and accessibility of presentation, often uses elements of appeal and declarativeness.
His verbal expressiveness is manifested in the desire for novelty of presentation, in attempts to use unusual, unhackneyed phrases, to avoid repetition of the same words, turns, constructions, to address the reader or listener directly, etc. Publicism is inherent in public accessibility, because it is intended for the widest audience. The stylistics of journalistic speech allows to implement the mass nature of communication.
Another important manifestation of journalistic style is the use of so-called intellectual speech. It is characterized by strict documentaryism, focusing on the accuracy, verification, objectivity of the facts presented. Such speech, as a rule, is replete with professional terminology, but the use of figurative, metaphorical terms is limited in it. She claims to be analytical and factual in the presentation of the material. The author of the speech seeks to draw attention to the significance of the facts cited, the information published, highlights the nominal, personal, personal nature of the speech. In a word, the stylistic core of intellectual speech is its emphasized documentary and factual accuracy.
The most important role in the journalistic style of speech is played by emotional means of expression. Among them are the use of words with bright emotional coloring, the use of the figurative meaning of words, the use of various figurative means. Epithets, lexical repetitions, comparisons, metaphors, appeals, rhetorical questions are widely used. Proverbs, sayings, colloquial turns of speech, phraseological units, the use of literary images, the possibilities of humor and satire also act as means of emotional expressiveness. Emotional linguistic means act in a journalistic style, combined with figurativeness, logic, evidence.
Art style
The artistic style of speech is distinguished by figurativeness, the wide use of figurative and expressive means of the language. In addition to its typical linguistic means, it uses the means of all other styles, especially colloquial. In the language of fiction, vernacular and dialectisms, words of a high, poetic style, jargon, rude words, professionally business turns of speech, journalism can be used. HOWEVER, ALL THESE MEANS IN the artistic style of speech ARE SUBJECT TO ITS MAIN FUNCTION - AESTHETIC.
If the colloquial style of speech performs primarily the function of communication, (communicative), scientific and official-business function of the message (informative), then the artistic style of speech is intended to create artistic, poetic images, emotional and aesthetic impact. All linguistic means included in a work of art change their primary function, obey the tasks of a given artistic style.
In literature, language occupies a special position, since it is that building material, that matter perceived by ear or sight, without which a work cannot be created. The artist of the word - the poet, the writer - finds, in the words of L. Tolstoy, "the only necessary placement of the only necessary words" in order to correctly, accurately, figuratively express an idea, convey the plot, character, make the reader empathize with the heroes of the work, enter the world created by the author.
All this is accessible ONLY to the LANGUAGE OF ART LITERATURE, therefore it has always been considered the pinnacle of the literary language. The best in language, its strongest possibilities and the rarest beauty - in the works of fiction, and all this is achieved by the artistic means of the language.
The means of artistic expression are varied and numerous. You are already familiar with many of them. These are such tropes as epithets, comparisons, metaphors, hyperbole, etc. Tropes - a turn of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense in order to achieve greater artistic expressiveness. The path is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem to our consciousness to be close in some way. The most common types of tropes are allegory, hyperbole, irony, litote, metaphor, metomia, personification, paraphrase, synecdoche, simile, epithet.
For example: What are you howling about, the night wind, what are you complaining about insanely - personification. All flags will visit us - synecdoche. A man with a fingernail, a boy with a finger - litote. Well, eat a plate, my dear - metonymy, etc.
The expressive means of the language also include STYLISTIC FIGURES of speech or simply figures of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion, multi-union, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora. The means of artistic expression also include rhythm (poetry and prose), rhyme, and intonation.
Each author has his own unique author's style. For example, when publishing classical literary works, the author's neologisms and even obvious grammatical and spelling mistakes of the author are often preserved to convey the author's style as fully as possible. Sometimes later they even become a new literary norm.
Conversational style
The colloquial style is mostly spoken, but can also be recorded.
Conversational style features:
Vocabulary is neutral, specific-subject;
a large place is occupied by expressive, emotionally colored words;
folk phraseology;
Abstract nouns are uncharacteristic;
almost no participles and participles are used;
Simplified syntax: sentences are usually simple, often incomplete;
word order is free, inversion is easily allowed;
intonation with a clearly noticeable transition from rising to falling;
At the same time, colloquial speech is open to various intrusions, including foreign ones. So, a purely colloquial word, like “to act up” and a term, coexists in it. In a conversational style, you can also talk about a business topic, if it is appropriate for the conditions of communication (for example, if friends are talking). The conversational style is not completely homogeneous: it can be neutral speech, colloquial business and familiar. With all the freedom of colloquial style, it still remains the style of the literary language, that is, it does not go beyond the limits of the language norm. Therefore, it has no place for vernacular and other types of profanity.
Successful colloquial speech prevents conflicts, greatly contributes to the adoption of optimal decisions, the establishment of the desired moral climate in the family and the team.
We emphasize that the colloquial (colloquial-everyday) style fully performs the function of communication. Along with the domestic environment, it is also most widely used in the professional field. In everyday life, the conversational style is manifested both in oral and written form (notes, private letters), in the professional sphere - mainly in oral form.
The everyday situation of communication, especially dialogic, is characterized by an emotional, primarily evaluative reaction. Such communication is characterized by the unity of its verbal and non-verbal manifestations.
The conversational style is also characterized by a sensually specific nature of speech, the absence of strict logic and inconsistency of presentation, discontinuity, the predominance of emotional and evaluative information content, frequent manifestations of violent expression, and the personal nature of speech. All this, of course, has a tangible effect on the functioning of the language units serving the colloquial style, i.e. on the general direction of their use.
The colloquial style is inherent in the active operation of lexical, syntactic and grammatical synonyms (words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning; constructions that match in meaning).
Literary language. Its main features.
ODA + features
The literary language is an exemplary, standard, codified, processed form of the national language:
the presence of a corpus of texts;
processing and codification;
universal nature of use;
stylistic differentiation;
Literary language is the national language of writing, the language of official and business documents, school education, written communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form (written and sometimes oral), perceived by native speakers of this language as exemplary. Literary language is the language of literature in the broadest sense. The Russian literary language functions both in oral form and in written form.
Signs of literary language:
1) the presence of writing;
2) normalization is a fairly stable way of expression that expresses the historically established patterns of development of the Russian literary language. Normalization is based on the language system and is fixed in the best examples of literary works. This mode of expression is preferred by the educated part of society;
3) codification, i.e. anchored in scientific literature; this is expressed in the presence of grammatical dictionaries and other books containing the rules for using the language;
4) stylistic diversity, i.e. variety of functional styles of literary language;
5) relative stability;
6) prevalence;
7) general use;
8) general obligatoriness;
9) compliance with the use, customs and capabilities of the language system.
The protection of the literary language and its norms is one of the main tasks of the culture of speech. Literary language unites the people in terms of language. The leading role in the creation of the literary language belongs to the most advanced part of society.
The literary language must be generally understandable, i.e. accessible to all members of society. The literary language must be developed to such an extent that it can serve the main areas of human activity. In speech, it is important to follow the rules of the language. Based on this, an important task of linguists is to consider everything new in the literary language from the point of view of compliance with the general laws of the development of the language and the optimal conditions for its functioning.
Forms of language existence. Literary language. Stylistic resources of the Russian literary language Functional styles.
Literary language- the highest (exemplary and processed) form of the national language. According to its cultural and social status, the literary language is opposed to territorial dialects, vernacular, social and professional jargons, and slang. The literary language is formed in the process of language development, therefore it is a historical category. Literary language is the language of culture, it takes shape when high level its development. Literary works are created in the literary language, and cultured people also speak. Borrowed words, jargon, clichés, stationery, etc. clog the language. Therefore, there is a codification (creation of norms) that creates order and preserves the purity of the language, showing a pattern. Norms are enshrined in the dictionaries of the modern Russian language and grammar reference books. The modern Russian literary language is at a high stage of its development; as a developed language, it has an extensive system of styles.
The process of formation and development of the national literary language is characterized by a tendency to expand its social base, the convergence of book-written and folk colloquial styles. It is no coincidence that the Russian literary language in the broadest sense is defined in time from A.S. Pushkin to the present day: it was A.S. Pushkin who brought the colloquial and literary language closer together, placing the language of the people as the basis for various styles of literary speech. I. S. Turgenev, in a speech about Pushkin, pointed out that Pushkin "one had to perform two works, in other countries separated by a century or more, namely: to establish a language and create literature." Here it should be noted the enormous influence that, in general, outstanding writers have on the formation of the national literary language. A significant contribution to the formation of the English literary language was made by W. Shakespeare, Ukrainian by T. G. Shevchenko, etc. The work of N. M. Karamzin became important for the development of the Russian literary language, about which, in particular, A. S. Pushkin spoke. According to him, this glorious Russian historian and writer "turned it (language) to living sources popular word". On the whole, all Russian classical writers (N. V. Gogol, N. A. Nekrasov, F. M. Dostoevsky, A. P. Chekhov, and others) participated to one degree or another in the development of the modern Russian literary language.
The literary language is usually the national language. It is based on some pre-existing form of the language, usually a dialect. The formation of a literary language during the formation of a nation usually occurs on the basis of one of the dialects - the dialect of the main political, economic, cultural, administrative, religious center of the country. This dialect is a synthesis of various dialects (urban koine). For example, the Russian literary language developed on the basis of the Moscow dialect. Sometimes a supra-dialect formation becomes the basis of the literary language, for example, the language of the royal court, as in France. The Russian literary language had several sources, among them we note the Church Slavonic language, the Moscow command language (the business state language of Moscow Russia), dialects (especially the Moscow dialect), and the languages of great Russian writers. The significance of the Church Slavonic language in the formation of the Russian literary language was noted by many historians and linguists, in particular, L. V. Shcherba in the article “The Modern Russian Literary Language” said: “If the Russian literary language had not grown up in an atmosphere of Church Slavonic, then that wonderful poem would have been unthinkable Pushkin's "The Prophet", which we still admire to this day. Speaking about the sources of the modern Russian literary language, it is important to say about the activities of the first teachers Slavic Cyril and Methodius, their creation of Slavic writing, the translation of liturgical books, on which many generations of Russian people were brought up. Initially, our Russian written culture was Christian, the first books in Slavic languages were translations of the Gospel, the Psalter, the Acts of the Apostles, Apocrypha, etc. The Russian literary tradition is based on Orthodox culture, which, undoubtedly, was reflected not only in works of fiction, but also in the literary language.
“The foundations for the normalization of the Russian literary language were laid by the great Russian scientist and poet M. V. Lomonosov. Lomonosov combines in the concept of "Russian language" all varieties of Russian speech - command language, lively oral speech with its regional variations, styles of folk poetry - and recognizes the forms of the Russian language as the constructive basis of the literary language, at least two (out of three) of its main styles " (Vinogradov V.V. “The main stages in the history of the Russian language”).
The literary language in any state is spread through schools where children are taught in accordance with literary norms. The Church has also played an important role here for many centuries.
The concepts of the literary language and the language of fiction are not identical, because the literary language covers not only the language of fiction, but also other implementations of the language: journalism, science, public administration, oratory, and some forms of colloquial speech. The language of fiction in linguistics is considered as a broader concept for the reason that in works of art both literary language forms and elements of territorial and social dialects, jargon, slang, and vernacular can be included.
The main features of the literary language:
The presence of certain norms (rules) of word usage, stress, pronunciation, etc. (moreover, the norms are stricter than in dialects), the observance of these norms is obligatory in nature, regardless of the social, professional and territorial affiliation of native speakers of a given language;
Striving for sustainability, for the preservation of the general cultural heritage and literary and book traditions;
The adaptability of the literary language to denote the entire amount of knowledge accumulated by mankind and to the implementation of abstract, logical thinking;
Stylistic richness, which consists in the abundance of synonymous means, allowing to achieve the most effective expression of thought in various speech situations.
The means of the literary language appeared as a result of a long and skillful selection of the most accurate and weighty words and phrases, the most expedient grammatical forms and constructions.
The main difference between the literary language and other varieties of the national language is its rigid normativity.
Let us turn to such varieties of the national language as dialect, vernacular, jargon, slang and slang, and try to identify their features.
Dialect(from the Greek dialektos - conversation, dialect, dialect) - a kind of a certain language used as communication by persons connected by a close territorial, social or professional community. There are territorial and social dialects.
Territorial dialect- part of a single language, its actually existing variety; opposed to other dialects. The territorial dialect has differences in sound structure, grammar, word formation, and vocabulary. These differences can be small (as in Slavic languages), then people speaking different dialects understand each other. The dialects of such languages as German, Chinese, Ukrainian are very different from each other, so communication between people who speak such dialects is difficult or impossible. Examples: pan (Eastern Ukraine) - patent (Western Ukraine); stork names in different parts of Ukraine: Chornoguz , leleka ,boqiong , boqiang and etc.
Territorial dialect is defined as a means of communication for the population of a historically established region with specific ethnographic features.
Modern dialects are the result of centuries of development. Throughout history, in connection with the change in territorial associations, fragmentation, unification, and regrouping of dialects take place. The most active formation of dialects took place in the era of feudalism. With the overcoming of territorial fragmentation, the old territorial boundaries within the state break down, and dialects converge.
change in different eras relationship between dialects and literary language. Monuments of the feudal period, written on the basis of the folk language, reflect the local dialect features.
Social dialects- languages of certain social groups. For example, professional languages of hunters, fishermen, potters, traders, group jargons or slangs of students, students, athletes, soldiers, etc., which differ from the common language only in vocabulary, secret languages, slang of declassed elements.
Social dialects also include variants of the language of certain economic, caste, religious, etc., that are different from the national language. population groups.
Professionalisms- words and phrases that are characteristic of people of one profession and, unlike terms, are semi-official names of the concepts of this profession. Professionalisms are distinguished by great differentiation in the designation of special concepts, objects, actions associated with a given profession, type of activity. These are, for example, the names of some properties of dogs used by hunters: appellation, politeness, superior flair, viscosity, deep climbing, hospitable, non-auditory, tearing, perek, walking, calliness, toughness etc.
vernacular- folk-spoken language, one of the forms of the national language, which is an oral non-codified (non-normative) sphere of national speech communication. The vernacular has a supra-dialectal character. Unlike dialects and jargons, speech that is generally understandable for native speakers of the national language exists in every language and is communicatively significant for all native speakers of the national language.
Vernacular is opposed to literary language. In vernacular, units of all language levels are represented.
The opposition of the literary language and vernacular can be traced in the area of stress:
percent(space) - percent(lit.),
agreement(space) - contracts(lit.),
Deepen(space) - deepen(lit.),
calls(space) - ringing(lit.),
endpaper(space) - endpaper(lit.), etc.
In the field of pronunciation:
[right now] (space) - [ now] (lit.),
[pshol] (space) - [ pashol] (lit.)
In the field of morphology:
want(space) - want(lit.),
choice(space) - elections(lit.),
travel(space) - drive(lit.),
theirs(space) - them(lit.),
here(space) - here(lit.)
Common speech is characterized by expressively “reduced” evaluative words with a range of shades from familiarity to rudeness, for which there are neutral synonyms in the literary language:
« shy away» – « bump»
« blurt out» – « say»
« sleep» – « sleep»
« drape» – « run away»
Vernacular is a historically developed speech system. In Russian, colloquial speech arose on the basis of the Moscow colloquial koine. The formation and development of vernacular is associated with the formation of the Russian national language. The word itself was formed from the one used in the 16th-17th centuries. phrases "simple speech" (the speech of a commoner).
colloquial vocabulary, from one point of view, is an area of illiterate speech, which is entirely outside the literary language and does not represent a single system. Examples: mother, nurse, clothing, cologne, business(with negative value), slimy, ailing, turn around, be angry, from afar, the other day.
From another point of view, colloquial vocabulary is words that have a bright, reduced stylistic coloring. These words make up two groups: 1) everyday vernacular, words that are part of the literary language and have a reduced (compared to colloquial words) expressive-stylistic coloring. Examples: dunce, carrion, slap in the face, shabby, fat-bellied, sleep, yell, foolishly; 2) rough, vulgar vocabulary (vulgarisms) that is outside the literary language: bastard, bitch, hamlo, mug, foul, slam and etc.
There is also literary vernacular, which serves as the border of the literary language with the colloquial language - a special stylistic layer of words, phraseological units, forms, turns of speech, endowed with a bright expressive coloring of "decrease". The norm of their use is that they are allowed into the literary language with limited stylistic tasks: as a means of social and speech characterization of characters, for the “reduced” characterization of persons, objects, events in the expressive plan. Literary vernacular includes only those speech elements that have become entrenched in the literary language due to their long-term use in literary texts, after a long selection, semantic and stylistic processing. The composition of literary vernacular is mobile and constantly updated, many words and expressions have acquired the status of "colloquial" and even "book", for example: " everything is formed», « whiner», « nerd».
colloquial vocabulary- words that have a slightly reduced (compared to neutral vocabulary) stylistic coloring and are characteristic of the spoken language, i.e. oral form of the literary language, acting in conditions of unconstrained unprepared communication. Colloquial vocabulary includes some nouns with suffixes - Ah, – tai, – Ulya), – un, – w(a), – osh, – yag(a), – yak and etc. ( bearded, lazy, dirty, screamer, conductor, kid, poor fellow, fat man); some adjectives with suffixes - ast–, – at–,
–ovate – ( toothy, hairy, reddish); a number of verbs in - nothing(to be sarcastic, to be fashionable); some verbs with prefixes behind –, on the- and postfix - Xia(to poke around, to look at, to pounce on, to visit); nouns and verbs formed from phrases: stowaway< without a ticket, student's record book < record book, newsletter < be on the ballot, as well as many others. In dictionaries, these words are marked "colloquial". All of them are uncommon in official business and scientific styles.
Jargon- a type of speech used in communication (more often oral) by a separate relatively stable social group that unites people on the basis of their profession (jargon of drivers, programmers), position in society (jargon of the Russian nobility in the 19th century), interests (jargon of philatelists) or age (youth jargon). Jargon differs from the national language in its specific vocabulary and phraseology and the special use of word-formation means. Part jargon- belonging to not one, but many (including disappeared) social groups. Passing from one jargon to another, the words "general fund" can change form and meaning. Examples: " darken» in slang - « hide prey", later -" cunning"(under interrogation), in modern youth jargon -" speak obscure but", " dodge».
The vocabulary of jargon is replenished in different ways:
at the expense borrowings from other languages:
dude- boy (gypsy)
head- bash in Tatar head
shoes- shoes from shoes (English)
ban(computer jargon) - a software ban on the use of a certain Internet resource, imposed by the administrator from English. to ban: banish, exile
din - play computer games from English. game
banging - play computer games from it. spiel
by abbreviations:
basket– basketball
liters– literature
PE- physical Culture
zaruba- foreign literature
disser– dissertation
by rethinking commonly used words:
« rush"- go
« unfasten» - give part of the money
« wheelbarrow"- car
Jargon can be open or closed. According to O. Jespersen, in open groups (youth), jargon is a collective game. In closed groups, jargon is also a signal that distinguishes one from another, and sometimes a means of conspiracy (secret language).
Jargon expressions are quickly replaced by new ones:
50-60s of the twentieth century: money - Tugriks
70s of the twentieth century money - coins, money(s)
80s of the twentieth century and at the moment - money, green, cabbage and etc.
The vocabulary of jargon penetrates into the literary language through the vernacular and the language of fiction, where it is used as a means of speech characteristics.
Jargon is a means of opposing oneself to the rest of society.
Argo- a special language of a limited social or professional group, consisting of arbitrarily chosen modified elements of one or more natural languages. Argo is used more often as a means of hiding the objects of communication, as well as a means of isolating the group from the rest of society. Argo is considered a means of communication for declassed elements, common among the underworld (thieves' slang, etc.).
The basis of slang is a specific dictionary, widely including foreign language elements (in Russian - gypsy, German, English). Examples:
Fenya- language
feather - knife
tail - shadowing
stand on the lookout, stand on the nix - stand guard at the commission of a crime, warning of impending danger
bucks– dollars, foreign currency
actually- right
sump- a place where pre-sale preparation of a stolen car is carried out
move with your girl- steal a car
box- garage
registration– illegal connection to the car security system
great grandfather - Land Cruiser Prada
work with a horse to transport the loot from the apartment of the owner of the things.
Slang- 1) the same as jargon, slang is more often used in relation to the jargon of English-speaking countries; 2) a set of jargons that make up a layer of colloquial speech, reflecting a familiar, sometimes humorous attitude to the subject of speech. It is used in conditions of easy communication: mura, dregs, blat, buzz.
Elements of slang quickly disappear, being replaced by others, sometimes passing into the literary language, leading to the emergence of semantic and stylistic differences.
The main problems of the modern Russian language in the communicative sphere: obscene vocabulary (foul language), unjustified borrowings, jargon, argotism, vulgarism.
Literary language is called the historically developed processed form of the existence of the language of the people or the national language. Literary language as the highest form of language is characterized by richness of vocabulary, orderliness of grammatical structure, developed system of styles, strict observance of spelling and punctuation rules. variance, not tied to styles and communicative areas. The literary language is standardized and codified, that is, it is fixed in the dictionaries and grammars of the modern language.
The norm of the literary language is stable and conservative. “The essence of any literary language,” wrote L.V. Shcherba, “is in its stability, in its traditional character.” Norm of the literary language
combines into a single whole all the varieties of a given language, its stylistic richness, its historical variants and dialectal and professional deviations. In this sense, literary
the standard norm represents the general vernacular. Therefore, the strengthening and dissemination of the standard of the literary language is a matter of special concern to society. The role of the school is great in strengthening the literary norm. The norm of the literary language is based on the language usage (i.e.
to mass and regular word usage) and the approval of this word usage by the educated "part of society. Being a concrete historical phenomenon, the norm of the literary language changes, moves from the old to the new quality. Literary language literally means written language The languages of nationalities, as already mentioned, can have a literary and written form.The development of a unified statehood and
culture requires a written language. This is how literary-written languages arise in slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and socialist societies. Writers play an important role in establishing and spreading the literary norm. Thus, the history of the Russian literary language was embodied in the works of Lomonosov and Fonvizin, Karamzin. The great role of writers in the approval and dissemination of the literary norm, and of literature in public life, sometimes leads to the idea that the literary language is the language of fiction, which, of course, is wrong. The language of a work of art, firstly, contains not only literary-normalized speech, but also the individual style of the author and the speech of the characters that are created by the author. Stylized literary texts and characters' speech suggest a departure from the norm, the creation of an individual style and expressive text. The second difference between the language of fiction and the literary language is that the latter is not only a means of artistic reflection of reality and emotional impact; literary language is a tool
communication also in the sphere of social and political life and science. The literary language is multifunctional, and this creates literary language styles designed for different areas of communication and expression of different types of message. . An example of a literary and written language that arose in a slave-owning society is the ancient Greek and Latin languages. The Latin nation and its language arise in the course of the conquest (starting from the middle of the 7th century BC) by the Roman Republic of Italy. Medieval Latin differed significantly from Latin ancient era. As a dead language, Latin is still used in Catholic worship, medicine and some other natural sciences.
10. Historical variability of language. Synchrony and diachrony .
Synchrony- it is like a horizontal cut, i.e. the state of the language in this moment as a ready-made system of interrelated and interdependent elements: lexical, grammatical and phonetic, which have value or significance (valeur de Saussure), regardless of their origin, but only because of the relationships between themselves within the whole - the system. diachrony- this is the path in time that each element of the language makes separately, changing in history. Thus, according to de Saussure, synchrony is connected with the system, but removed from the relations of time, while diachrony is connected with time, but removed from the relations of the system. In other words: “... diachrony is considered as a field of single phenomena, and language as a system is studied only in the field of synchrony. In other words, the development of a language is depicted as a change only in separate individual phenomena, and not as a change in the system, while the system is studied only in its givenness at a certain moment ... ”language should be studied and understood as a system not only in its present, but also in its past, i.e., to study its phenomena both in connection with each other and in development at the same time, noting in each state of the language phenomena receding into the past, and phenomena emerging against the background of stabilized phenomena normal for the given state of the language.
11. Individualistic hypotheses of the origin of language .
Among the conditions in which language arose were factors associated with the evolution of the human organism, and factors associated with the transformation of the primitive herd into society. That's why
a great many statements about the origin of language can be divided into two main groups: 1) biological theories, 2) social theories.
Biological theories explain the origin of language by the evolution of the human body - the sense organs, the speech apparatus and the brain. The positive thing about these theories is that they consider the emergence of language as the result of a long development of nature, thereby rejecting the one-time (divine) origin of language. Among biological theories, two are best known - onomatopoeia and interjection.
Onomatopoeic and interjection theories. The onomatopoeic theory explains the origin of language by the evolution of hearing organs that perceive the cries of animals (especially domestic ones). Language arose, according to this theory, as an imitation of animals (neighing of horses, bleating of sheep) or as an expression of an impression about a named object. Onomatopoeic words have sounds and forms that already exist in the language. That's why a duck screams for a Russian quack quack
(quacks) for an Englishman quack-quack (quack), for French kan-kan (sapsapeg), but for the Dane pan-pan (rapper). There are different and sublingual words with which a person refers to the home
animal such as pig, duck, goose. Interjectional (or reflex) theory explains the origin of language by the experiences that a person experiences. The first words, according to this theory, are involuntary cries, interjections, reflexes. They emotionally expressed pain or joy, fear or hunger. In the course of further development, cries acquired a symbolic meaning, obligatory for all members of this community. If in the onomatopoeic theory the external world (animal sounds) was the impetus, then the interjection theory considered the stimulus for the appearance of words inner world living being, his emotions. Common to both theories is the recognition, along with the sound language, of the presence of a sign language that expressed more rational concepts. Onomatopoeic and interjection theories put the study of the origin of the mechanism of speech, mainly in psychophysiological terms, at the forefront. Ignoring the social factor in these theories led to a skeptical attitude towards them: the onomatopoeic theory began to be jokingly called the “wow-wow theory”, and the interjection - “tfu-tfu theory”. Indeed, in these theories the biological side of the issue is exaggerated, the origin of language is considered exclusively in terms of the origin of speech. It does not take into account with due attention the fact that man and human society are emerging, essentially different from the animal and its herd.
biological theories.
1. Onomatopoeic theory
Did you try to substantiate the principles of the onomatopoeic theory at the end!? early 18th century Leibniz (1646-1716). The great German thinker argued as follows: there are derivative, late languages, and there is a primary language, a "root" language, from which all subsequent derivative languages were formed. According to Leibniz, onomatopoeia took place primarily in the root language, and only to the extent that "derivative languages" developed further the foundations of the root language did they develop the principles of onomatopoeia at the same time. To the extent that derived languages moved away from the root language, their word production turned out to be less "naturally onomatopoeic" and more and more symbolic. Leibniz also ascribed quality to certain sounds. True, he believed that the same sound can be associated with several qualities at once. So, the sound l, according to Leibniz, can express something soft (leben to live, lieben to love, liegen to lie), and something completely different. For example, in the words lion (lion) lynx (lynx), loup (wolf) sound l does not mean something gentle. Here, perhaps, a connection is found with some other quality, namely with speed, with running (Lauf).
Accepting onomatopoeia as the principle of the origin of language, as the principle on the basis of which the "gift of speech" arose in man, Leibniz rejects the significance of this principle for the subsequent development of language. The disadvantage of the onomatopoeic theory is the following: the supporters of this theory consider language not as a social, but as a natural (natural) phenomenon.
2. Theory of the emotional origin of language and the theory of interjections
Its most important representative was JJ Rousseau (1712-1778). In a treatise on the origin of languages, Rousseau wrote that "passions caused the first sounds of the voice." According to Rousseau, "the first languages were melodious and passionate, and only later did they become simple and methodical." According to Rousseau, it turned out that the first languages were much richer than the subsequent ones. But civilization has corrupted man. That is why language, according to Rousseau, has deteriorated from being richer, more emotional, more direct, and has become dry, rational and methodical.
The emotional theory of Rousseau received a peculiar development in the 19th and 20th centuries and became known as the theory of interjections.
One of the defenders of this theory, the Russian linguist Kudryavsky (1863-1920), believed that interjections were a kind of first human words. Interjections were the most emotional words, in which the primitive man invested different meanings depending on a particular situation. According to Kudryavsky, in interjections, sound and meanings were still inextricably linked. Subsequently, as interjections turned into words, the sound and meanings diverged, and this transition of interjections into words was associated with the emergence of articulate speech.
Soyial origin theories:
1. Theory of sound cries
This theory arose in the 19th century in the writings of vulgar materialists (Germans Noiret, Bücher). It boiled down to the fact that language arose from the cries that accompanied collective work. But these labor cries can only be a means of rhythmizing labor, they do not express anything, not even emotions, but are only an external, technical means at work.
2. Social contract theory
From the middle of the 18th century, the theory of the social contract emerged.
The essence of this theory is that in the later stages of the development of the language it is possible to agree on certain words, especially in the field of terminology.
But it is quite obvious that, first of all, in order to "agree on a language", one must already have a language in which one "agrees".
3. The human origin of the language
German philosopher Herder spoke of the purely human origin of language.
Herder believed that human language arose not to communicate with other people, but to communicate with oneself, to realize one's own self. If a person lived in complete solitude, then, according to Herder, he would have a language. Language was the result of "a secret agreement that the soul of man entered into with itself."
There are also other theories about the origin of the language. For example, the theory of gestures (Geiger, Wundt, Marr). All references to supposedly purely "sign languages" cannot be supported by facts; gestures always act as something secondary for people who have a spoken language. There are no words among gestures, gestures are not connected with concepts.
It is also unlawful to derive the origin of the language from analogues with the mating songs of birds as manifestations of the instinct of self-preservation (Ch. Darwin), especially from human singing (Rousseau, Jespersen). The disadvantage of all the theories listed above is that they ignore language as a social phenomenon.
4. Labor theory of Engels
Special attention should be paid to Engels' labor theory.
In connection with the labor theory of the origin of language, one should first of all mention
F. Engels' unfinished work "The Role of Labor in the Process of the Transformation of Apes into Humans". In the Introduction to the Dialectic of Nature, Engels explains the conditions for the emergence of language:
“When, after a thousand-year struggle, the hand finally differentiated from the legs and a straight gait was established, then man separated from the monkey, and the foundation was laid for the development of articulate speech ...” Vertical gait was in human development a prerequisite for the emergence of speech, and a prerequisite for the expansion and development of consciousness .
The revolution that man introduces into nature consists, first of all, in the fact that human labor is different from that of animals, it is labor with the use of tools, and, moreover, manufactured by those who should own them, and thus progressive and social labor. . No matter how skillful architects we consider ants and bees, they do not know what they say: their work is instinctive, their art is not conscious, and they work with the whole organism, purely biologically, without using tools, and therefore there is no progress in their work .
The freed hand became the first human tool, other tools of labor developed as an addition to the hand (stick, hoe, rake); still later, the man shifts the burden of labor onto the elephant. Camel, horse, and he manages them, finally. The technical engine appears and replaces the animals.
In short, people who were being formed came to the point that they had a need to say something to each other. Need created its own organ: the undeveloped larynx of the monkey was slowly but steadily transformed by modulations for more and more developed modulation, and the organs of the mouth gradually learned to pronounce one articulate sound after another. "Thus, language could only arise as a collective property necessary for mutual understanding. But not as an individual property of this or that incarnated individual.
Engels writes: "First, work, and then articulate speech, were the two most important stimuli under the influence of which the human brain gradually turned into a human brain."
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1. THE CONCEPT AND FEATURES OF THE LITERARY LANGUAGE
The most amazing and wise thing that humanity has created is language.
Literary language It is the main means of communication between people of the same nationality. It is characterized by two main properties: processing and normalization.
Processedness literary language arises as a result of purposeful selection of all the best that is in the language. This selection is carried out in the process of using the language, as a result of special studies by philologists and public figures.
normalization- the use of language means, regulated by a single universally binding norm. The norm as a set of rules of word usage is necessary to preserve the integrity and intelligibility of the national language, to transfer information from one generation to another. If there were no single language norm, then changes could occur in the language, in which people living in different parts of Russia would cease to understand each other.
The main requirements that a literary language must meet are its unity and general intelligibility.
The modern Russian literary language is multifunctional and is used in various fields of human activity.
The main ones are: politics, science, culture, verbal art, education, everyday communication, interethnic communication, press, radio, television.
If we compare the varieties of the national language (vernacular, territorial and social dialects, jargon), the literary language plays a leading role. It includes the best ways to designate concepts and objects, express thoughts and emotions. There is a constant interaction between the literary language and non-literary varieties of the Russian language. This is most clearly seen in the sphere of colloquial speech.
In the scientific linguistic literature, the main features of the literary language are highlighted:
1) processing;
2) stability;
3) mandatory (for all native speakers);
4) normalization;
5) the presence of functional styles.
Russian literary language exists in two forms - oral and written. Each form of speech has its own specifics.
The Russian language in the broadest sense is the totality of all words, grammatical forms, pronunciation features of all Russian people, that is, all those who speak Russian as their native language. The more correct and accurate the speech, the more accessible it is for understanding, the more beautiful and expressive it is, the stronger it affects the listener or reader. To speak correctly and beautifully, you need to follow the laws of logic (consistency, evidence) and the norms of the literary language, observe the unity of style, avoid repetition, take care of the harmony of speech.
The main features of Russian literary pronunciation have developed precisely on the basis of the phonetics of Central Russian dialects. Nowadays, dialects are being destroyed under the pressure of the literary language.
2. MULTIFUNCTIONALITY OF THE RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE. THE DIFFERENCE IN THE FUNCTIONS OF THE LITERARY LANGUAGE AND THE LANGUAGE OF ART LITERATURE
The basis of the culture of speech is the literary language. It constitutes the highest form of the national language. It is the language of culture, literature, education, mass media.
The modern Russian language is multifunctional, that is, it is used in various fields of human activity. The means of the literary language (lexicon, grammatical constructions, etc.) are functionally delimited by their use in various fields of activity. The use of certain language means depends on the type of communication. The literary language is divided into two functional varieties: colloquial and bookish. In accordance with this, colloquial speech and book language are distinguished.
In oral colloquial speech, there are three styles of pronunciation: full, neutral, colloquial.
One of the most important properties of the bookish language is the ability to preserve the text and thus serve as a means of communication between generations. The functions of the bookish language are numerous and become more complex with the development of society. When selecting styles public language, many varieties are taken into account, covering the language material from “high”, bookish elements to “low”, colloquial. What functional styles is the bookish language divided into?
functional style- a kind of bookish language, characteristic of a certain sphere of human activity and having a certain originality in the use of language means. In the book language, there are three main styles - scientific, official business, journalistic.
Along with the listed styles, there is also the language of fiction. It belongs to the fourth functional style of the bookish language. However, artistic speech is characterized by the fact that all linguistic means can be used here: words and expressions of the literary language, elements of vernacular, jargons, territorial dialects. The author uses these means to express the idea of the work, to make it expressive, to reflect the local color, etc.
The main function of artistic speech is influence. Used exclusively in works of art. Also, such speech has an aesthetic function, as an evaluation function is a communicative one. Fiction acts as an assessment of the surrounding world and an expression of attitude towards it.
Rhyme, rhythm- distinctive features of speech. The tasks of artistic speech are to influence the feelings and thoughts of the reader, listener, to arouse empathy in him.
The recipient is usually anyone. Conditions of communication - participants in communication are separated by time and space.
Language means of artistic speech (words in a figurative sense, emotionally figurative words, specific words (not birds, but thunder), interrogative, exclamatory, incentive sentences, homogeneous members.
3. ORIGIN OF THE RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE
Until the XIV century. Old Russian existed as a common language of the ancestors of Ukrainians, Belarusians and Russians. The Russian language belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. This group includes Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. In addition to the eastern group, among the Slavic languages there is also a southern group (Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Macedonian) and a western group of languages (Polish, Slovak, Czech and some other languages). All Slavic languages are closely related, have many common words, and are significantly similar in grammar and phonetics. In the XIV century. there was a separation of this East Slavic language (in connection with the formation of the Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian nation), and since then the Russian language of the Russian people has existed.
In the combination "modern Russian literary language", first of all, the term "literary" requires clarification. Most people think that literary language is the language of fiction. But this understanding of the term is incorrect.
Literary language is the language of culture; it is the language of cultured people. The modern Russian literary language fulfills both of these purposes. But this is not always the case. For example, in the XVII century. in Russia, the language of written culture was mainly Church Slavonic, and the living language of cultured people, the means of their last communication, was Russian.
Artistic works and scientific works are created in the Russian literary language; it is the language of the theater, schools, newspapers and magazines, radio and television. At the same time, it is spoken in the family, at work, among friends, in public places. The fact that the same language performs both functions enriches the culture; it is built with the help of a living, dynamic means of communication, capable of conveying the newest, newly emerging meanings, and conveys their very dynamics, helps them to arise and form.
But in different eras, the Russian language faced various dangers. In the 20s. 20th century - this is an influx of borrowed words (and borrowed without need), slang vocabulary, colloquial, i.e. non-normative, phenomena in the field of pronunciation and grammar.
In the 1930s many cultural figures fought against the excessive influence of dialects on the literary language, against the influx of jargon. And this problem was solved in the 1930s. thanks to the efforts of writers, teachers, journalists.
One of the dangers for literary speech is the influence on everyday, journalistic and even artistic speech of book stamps of an official business style.
The habit of using clichés, fused blocks of habitual, official-soulless words leads to the loss of a living sense of the language, and this is reflected in its grammatical side.
So, literary language is:
1) the language of national culture;
2) the language of communication of cultured people.
3) a language that has firm norms, the preservation of which is taken care of by the whole society.
4. TERRITORIAL DIAECTS AND SPEECH
Dialect - a kind of national language used as a means of communication between people connected by a close territorial community.
There are three groups of territorial dialects.
1. Northern Russian dialects are common north of Moscow, on the territory of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vologda, Arkhangelsk and some other regions. They have the following features:
1) okane- sound pronunciation [about] in an unstressed position where in the literary language [but];
2) clatter- indistinguishability of sounds [c] And [h](tsasy, kuricha);
3) [know], [know]- contraction of vowels in the personal endings of the verb;
4) the coincidence of the instrumental form plural nouns with the dative form [let's go for mushrooms and berries].
2. Southern Russian dialects are common south of Moscow, in the territories of Kaluga, Tula, Oryol, Tambov, Voronezh and other regions. They have features:
1) akanye- indistinguishability of sounds [about] And [a] [vada];
2) yak- sound pronunciation [e] after a soft consonant in place I › E;
3) special pronunciation of sound [G], it's pronounced like a slit [G];
3. Central Russian dialects occupy an intermediate position between northern and southern Russian. They are located between the distribution areas of northern and southern dialects. Distinguishing features:
1) hiccup - sound pronunciation [And] on the spot I And E(rooster);
2) sound pronunciation [w] on the spot SCH(chaste);
3) pronunciation [f] long soft in place LJ And zzh.
Dialects are destroyed under the pressure of the literary language, which, with the help of the mass media, penetrates into the most remote areas.
vernacular- a kind of national Russian language. It has no attachment to any particular place - this is the speech of an urban poorly educated population who does not know the norms of the literary language. The main feature of vernacular is anorativity, i.e., the absence of the norms of the literary language in speech.
Modern Russian vernacular has the following characteristic features.
1) the use of words denoting the degree of kinship when referring to strangers: father, brother, daughter, sister, man, woman;
2) the use of nouns in a diminutive suffix: do you want a seagull? Shave your temples?;
3) replacement of some words that are falsely understood as rude: rest (instead of sleeping), express (instead of talking), eat (instead of eating);
4) the use of emotional vocabulary in a "blurred" meaning: to play up, to spit, to chip, to scratch.
5) alignment of consonants in the stem of a word during conjugation: want - want, bake - bake;
6) mixing genders of nouns: eat all the jam, what apples are sour;
7) building up the end - ov in genitive case plural: a lot of business, no bridges;
8) declension of indeclinable nouns.
5. JARGON AND ARGO AS LIMITED SPEECH
Under argonisms one should understand such a specially limited vocabulary in use, which is an emotionally expressive expression of stylistically neutral words.
Jargon- the speech of people who make up separate groups that are united by a common profession. Jargons do not represent a complete system. The specificity of jargons lies in their vocabulary. Many words in them have a special meaning and sometimes differ in form from commonly used words.
Professional jargons are used by people of the same profession, mainly when communicating on industrial topics. In the jargon of pilots, the bottom of the fuselage of an aircraft is called belly, aerobatics - barrel, slide, loop. In the speech routine of physicians, for example, the words brilliant green, castor oil, injections are slang.
social jargon is the speech of a socially isolated group of people. Often the emergence of social jargon is dictated by the needs of the functioning and livelihood of a social group. An example is the argot ofenei that existed in pre-revolutionary Russia. Ofenya is a wandering merchant of small goods, a peddler. It happened that pedlars were attacked, their money and goods were taken away from them, so they were forced to hide their intentions and actions from outsiders. A specially developed “language” helped them in this, incomprehensible
Hny surrounding. Some elements of the beggarly, thieves' and Offen jargons have survived in our time, and some words have become common, having lost their jargon coloring and undergone semantic changes: double-dealer(among the poor, this was the name of the one who collected alms with two hands), Linden(fake), rogue, sly.
In modern Russian, there are no such jargons that would be created with the special purpose of encrypting a way of communication. Now there are such groups of jargons that reflect specific associations of people according to their interests (“fans”, “car enthusiasts”, “movie fans”, etc.).
In many languages there are youth jargons- school and student (ancestors, spurs, tail, cool). Sometimes, when characterizing speech, representatives of various social strata use the following terms: slang, pidgin, koie.
Slang is a set of slang words that make up a layer of colloquial vocabulary, reflecting a rudely familiar, sometimes humorous attitude to the subject of speech.
pidgins name the structural-functional types of languages that do not have a community of native speakers and have developed by simplifying the structure of the source language. Pidgin - languages widely spoken in former colonies: in Southeast Asia, in India, Bangladesh, where pidgin English is spoken. This is "corrupted" English. In African countries, the population, communicating with foreigners, speaks pidgin French, pidgin Portuguese.
Koyie- a functional type of language used as the main means of everyday communication and used in various communication areas.
6. FOREIGN LANGUAGE WORDS IN THE MODERN LITERARY LANGUAGE
The question of foreign borrowings is related to the general problem historical formation vocabulary of the modern Russian language. Stylistically, the conditions and expediency of using such words in various styles of speech are of interest.
According to F. Engels, such words in most cases - generally accepted scientific and technical terms - would not be necessary if they could be translated. Translation often only distorts the meaning. V. G. Belinsky said: “A lot of foreign words have necessarily entered the Russian language, because a lot of foreign concepts and ideas have entered Russian life. Therefore, with a new concept, which one takes from another, he also takes the very word that expresses this concept. M. Gorky adhered to the same point of view.
... All these sounds merge into a deafening symphony of a working day. The boat sped off again, tackling silently and lightly among the ships. Revision 1935:
... All these sounds merge into the deafening music of the working day. The boat sped off again, moving silently and lightly among the ships.
Nominative and stylistic functions are performed by exotic vocabulary (words that characterize the life of different peoples).
A. S. Pushkin: Throw off your mantilla, dear angel; Panna weeps and yearns; Delibash is already at its peak. They play a double function barvariums(words from foreign languages). On the one hand, they are introduced into the Russian text (sometimes in a foreign language spelling) to convey the relevant concepts and create "local color". A. S. Pushkin in "Eugene Onegin": wearing a wide bolivar; and far niente my law...
Barvariums serve as a means of satire to ridicule people who grovel before foreigners. The speech saturated with barvariums is called pasta; most often it takes the form of poetry (macaronic verses). For example, the comic poem by I. P. Myatlev “Sensations and remarks of Mrs. Kurdyukova”: Adyu, adyu, I'm leaving, Luan de wu I will live, Me sepandan I'll try En souvenir de wu to keep ... IN " Concise Dictionary foreign words” in 1955 explains the meaning of new foreign words used by some motorists. Who has been to Germany says: "autobahn" - a wide highway for high-speed traffic of cars. A Russian driver will simply say: highway, concrete without thinking about the fact that the first word is foreign, and the second is native.
Most of our common names are Greek, they began to be used in Russia from the end of the 10th century, after its baptism. IN Greek these names had a special symbolic meaning. For example: Nikita - "winner"
In our time, the main evil is the unjustified replacement of understandable Russian words with borrowed, pseudoscientific and sometimes not entirely clear ones.
7. STYLES OF THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
Language style- this is its variety, which serves any side of public life: everyday communication; official business relationship; agitation and mass activity; science; verbal and artistic creativity. Each style is characterized by the following features: the purpose of communication, a set of language tools and forms (genres) in which it exists. Each style uses the linguistic means of the national language, but under the influence of a number of factors (theme, content, etc.), their selection and organization in each style is very specific and serves the most optimal communication.
Functional style of speech- this is the peculiar nature of the speech of one or another of her social variety corresponding to a certain field of activity and correlative form of consciousness with it. Thus, the style of the literary language is called functional, as it performs a specific function in speech.
Conversational style speech is used in everyday speech, in conversations with friends in a relaxed atmosphere. The purpose of the conversational style is communication, the exchange of thoughts. In conversational style, extralinguistic factors play an important role: facial expressions, gestures. The implementation form of this style is dialogue.
In book speech several styles stand out: scientific, journalistic, business. The authors turn to the artistic style if they need to paint a picture with words, to convey their feelings to the reader.
scientific style- a kind of literary language, used in the scientific works of scientists to express the results of research. The purpose of the scientific style is a message, an explanation scientific results. The implementation form of this style is dialogue.
The scientific style uses linguistic means: terms, special phraseology, complex syntactic constructions. The scientific style is realized in the genres: monograph, article, dissertation, report, abstract, thesis, etc.
Formal business style used in the official business sphere - in the correspondence of citizens with institutions, institutions with each other, etc. The task of style is to provide accurate information that is of practical importance, to give precise recommendations, instructions. The official business style has its own genres: charter, code, law, decree, order, power of attorney, receipt, act, protocol, instruction, statement, report. The usual form of implementation is a dialogue.
Journalistic style used in the socio-political sphere of life, in newspapers, in radio and television broadcasts, in speeches at meetings. The purpose of the style is to communicate information of socio-political significance; influence listeners and readers. It is implemented in the form of a journalistic article, essay, feuilleton.
Art style used in verbal and artistic creativity. Its goal is to draw a living picture, depict an object or events, convey the author's emotions to the reader, influence the feelings and thoughts of the listener and reader with the help of the created images.
Readers widely use linguistic means of various styles of the Russian language, including colloquial. In artistic speech, there is a deep metaphor, figurativeness of units of different language levels, the rich possibilities of synonymy, ambiguity are used.
8. LANGUAGE NORM, ITS ROLE IN THE FORMATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE LITERARY LANGUAGE
The most important feature of the literary language is its normativity, which is manifested in written and oral form.
Language norm- this is a uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences); rules for the use of speech means of the literary language.
Characteristic features of the norm of the literary language: relative stability, prevalence, general use, universal validity, compliance with use, custom, and the capabilities of the language system.
The main sources of the language norm include the works of classical and contemporary writers, analysis of the language of the mass media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, scientific research by linguists.
Norms help the literary language to maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional slang, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.
The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Language means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be ridiculous in another (official business communication).
For example, in Russian you cannot use such forms as “my last name”, “they ran away”; need to talk "my last name", "they ran." The norms are described in textbooks, special reference books, as well as in dictionaries (spelling, explanatory, phraseological, synonyms). The norm is approved and supported by the speech practice of cultured people. The norm in colloquial speech is the result of a speech tradition, determined by the appropriateness of using an expression in a given situation. Depending on how clearly the words are pronounced, there are three styles of pronunciation: full, neutral, colloquial.
Language norms are a historical phenomenon. The change in literary norms is due to the constant development of the language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-70 years ago may become a deviation from it today. For example, in the 1930s and 1940s words were used "graduate student" And diplomat to express the same concept: student doing a thesis. In the literary norm of the 1950s-1960s. there was a distinction in the use of these words: the former colloquial "graduate student" now denotes a student, a student in the period of defending a thesis, receiving a diploma. Word diplomat began to be called mainly the winners of competitions, prize-winners of reviews awarded with a diploma (Diploma winner of the All-Union Piano Competition).
The indicators of various normative dictionaries give grounds to speak of three degrees of normativity:
1st degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;
2nd degree - neutral, allows equivalent options;
3rd degree - more mobile, allows the use of colloquial, as well as obsolete forms.
The historical change in the norms of the literary language is a natural phenomenon and does not depend on the will and desire of people. The development of society, the emergence of new traditions lead to a constant renewal of the literary language and its norms.
9. SPEECH INTERACTION
Speech- this is the main way to satisfy personal, and not only personal, communication needs.
Voice communication- this is a motivated living process of interaction, which is aimed at the implementation of a specific, vital goal setting, proceeds on the basis of feedback in specific types of speech activity.
Communicating Interaction- this is an exchange in the process of communication not only by speech statements, but also by actions, deeds. Interaction is carried out in the form of contact, conflict, partnership, cooperation, competition, etc. Verbal and non-verbal interaction of communication participants is distinguished.
The means of verbal communication is language, and the mode is speech. Communication channels of non-verbal communication are vision, gestures, motor skills, kinesthesia (smell, touch, sensations). Speech interaction is preceded by social.
Social interaction begins with the establishment of psychological contact (he saw, nodded, smiled or turned away sharply). Social interaction (began to listen and understand the purpose of what is being communicated by the interlocutor) proceeds to influence (began to look at the message through the eyes of a partner), and then to semantic contact. There are three interrelated components in the structure of interpersonal interaction:
1) behavioral component. It includes the results of activity, speech actions and non-verbal actions of each of the participants in the communication, as well as facial expressions, pantomime, gestures, everything that other X people can observe in their interlocutors. Observing the behavior of a person, one can interpret his personal characteristics, motives of behavior, character, temperament. Thanks to auxiliary means of communication (gestures, facial expressions), a person more easily and quickly assimilates the information that the interlocutor conveys;
2) effective ingredient. Includes everything related to the expression of the emotional state of a person, such as satisfaction and dissatisfaction with communication;
3) information component- awareness by the interlocutor of the goals and objectives of interaction, the situation of communication in general.
Living and working together, people constantly communicate: exchange knowledge, thoughts, feelings, agree on joint work, consult with each other. Thus, the interaction of people is a versatile manifestation of joint human activity. It is carried out in the labor process, friendly conversation, scientific debate, etc. Interaction in the labor process involves understanding production activities, developing a strategy and its improvement, change, transformation.
Interaction is a complex process between people, the purpose of which is to establish contacts in the process of joint activities. For communication to be successful, you must first of all know the language and have a good command of speech. We must always take into account for what purpose and to whom we are addressing, that is, the characteristics of the addressee of the speech. After all, we will ask for something or convince of something in different ways. loved one or a stranger, an adult or a child, which means that we must be familiar with the elements of speech etiquette. According to the data of linguistics and psychology, the main types of speech activity are listening, reading, speaking and writing.
10. BASIC UNITS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a complex process of human interaction, the phenomenon is far from unambiguous. Therefore, the peculiarities of people's behavior in the process of communication, the use of various methods and techniques, the use of speech means are largely determined by the type and method of communication that have to be dealt with in each case. The main components of communication:
1) the conversation will take place if at least two people (the subject and the addressee) participate in it, and often there are much more participants in the conversation;
2) this is a thought, that is, the main and relevant topic for conversation;
3) knowledge of the language in which they communicate. Depending on various features, both domestic and business communication can be divided into the following types:
1) contact - remote;
2) direct - indirect;
3) oral - written;
4) dialogic - monologue;
5) interpersonal - mass, etc. The effectiveness of communication depends on how much a person involved in its process imagines the real conditions of communication and, in accordance with it, corrects his speech communication. Usually a person does this intuitively, without thinking.
For communication to take place, the interlocutors need a communication channel. When speaking, these are the organs of speech and hearing (auditory contact). The form and content of the letter are perceived through the visual (visual) channel. A handshake is a way of conveying a friendly greeting through a kinesico-tactile (motor-tactile) channel, i.e. the message came to us through visual contact, but not visual-verbal, since no one told us verbally (verbally).
Language is the perfect means of communication. Thanks to language, it is possible to exchange information in different areas of life. For communication to be successful, you need to know the language and have a good command of speech. We must always take into account the purpose for which we are addressing, as well as the characteristics of the addressee's speech, since each person communicates differently: with a loved one - one way of communicating, and with a stranger - another, with an adult - one, with a child - another, and accordingly, we must be familiar with the elements of speech etiquette.
The ability to communicate allowed a person to reach a high civilization, break into space, sink to the bottom of the ocean, penetrate into the bowels of the earth. Mastering the art of communication, the art of the word, the culture of written and oral speech is necessary for every person, regardless of what type of activity he is engaged in or will be engaged in. Being able to communicate is especially important for business people, entrepreneurs, managers, production organizers, people involved in management.
Communication is carried out through speech, in the process of speech.
Speech- this is language in action, this is the use of language, its system for the purpose of speaking, transmitting thoughts, communicating.
Communication- a complex process of human interaction, the phenomenon is far from unambiguous. Therefore, the peculiarities of people's behavior in the process of communication, the use of various methods and techniques, the use of speech means are largely determined by the type of communication that has to be dealt with in each case.
literary language artistic jargon
11. ORAL AND WRITTEN VARIETY OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
Russian literary language exists in two forms - oral and written.
Oral speech- this is a sounding speech, it uses a system of phonetic and prosodic means of expression, it is created in the process of conversation. It is characterized by verbal improvisation and some language features: freedom in the choice of vocabulary, the use of simple sentences, the use of incentive, interrogative, exclamatory sentences of various kinds, repetitions, incomplete expression of thought.
The oral form is presented in two of its varieties: colloquial speech and codified speech.
Speaking serves such a language sphere, which is characterized by: ease of communication; informality of relations between speakers; unprepared speech; the use of non-verbal means of communication (gestures and facial expressions); the fundamental possibility of changing communication "speaking - listening".
codified speech used in official areas of communication (conferences, meetings, etc.). Usually it is prepared in advance (delivery with a lecture, reports) and does not always rely on a non-linguistic situation; it is characterized by a moderate use of non-verbal means of communication.
Written speech- this is a speech that is graphically fixed, thought out and corrected in advance, it is characterized by some linguistic features: the predominance of book vocabulary, the presence of complex prepositions, strict adherence to language norms,
Xlack of extralinguistic elements. Written speech is usually directed to visual perception.
Any written text is a complex statement about reality.
To construct a written text, it is necessary to observe the rules of reference and predication.
The design of predicativity and reference is associated with the actual division of the sentence, with the allocation of a “topic” or “new” in the message in it.
Written and oral forms of speech have different material bases: moving layers of air (sounds) - in oral speech and paint (letter) - in written speech. This difference is associated with the rich intonational possibilities of oral speech and the absence of such in written speech. Intonation is created by the melody of speech, the place logical stress, its strength, the degree of clarity of pronunciation, the presence or absence of pauses. Written speech is not able to convey all this. At her disposal are only punctuation marks, punctuation.
In oral speech, the language means of conveying meaning is intonation, and in writing it is a derivative. In oral speech, there are no such means of writing as quotation marks, capital letters, which can cause difficulties in listening to the text. The use of the written form means the possibility of restructuring the sentence, replacing words, referring to dictionaries and reference books.
The first two differences of the oral form unite it with the written speech spoken aloud. The third difference characterizes speech produced orally. Oral speech is divided into colloquial and non-verbal. Conversational is divided into scientific, journalistic, business, artistic, non-conversational - into public speech and non-public. Public speech is divided into mass and collective. This division coincides with the division into monologue and dialogic speech.
12. NORMATIVE, COMMUNICATIVE, ETHICAL ASPECTS OF ORAL AND WRITTEN SPEECH
Culture of speech - science axiological, as it evaluates the quality of speech. She considers both her own data and the data of other related sciences that are relevant to her from an evaluative point of view. It gives overall estimates of speech quality and estimates for individual levels-aspects, as well as for more specific indicators. Moreover, the higher the level, the more “weighty” it is estimated. We are ready to forgive defects in pronunciation of a speaker who touches on really acute problems in his speech and speaks clearly, logically, truthfully, boldly. And another speaker has a well-placed voice and excellent pronunciation, but if we guess a toady behind all this, then this speech makes us sleepy and irritated.
It is necessary to distinguish between insufficient or weak knowledge of the culture of speech in one or another type of speech activity and anticulture of speech. Anti-culture is understood as a conscious and deliberate violation, distortion of the generally accepted principles and criteria of the culture of speech and speech behavior, usually in the name of immoral goals. “The norms of speech behavior,” write N. D. Artyunova and E. V. Paducheva, “although they are part of the education system, they belong to the sphere of tacit agreements between communicatively obliged members of society. The main thing is to find and form them. The very existence of these unspoken rules becomes apparent when they are violated.” The authors establish, for example, the relationship between speech goals and the quality (truth) of the real content of the statement. As they write, "most reprehensible purposes (deceit, slander, slander, gossip, boasting, insult) either directly imply the falsity of the sentence, or distort the picture of reality in one form or another."
The generally accepted communicative rules are conditioned by the very nature of human society and constitute a set of conditions without which social production, as the basis of the life of society, cannot normally exist and develop, science cannot develop, morality is destroyed; normal relations between states are violated, etc. However, as long as social antagonisms, exploitative classes, and the activity of possessive instincts do not disappear in society, various manifestations of the anticulture of speech will also exist.
One of the speech culture theorists B. N. Golovin emphasized that “in the process of its manifestation and understanding, speech always solves certain communicative tasks and is always correlated with other structures external to it (language itself, consciousness, thinking).” He highlights five "levels" of the communication circle. The first level is from reality to the consciousness of the author. Here the idea of the statement is born, the communicative task is manifested. At the second level, the intention of the utterances is "connected" with the linguistic data of the author. On the third stage, the “verbal execution” of the idea takes place. At the fourth stage, the utterance is perceived by the addressee. The addressee is required to understand the transmitted information. And at the fifth level, the recipient correlates the information received during perception with reality, with previously accumulated knowledge and draws appropriate conclusions.
13. FUNCTIONAL STYLES IN THE MODERN RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE
The problem of style, which many researchers refer to as central in linguistic stylistics, is solved by them in different ways. The disagreements are:
2) principles of classification (number of distinguished styles);
3) the question of the place of the literary and artistic style in the system of styles of the literary language.
Style- this is a speech concept, and it can be defined by going beyond the language system, taking into account such extra-linguistic circumstances as the tasks of speech, the sphere of communication.
Functional style of speech- this is a peculiar character of speech of a particular social variety, corresponding to a certain area social activities and, in relation to it, the form of consciousness, created by the peculiarities of the functioning of language means and specific speech organization in this area, bearing a certain stylistic coloring. There are the following functional styles: scientific, technical, official-business, newspaper-journalistic, colloquial-everyday. The styles of the literary language are most often compared on the basis of an analysis of their lexical composition, since it is in the lexicon that the difference between them is most noticeable.
It should be borne in mind that the functional and stylistic boundaries of the modern Russian literary language are very mobile. Functional styles are not a closed system. The main part of the language material is general language, interstyle means. Therefore, it is very important to know and subtly feel the specific features of each style, to skillfully use the language means of different styles, depending on the situation of communication and the purpose of the statement. Possession of functional styles is a necessary element of the speech culture of every person.
Functional styles are divided into two groups associated with specific types of speech. The first group (scientific, journalistic, official business) is characterized by monologue speech. For the second group (conversational style), dialogic speech is a typical form. Forms of speech - written and oral - should be distinguished from functional styles.
Most often, styles are compared on the basis of their lexical content, since it is in the field of vocabulary that the difference between them is most noticeable.
The style-forming factors include the content of the statement, the attitude of the speaker (writer) to the quality of speech, the presence or absence of feedback, the number of participants in communication, the relationship between them, etc. The attachment of words to a certain style of speech is explained by the fact that in lexical meaning Many words include emotional and stylistic coloring.
The word is able to express feelings, as well as an assessment of various phenomena and real styles of speech. Emotionally expressive vocabulary is presented in colloquial and everyday speech, which is marked by liveliness and accuracy of presentation. Such words are typical for journalistic style. In scientific, technical and official business styles of speech, emotionally colored words are inappropriate. Spoken words are opposed to book vocabulary. Words of colloquial style are distinguished by greater semantic capacity and brilliance, give speech liveliness and expressiveness.
14. INTERACTION OF FUNCTIONAL STYLES
The most important public functions of the language - communication, message And impact. To implement these functions, separate varieties of the language historically developed and took shape, characterized by the presence in each of them of special lexico-phraseological, partially syntactic, means used exclusively or mainly in this variety of language. These varieties are called functional styles.
Functional styles often interact with each other. In the journalistic style, the communicative and informational functions, i.e., the functions of communication, are mixed to a greater or lesser extent with the function of influence. The combination of two functions - aesthetic and communicative - is characteristic of the language of fiction.
Literary and artistic style belongs to the number of book styles, but due to its inherent originality, it does not fall on a par with other book styles.
Functional styles can be divided into two groups: the first group includes scientific, journalistic and official business styles; for the second group, formed by various types of conversational style, dialogic speech is a typical form. The first group - book styles, the second - colloquial style.
It is necessary to distinguish between the forms of speech - oral and written - from functional styles and types of speech. They converge with styles in the sense that bookish styles are clothed in written forms, and colloquial styles in oral.
The material for the stylistic differentiation of linguistic means and the selection of individual styles can be either a literary language or a common language as a whole.
Scientific and journalistic styles can function in oral form (lecture, report, speeches, etc.), in the form of a political polylogue (discussion, debate), penetration of elements of colloquial style into them is observed.
Depending on the goals of communication and the sphere of language use, our speech is formed in different ways. These are different styles.
Style- the concept of speech, and it can be defined only by going beyond the language system, taking into account extra-linguistic circumstances, for example, tasks of speech, the sphere of communication.
Each speech style uses language means of the national language, but under the influence of factors (theme, content, etc.), their selection and organization in each style is specific and serves to ensure optimal communication.
Among the factors underlying the allocation of functional styles, the leading function of each style is common: for colloquial - communication, for scientific and official - communication, for journalistic and artistic - impact. The leading functions of styles are distinguished according to the classification of V. V. Vinogradov.
Speech functions:
1) communication (establishment of contact - an actual, incentive function), exchange of thoughts, feelings, etc.;
2) message (explanation);
3) influence (beliefs, influence on thoughts and actions);
4) message (instructing);
5) influence (image, influence on feelings, imagination of people).
15. SCIENTIFIC STYLE
The scientific style is one of the bookish styles of the literary language, which has a number of common language features: preliminary consideration of the statement, monologue, strict selection of language means, gravitation towards normalized speech.
At first, the scientific style was close to the artistic style. The separation of styles occurred in the Alexandrian period, when scientific terminology began to be created in the Greek language.
In Russia, the scientific style began to take shape in the first decades of the 8th century.
Scientific style has a number common features that manifest themselves regardless of the nature of the sciences and genre differences. The scientific style has varieties (sub-styles): popular science, business science, science and technology, science and journalism and educational and science.
Scientific style is used in the writings of scientists to express results research activities. The purpose of scientific style is communication, explanation of scientific results. The form of implementation is a dialogue. Typical for scientific speech are semantic accuracy, ugliness, hidden emotionality, objectivity of presentation, rigor.
The scientific style uses linguistic means: terms, special words and phraseology.
The words are used in their direct meaning. Genres are inherent in it: monograph, article, dissertation, report, etc. One of the features of scientific speech is the operation with concepts that reflect the properties of entire groups, objects and phenomena. Each concept has its own name and term. For example: prefix(a term that names the concept being defined) is significant part words (generic concept), which is located before the root and serves to form new words (specific features).
The scientific style has its own phraseology, which includes compound terms (angina pectoris, solar plexus, right angle, freezing and boiling points, participle turnovers etc.).
The language of science and technology also has a number of grammatical features. In the field of morphology, this is the use of shorter variant forms, which corresponds to the principle of “saving” language means (key - keys).
IN scientific papers the singular form of nouns is often used in the plural sense. For example: wolf - a carnivorous animal from the genus of dogs(a whole class of objects is called with an indication of their characteristic features); linden begins to bloom at the end of June(the specific noun is used in the collective concept).
Of the syntactic features of the scientific style, a tendency to complex constructions is distinguished. For this purpose, sentences with homogeneous members and a generalizing word are used. There are different types in the scientific literature. complex sentences. They often meet subordinating conjunctions characteristic of book speech.
To unite parts of the text, paragraphs, words and their combinations are used, indicating their connection with each other.
Syntactic structures in scientific prose are more complex and richer in lexical material than in fiction. Offers scientific text contain one and a half times more words than the sentences of a literary text.
16. THE SPECIFICITY OF USING ELEMENTS OF DIFFERENT LANGUAGE LEVELS IN SCIENTIFIC SPEECH
The scientific style belongs to the book styles of the literary language, which are characterized by a number of general conditions for functioning and linguistic features: reflection on the statement, its monologue character, strict selection of language means, and a tendency towards normalized speech.
The scientific style has a number of common features that manifest themselves regardless of the nature of science (natural, exact, humanitarian) and differences between the genres of expression (monograph, scientific article, report, textbook, etc.), which makes it possible to talk about the specifics of the style as a whole. And it is clear that texts on physics and mathematics differ markedly in the nature of presentation from texts on philosophy or history.
The style of scientific papers is determined by their content and the goals of the scientific message - to explain the facts as accurately and completely as possible, to show cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena, to find out patterns historical development etc. The scientific style is characterized by a logical sequence of presentation, an ordered system of links between parts of the statement, the desire of the authors for accuracy, unambiguity, conciseness of expression while maintaining saturation of content.
Scientists say about the language that it is “dry”, devoid of elements of emotionality and figurativeness. Such an opinion is of a generalized nature: often in scientific works emotionally expressive and pictorial means of language are used, which, although being an additional means, stand out noticeably against the background of a purely scientific presentation, giving scientific prose more persuasiveness.
A characteristic feature of the style of scientific works is their saturation with terms. On average, terminological vocabulary usually makes up 15-25% of all vocabulary used in the work.
An important role in the style of scientific work is played by abstract vocabulary. The Russian language serves as the main instrument of culture, the main factor in the spiritual development of the nation, its creativity, and national self-consciousness. Abstract nouns - factor, development, creativity, self-awareness.
The scientific style has its own phraseology, where compound terms can be attributed (solar plexus, voiced consonants), various kinds of clichés (consists of ..., consists of ...). In scientific works, the singular form of nouns is often used in the plural sense: studying the shape of the ear, nose - the word "form" is used instead of form, since it is in the same relation to subsequent nouns. Real and abstract nouns are used in the plural form: noise in the radio.
When constructing sentences, nouns are used more often than verbs, that is, the names of concepts are mainly given, less often - the names of actions. Adjectives are used, clarifying the content of the concept by pointing to its various features and performing a terminological function.
In scientific works, a tendency to complex constructions is noticeable. Often sentences are built with homogeneous members and a generalizing word: a broader concept is revealed by listing narrower ones. To combine paragraphs, words are used that indicate the relationship between them: thus. The average sentence size in the author's narrative in novels is 17.2 words, in scientific research- 28.5 words.
17. SPEECH STANDARDS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC FIELDS OF ACTIVITY
In the first years of university in relation to educational literature the following installation principle mainly operates: read - understand - remember - retell or apply in educational and practical actions. Students must first master at least the passive-informative (basic disciplines) and speech (scientific style in its educational variety) base of their future specialty.
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