cognitive activity. Teaching as a type of cognitive activity of a student in a holistic learning process The process of learning as an independent cognitive activity of a child

Teaching as a kind of cognitive activity is aimed at the assimilation and appropriation of the socio-historical experience of mankind. The main means of teaching is learning activity. It has the same structure and the same elements as the structure general activities.
According to the philosopher E. G. Yudin, it includes the goal, the means, the result and the process of activity itself2. Some other philosophers (B. A. Grushin, M. S. Kagan, E. S. Markaryan, L. Nikolov, and others), who are engaged in theoretical research into questions of activity, hold a different opinion. In particular, the process of activity, Lyuben Nikolov believes, is also a means to achieve the goal and, on this basis, this process is not singled out as an independent structural component. AT this case we do not touch on the very important question of purpose. We will also not go into polemics as to whether the process of activity is its independent component or whether it is included in the concept of "means" - we will leave this dispute to philosophers. It is important for pedagogy and educators to note that there is a process of activity in general, and therefore educational process. The structure of activity was also of interest to such prominent psychologists as A. N. Leontiev,
P.Ya. Galperin, D.N. Uznadze, N.F. Talyzin. The activity approach to the question of personality development, developed by them, formed the basis of a whole trend in world psychology.
Of undoubted interest are the arguments of the teacher V.P. Bespalko about "stages of activity" (1977). True, in monographs published later, the author no longer calls them stages, but actions, and the sequence of “stages” - “actions” (1989) is preserved. These steps are the following:
- indicative actions (Od): rules and methods of activity are selected according to the goals set; comprehension of the conditions of the task, recall and choice of the mode of action, tool, etc.;
- performing actions (Id): the object or situation is transformed and the result set by the goal is achieved; this is the stage representing the actual execution of operations that provide a solution to the problem, the implementation of activities;
- control actions (Cd): the result of the action is compared with the standard and the goal;
- corrective actions (Kor): analytical analysis of the results of control on the completion of an activity or on a return to one of its stages - Od or Id.
The structure of activity in general and educational activity (Dt) in particular can be symbolically depicted as a formula:
Dt \u003d Od + Id + Kd + Kor1.
It is necessary to decipher the "means" element. It includes an object that is transformed in the process of activity. In turn, this process consists of four consecutive actions, which give the result. It is interesting to note that "means" are subordinate to the goal and result of the activity, and at the same time, neither the goal nor the result is feasible without means (L. Nikolov).
From this structure of activity, we distinguish the stage of control actions, without which no conscious, and even more educational (ie, pedagogical) activity is unthinkable.
We have already talked about control functions in the previous topic. Now we will consider the control as an element pedagogical technology in a didactic aspect. Its feedback and diagnostic functions are specific here. Control in the feedback function is a necessary component in the algorithmization of learning or where there are algorithms for solving pedagogical problems. In particular, in programmed, modular and module-rated training, control is included in each step of training. Here, without control, learning is basically impossible.
The diagnostic function of control is associated with establishing the current level and state of knowledge, skills and abilities of students, the degree of success in mastering the program educational material, as well as identifying the reasons that determine the success or failure of students in educational activities.

Pedagogy - Tutorial(Spiky P.I)

6. 6. learning as a student's cognitive activity in a holistic learning process

The structure of the learning process has always attracted the attention of psychologists and didacticists. Different psychological schools, in accordance with their views, represented the content and essence of the doctrine in different ways. The main psychological theories that considered the problem of learning include: behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, cognitivism, activity theory and humanistic psychology.

Behaviorists (D. Watson, E. Thorndike) believe that learning (learning) is the acquisition of new forms of behavior by the body. "The formula "situation - response" expresses any learning process" - this is how E. Thorndike formulated the initial position of behaviorism. (Thorndike E. The process of learning in humans. - M., 1935. S. 16.). Later this theory was intensively developed by B.F. Skinner, who put forward the concept of operational learning (from operation). The essence of this concept is that the body acquires new reactions due to the fact that it itself reinforces them, and only after that the external stimulus causes a reaction.

The most important provisions of behaviorism in substantiating the theory of learning is the structure of stimulus - response - reinforcement. The individual is a passive element. He only reacts to external influences, to external stimuli. The activity of the student in this case is reduced to the mechanical performance of specific operations.

A different position in the interpretation of the essence of the doctrine is taken by those-stalt psychologists. According to their concept (see the works of M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler, K. Kaffka, L. Levin), the student's activity in learning is reduced to the role of a stimulator of internal changes in integral structures and motivations based on discretion, comprehension, insight (insight ).

Representatives of cognitivism, in particular J.S. Bruner, consider learning as a process of creating by students their own "cultural experience", which has a social character and is conditioned by the cultural and historical context. According to another representative of the same direction, the Swiss psychologist J. Piaget, the student in the learning process masters structured information, performs formal logical operations. Its activity is completely determined by the age stages of mental and cognitive development: from sensory to

rational stage (preschool age) through the stage of concrete operations (primary school age) to the stage of formal operations (fifteen years of age).

The activity theory (A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinshtein) has played and is playing a special role in substantiating the theory of learning. According to this theory of learning in the process, learning performs specific, formal-logical and creative operations, provided for by a programmed and completely socially determined activity. At the same time, the student has a high degree of comprehension of the teaching.

Against the background of the presented concepts of teaching, the ideas of representatives of humanistic psychology (K.R. Rogers, A.H. Maslow) are of particular importance in revealing the essence of learning as an activity. Teaching in their understanding is a self-managed structuring personal experience for the purpose of self-development and self-organization of the individual. They perceive and interpret learning as an independent activity of the student, recognize the leading role in the learning process, justify the need for the student to use personal experience in solving educational and creative problems and preserve his freedom to choose forms of activity.

A brief review of the presented psychological theories of learning indicates that their authors proceed from either a mechanistic or an organic model of the world, a person and his psyche, and the conclusions made by them largely remain only theoretical premises of learning, and, consequently, teaching as a cognitive activities of the student in the holistic learning process.

The most important components of teaching as an activity are its content and form. The content of the activity of the teaching and, first of all, its objectivity, both sensory-objective and material practice, has an objective-subjective nature. The subject, reality, sensibility in teaching are not just objects, or forms of contemplation, but sensual-human, subjective cognitive practice. The activity of the student reflects the objective material world and the active transforming role of the student as the subject of this activity. The final effect of any activity is a transformed reality associated with the satisfaction of the cognitive and practical needs of schoolchildren and anticipated in their minds by the purpose, image and motive of the activity. The subject of the student's activity in the learning process is the actions

performed by him to achieve the intended result of the activity prompted by one or another motive.

The most important qualities of this activity are independence, which is expressed in self-criticism and criticality, cognitive activity, manifested in interests, aspirations and needs; willingness to overcome difficulties associated with perseverance and will; efficiency, which involves a correct understanding of the tasks facing students, the choice of the desired action and the pace of their solution.

More K.D. Ushinsky, seeking to reveal the driving forces of the learning process, believed that "activity in its essence of this concept ... is certainly a struggle and overcoming obstacles ... No activity is unthinkable: a) without obstacles, b) without the desire to overcome these obstacles, and in ) without actually overcoming them". (KD Ushinsky. Collected Works. M., 1950. T. 10. S. 511). Passive activity, in his words, "is not activity, but the undergoing of the activity of another" (Ibid., p. 560).

The products of educational activity - knowledge, experience of activity - reflect not only their objectivity, but also spirituality, social and personal relations, assessments, methods of application. These properties, which make up the content of cognitive activity, the content of teaching, have different sources and they seem to go towards each other. Their meeting gives rise to cognitive activity. But if they do not correlate, then the activity will not take place, it is replaced by a reaction.

Concretizing this provision in the conditions of training in modern school First of all, it should be noted that educational activity is a form of existence of a student as a subject of learning. It expresses, manifests and forms all the qualities of the personality, its characteristics.

The structure of educational activity in terms of its composition should include content, operational and motivational components. In the procedural structure of educational activity, as an activity for solving educational problems, the following interrelated components can be distinguished that determine the sequence of the implementation of the activity: task analysis; Adoption learning task; actualization of the existing knowledge necessary for its solution; drawing up a plan for solving the problem; its practical implementation; control and evaluation

problem solving, awareness of the methods of activity that take place in the process of solving a learning problem.

The essence of teaching lies in the fact that the student not only acquires subject knowledge and skills, but also masters the methods of action in relation to the assimilated subject content. Therefore, when developing a teaching project, it is necessary to distinguish between the process of educational activity in which assimilation occurs, and self-assimilation.

A specific feature of the teaching is its orientation and organization in the direction of mastering the methods of activity by students, starting with the process of its construction. The specific content of the activity, which is planned to be learned in the process of learning, is always associated in the mind of the subject with the performance of an action or a system of actions. Thus, cognitive actions are primary in the process of assimilation. The process of assimilation, as well as the acquired knowledge itself, are of a secondary nature, and outside of activity, outside the system of actions, they lose their power as stimuli for learning or specific goals, as tools or instruments of cognition.

In the structure of cognitive activity, general actions are distinguished that are performed by students in the study of any disciplines. This is the planning of specific ways to obtain the desired result, the mental selection of its parameters, the control of methods for obtaining the required result, the control of the compliance of the result with the required one, the diagnosis of the causes of the discrepancy (if any), the rationale for the principle of action, the choice of method, the prediction of options for action, decision making, including including by choosing a rational option for action, determining the necessary correction of the original plan. In the course of performing these actions, the student must imagine the object of activity, the final and intermediate goals, mentally design on this basis, predict the process of achieving the goal by highlighting the composition of actions in it, compare the selected actions with their full composition, analyze the differences and related features of the process under study, their influence on the object of activity.

The use of general actions in teaching is feature fundamentalization of content, due to the fact that in learning, along with the process

assimilation, a purposeful process of constructing new knowledge must constantly function. The student's constructive activity begins where he enters into a specific interaction with its elements-knowledge about objects and phenomena of the external world as means of cognition. These interactions are included in the content of search cognitive activity with a wide use of intuition and are associated with the development of cognitive interest and knowledge needs. The most effective search activity is carried out when knowledge invariants act as means of educational knowledge - fundamental (theoretical) scientific provisions that underlie all variants of activity.

Equally important in teaching is the form of cognitive activity of students. Three forms have been known since ancient times: material, speech and mental. However, the attitude towards them in the theory of learning was different. Historically, there has been an opinion that the leading activity in learning is mental activity, and speech activity is simply a means of expressing thoughts. Material activity, if it is used, is limited, in the practical training of students during the period of industrial practice. However, this provision is valid only under certain conditions, when known knowledge and production skills need to be consolidated in educational work.

In the general case, the problem is not so simple, and without pretending to analyze it comprehensively, let us consider some approaches to its solution that exist in theory. It is known that these three forms of activity exist objectively as forms of social, scientific, labor activity (production, science, culture, etc.), which perform certain specific functions both in society as a whole and in education, exerting their influence on all aspects of the educational process. This influence can be realized directly, in the form of requirements for the quality of practical training of students in grammar writing, counting, mathematical calculations, etc., and also indirectly, through the content academic disciplines and forms of education. Public forms of activity affect the educational process collectively, in interconnection with each other. So, at lessons-lectures, scientific positions are usually illustrated with modern examples from life, technology, and

processes are described with the involvement of the theoretical apparatus of the subjects studied.

In order to reveal the cumulative influence of social forms of activity on the educational work of students, it is necessary to establish their essential connections. In archeology and cultural history, the following natural succession of forms of social activity in the development of human society has been revealed. The first form of human activity was labor: the production of objects that ensure vital activity and reproduction. As the experience of material activity was accumulated, the need arose for its transfer to the younger generation and for the division of labor, which led to the emergence of various forms of communication, including speech. Speech, initially "woven" into the process of material production, gradually develops under the influence of needs and production relations, while abstracting and acquiring its own sound and graphic methods of implementation, adequate to the objects depicted. Thus, in phylogenesis, speech activity was material, but then in its own self-development it acquired specific verbal means of reflecting objective reality: grammar, vocabulary, linguistics, etc.

Simultaneously with the process of the systematic use of speech as a means of communication between people, there were other processes associated with the development of production: the accumulation of experience in creative transformative activity, the expansion of the sphere of material production and social needs, the identification of the characteristics of the labor process, the properties of various material objects and their relationships in time and in space, establishing causal relationships between phenomena. The generalization of this experience and its transfer to the younger generation required new, adequate goals and means. Therefore, in the process of development and systematic use of speech structures, analytical-synthetic methods of theoretical activity gradually mature, and mental actions are formed. Thus, mental activity is initially generated by verbal activity, and only later, at a certain stage of its development, does it “bud off” from speech, becomes relatively independent activity, retaining, like speech, its main property - a reflection of reality, but already at a qualitatively new, scientific level.

Having become independent highly developed forms of activity, speech and mental activity have an active influence "in the opposite" relationship: mental activity becomes leading in orienting a person in life conditions, it is displayed in speech and anticipates the process and result of practical, material activity.

The briefly considered phylogenetic development of forms of activity is important in the analysis of ontogeny.

tic process of comprehensive development of students in the learning process. Without repeating the connections between the content of these forms discussed above, let us analyze their continuity in the educational work of schoolchildren. Obviously, learning can also be carried out in all three forms of activity, and the methods and means of each form historically developed in society appear before students as objects of assimilation, i.e. forms of cognitive activity of schoolchildren are in teaching derivatives of historically developed forms of activity. Their connections are also "present" in training in an implicit, folded form: external, materialized activity is connected in educational work with speech and mental activities. Accordingly, there are "direct" and "inverse" relations between them, classified according to the criterion of the generative form: when assimilating essentially new knowledge and methods of activity, the materialized form generates a speech form, which, folding, is transformed into a mental one, after assimilation, mental actions precede verbal ones and determine the effectiveness of practical work.

The connections between the forms of cognitive activity and their mutual influence presuppose the organization of the assimilation of the specific methods inherent in each form. Thus, the materialized activity of students is connected with work, with physical models: devices, didactic handouts, with the design and development of technical objects and processes. Speech activity is carried out during the preparation and presentation of a report, abstract, etc. All these forms are widely used in teaching students, but the question of their optimal ratio and the use of their connections has not yet been studied in the didactics of the secondary school. Its practical solution is carried out empirically, based on the accumulated experience of teaching, the methodological capabilities of teaching staff and the desire of individual teachers, which indicates the potential reserves for increasing the effectiveness of the educational process.

Such is the essence general characteristics structure Teaching - the basic concept of the learning system as a holistic pedagogical process. Having opened it, you can already begin to consider the technology of activity itself.

the teacher's ability to ensure and organize the activities of students in various types of education.

Teaching as a type of cognitive activity of a student in a holistic learning process Tasks modern learning are not only to ensure the assimilation of programs by schoolchildren, but also to advance them in development. What is teaching as an activity In psychology, there are different approaches to this understanding, we outlined the understanding of a holistic educational and cognitive activity as it is presented in the works of V. It is well known that a person develops only in the process of his own activity. The structure of the teaching includes ...

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Lecture 1 TOOO in the beginning class.

Teaching as a type of cognitive activity

learner in a holistic learning process

The tasks of modern education are not only to ensure the assimilation of programs by schoolchildren, but also to advance them in development. Of particular importance is the work on the development of children in primary school which is the foundation for the further development of the student's personality. What is teaching as an activity? In psychology, there are different approaches to this understanding; we outlined the understanding of a holistic educational and cognitive activity as it is presented in the works of V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin.

It is well known that a person develops only in the process of his own activity. The structure of the teaching includes the same components as in any activity: goal, motive, action, means, result, evaluation.

The goal is for the child to learn precisely because he wants to learn, so that he experiences the pleasure of learning itself.

More K.D. Ushinsky, seeking to reveal driving forces learning process, believed that "activity in its essence of this concept ... is certainly a struggle and overcoming obstacles ... No activity is unthinkable: a) without an obstacle, b) without the desire to overcome these obstacles, and c) without actually overcoming them" .

What is cognitive activity?

Cognition is the process of reflecting reality in the psyche of an individual, the result of which is a new knowledge of the individual about the world around him and about himself.

The science that studies the laws of the process of cognition is psychology cognitive processes, cognitive psychology.

Cognitive activity is a complex hierarchical structure of mental processes of sensation, perception, representation, thinking, memory, emotions, attention, imagination, consciousness, speech, will.

The core of the formation of cognitive activity is cognitive interest. The problem of cognitive interest in pedagogy is relevant and popular. The central issue studied by our didactics is the question of the place of cognitive interest in the educational process, its sources and methods of stimulation, its interdependence as a motive for learning with methods of cognitive activity. This problem was dealt with by G.I. Shchukina and others.

The educational process should proceed in conditions of motivated inclusion of the student in cognitive activity, which becomes desirable, bringing satisfaction from participation in it. The student himself operates with the educational content, and only in this case it is assimilated consciously and firmly, and the process of development of the student's intellect is underway, the ability of self-learning and self-organization is formed. K. D. Ushinsky defined it this way: “The activity should be mine, captivate me, come from my soul.” The formation of cognitive activity is facilitated by the cognitive interests of students, which create both external and internal conditions for learning.

The structure of educational motivation is connected with the emotional sphere. Therefore, it is obvious that the student's cognitive interest is formed only when the educational activity is successful. So, through increasing interest in educational material and through arousing the desire to learn, through the development of the student's need to engage in cognitive activity, we formed a cognitive interest.

Behaviorism (eng. behavior - behavior ) is the direction to psychology man and animals, literally - the science of behavior. Behaviorists (D. Watson, E. Thorndike) believe that learning (learning) is the acquisition of new forms of behavior by the body. "The formula "situation - response" expresses any learning process" - this is how E. Thorndike formulated the initial position of behaviorism. The essence of this concept is that the body acquires new reactions due to the fact that it itself reinforces them, and only after that the external stimulus causes a reaction. The most important provisions of behaviorism in substantiating the theory of learning is the structure of stimulus - response - reinforcement. The individual is a passive element. He only reacts to external influences, to external stimuli. The activity of the student in this case is reduced to the mechanical performance of specific operations.

A different position in the interpretation of the essence of the doctrine is taken by those-stalt psychologists. Gestalt psychology (also the Berlin School of Gestalt) is a "theory of mind and brain" which proposes that the operating principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analogous, with self-organizing tendencies; and argues that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. According to their concept (see the works of M. Werthheimer, W. Köhler, K. Kaffka, L. Levin), the student's activity in learning is reduced to the role of a stimulator of internal changes in integral structures and motivations based on discretion, comprehension, insight (insight). Insight - (from English insight - insight, penetration into essence , understanding, insight, sudden guess) is an ambiguous term from the field animal psychology, psychology, psychoanalysis and psychiatry describing complexintellectualphenomenon, the essence of which is the unexpected, partly intuitive understanding the problem and finding a solution.

Cognitiveness (lat. cognitio, "knowledge, study, awareness") - the ability to mentally perceive and process external information. In psychology This concept applies to mental processes personality and especially to the so-called "mental states" (beliefs, desires and intentions).

Against the background of the presented concepts of teaching, the ideas of representatives of humanistic psychology (K.R. Rogers, A.H. Maslow) are of particular importance in revealing the essence of learning as an activity. Teaching in their understanding is a self-governed structuring of personal experience for the purpose of self-development and self-organization of the individual. They perceive and interpret learning as an independent activity of the student, recognize the leading role in the learning process, justify the need for the student to use personal experience in solving educational and creative problems and preserve his freedom to choose forms of activity.

Brief overview of the presented psychological theories teachings indicates that their authors proceed either from a mechanistic or organic model of the world, a person and his psyche, and the conclusions made by them in many respects remain only theoretical premises of learning, and, consequently, teaching as a student’s cognitive activity in a holistic process learning.

The most important components of teaching as an activity are its content and form. The content of the activity of the teaching and, first of all, its objectivity, both sensory-objective and material practice, has an objective-subjective nature. The subject, reality, sensibility in teaching are not just objects, or forms of contemplation, but sensual-human, subjective cognitive practice. The activity of the student reflects the objective material world and the active transforming role of the student as the subject of this activity. The final effect of any activity is a transformed reality, connected with the satisfaction of the cognitive and practical needs of schoolchildren and anticipated in their minds by the purpose, image and motive of the activity. The subject of the student's activity in the learning process is the actions performed by him to achieve the intended result of the activity, prompted by one or another motive.

Concretizing this provision in the conditions of education in a modern school, it should first of all be noted that learning activity is a form of existence of a student as a subject of learning. It expresses, manifests and forms all the qualities of the personality, its characteristics.

The structure of educational activity in terms of its composition should include content, operational and motivational components. In the procedural structure of educational activity, as an activity for solving educational problems, the following interrelated components can be distinguished that determine the sequence of the implementation of the activity: task analysis; acceptance of a learning task; actualization of the existing knowledge necessary for its solution; drawing up a plan for solving the problem; its practical implementation; control and evaluation
problem solving, awareness of the methods of activity that take place in the process of solving a learning problem.

Equally important in teaching is the form of cognitive activity of students. Three forms have been known since ancient times: material, speech and mental. However, the attitude towards them in the theory of learning was different. Historically, it has been believed that mental activity is the leading one in learning, and speech activity is simply a means of expressing thoughts. Material activity, if it is used, is limited, in the practical training of students during the period of industrial practice. However, this provision is valid only under certain conditions, when known knowledge and production skills need to be consolidated in educational work.

Such is the essence, the general characteristic of the structure of the Teaching, the basic concept of the teaching system as an integral pedagogical process.

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At all levels of methodological analysis of educational and cognitive activity, the problem of its types is important for us, since it is precisely the types of educational and cognitive activity that should become the subject of assimilation by students in the educational process.

In this regard, we aim to consider the problem of identifying, organizing and mastering the types of educational and cognitive activities, the solution of which, in our opinion, will provide the basis for such an important component of personality as self-respect.

The age we are considering is students aged 10-18. This period marks the peak of the intellectual development of the individual. Any mistakes are fraught with delay, omissions in the formation of intelligence. According to the methodological position on the formation and development of personality in vigorous activity, we must take into account that at this age the intellectual formation and development of the student takes place in educational and cognitive activity. Consequently, any omissions in mastering this activity lead to a decrease in the intellectual level of the student. The intellectual side of the personality is directly related to the level of mastery of educational and cognitive activity.

Undoubtedly, other general types of human activity also influence the nature of intellectual development. It should be noted that there is some discrepancy in their selection. We did not set ourselves the task of analyzing this problem. Let us dwell only on some of its aspects.

M.S. Kagan considers activity as a way of mastering reality and distinguishes the following types of activity - cognitive; transformative; holistic orientation; communication .

Pedagogical studies (Yu.K. Babansky, G.I. Shchukina, and others) single out and analyze, first of all, such activities as play, learning, and work.

V.V. Belich, in his study, singles out work and play as independent ones as the leading types of activity, knowledge as a derivative of them. At the same time, he does not put the object as the basis for the selection of species, as psychologists define it, but the leading motive satisfied by this type of activity:

labor is the satisfaction of biological needs;
game - satisfaction of emotional needs;
knowledge - the satisfaction of intellectual needs associated with work and (or) play.

In any case, cognitive activity is considered as an independent type of human activity. Cognitive activity of the individual, carried out in specific learning environment, is presented as an educational and cognitive activity. And in many ways (subject, goals, structure, etc.) it corresponds to the cognitive activity of a scientist (cognition).

the possibilities for the manifestation of educational and cognitive activity in real and school practice are very diverse;
the same manifestations of this activity are interpreted in the literature as types, forms, techniques, ways, methods, etc.;
there is no unified, sufficiently substantiated classification of the types (methods, forms, methods, techniques, etc.) of the educational and cognitive activity of students.

Methodological is the provision on the possibility of singling out one or another type of activity depending on the subject of activity (A.N. Leontiev). The difference in objects determines the difference in species.

Determining for ourselves the possibility of designating this or that manifestation of educational and cognitive activity, we proceeded from the following assumptions:

1) we have the right to operate with the concept of “type of activity” if we can indicate the subject of each type;

2) when choosing the concept of “mode of activity”, we must keep in mind that a method, a way to achieve a goal is a method (didactic interpretation); the concept of the method of activity in the literature is so vague that a separate study should be devoted to its analysis. The analysis of various definitions of the concept of "method" was carried out by G.G. Granatov, V.A. Cherkasov and others;

3) if we focus on the concept of "methods of activity", then we again face the uncertainty of the methodological plan:

reception as a set of methods;
reception as an integral part of the method;
reception as a manifestation of the method in a particular situation;

4) the concept of "form of activity" is unacceptable for us, because reduces the essence of educational and cognitive activity only to the external, objective side.

The following points can serve as examples of an inconsistent approach to determining the manifestations of educational and cognitive activity of students.

N.M. Zverev and A.A. Kasyan, quite rightly asserting the need for students to master “methods of obtaining knowledge”, give a definition to them: “Methods of obtaining knowledge are those subjective cognitive means without which it is impossible creative activity» . To these "means" they include observation, experiment, abstraction, and so on. In our opinion, this is unacceptable, because the same observation, experiment, etc. need means of implementation. The definition of a method through means deprives both concepts at once of their meaning.

M.P. Barbolin confuses the concept of "methods" and "techniques" of cognitive activity. On the one hand, he claims that “methods of thinking” are the basis of “methods of cognitive activity”. On the other hand, he analyzes the “model of the method of cognitive activity” through the “structure of methods” of this activity (ibid.).

The list of examples could go on and on, especially in the field of private method research.

For example, E.T. Izergin (method of teaching physics), analyzing the problem of cognitive activity and its structure, back in the seventies of the last century rightly believed that the structure of cognitive activity is a combination of characteristics - type, method, type, form of cognitive activity. They give the following definitions of these characteristics:

The type of cognitive activity is its characteristic, showing what kind of work the subject performs in relation to the object of this activity.
The type of cognitive activity is its characteristic, reflecting the degree of expression of the creative principles of activity.

Concepts reception and form of cognitive activity Izergin E.T. tries to reveal on examples of various techniques and forms.

Completely denying such an approach to the definition of these important concepts, we, nevertheless, consider it correct to single out E.T. Izergin. given characteristics of cognitive activity.

A.V. Usova, B.P. Esipov, I. Unt and other teachers, solving the problem of the form of organization of educational and cognitive activity, distinguish independent work as such, as well as work under the guidance of a teacher. We do not try to dispute this approach, since it seems to us correct.

For ourselves, we have defined the manifestations of educational and cognitive activity as its types. At the same time, we proceed from the generally accepted understanding of the concept of "view" as a part of the whole, retaining its basic properties and having its own distinctive features. If we talk about the types of educational and cognitive activities, then all of them:

aimed at understanding the whole world;
fulfill cognitive needs;
ensure the formation and development of the intellectual sphere of the individual, etc.

At the same time, each type of educational and cognitive activity has:

its object, which is part of general subject generally;
its structure.

When determining the types of educational and cognitive activity, we proceeded from the idea of complexity, multicomponent nature of the general subject of activity. The subject of educational and cognitive activity of students is not knowledge, skills, personality traits. Knowledge, skills, qualities are the result, i.e. purpose of this activity.

The subject is what the activity is aimed at (A.N. Leontiev), what is known, perceived by a person:

properties, signs, connections and other characteristics;
and also, taking into account reflexive phenomena, - experiences, relationships, sensations and other feelings.

Thus, two sides are distinguished in the subject of activity - the objective (element of the cognized object) and the subjective, i.e. what is personally significant.

For example, can observation be defined as an activity? We believe that yes, because we can name its object - external, most accessible to perception properties, signs, etc. studied subjects. The external side of this subject is the objective characteristics of the object. The inner side is the subjective attitude of a person to these characteristics and the object as a whole. No researcher, let alone a student, can be absolutely dispassionate when performing one or another type of educational and cognitive activity. He somehow personally relates to what he studies. And this attitude of his becomes the subject of study, or rather, an integral part of the subject.

“I”, observing, study certain properties (characteristics) of the object and my attitude towards them. This subjective attitude to an objective subject can contribute to the effectiveness of the activity type of educational and cognitive activity, but it can also interfere with it.

With a change in the type of activity, the objective side of the subject changes, the nature of the student's subjective attitude towards it changes.

When analyzing the system of educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren and college students, first of all, we are faced with the question - what elements of this system, manifestations of this activity can be defined as "types of educational and cognitive activity".

An analysis of the pedagogical literature does not give us an unambiguous answer. We can present the generalized results of the analysis in the following form (Table 6).

The examples given in the table testify to the inconsistency of positions in determining the manifestations of educational and cognitive activity. This leads, for example, to the uncertainty of the purpose of education - students must master the types, forms, methods, techniques, operations or methods, etc. educational and cognitive activity?

Table 6

Approaches to the allocation of elements of the system of educational and cognitive activity of students

teachers	Manifestations of educational and cognitive student activities
Polovnikova N.A.	Methods of educational and cognitive activity: extracting and applying
Korotyaev B.I.	Methods of educational and cognitive activity: perception and awareness, memorization and memorization, reproduction and application
Purysheva N.S. Usova A.V.	1) Types of independent work. 2) Types of cognitive activity
Chekhlova Z.F.	Ways of joint educational and cognitive activity
Stepanenko V.I. Kosataya F.M.	Methods of cognitive activity
Belich V.V. Izergin E.T.	Methods of cognitive activity
Pospelov N.N. Pospelov I.N.	1) Techniques of mental activity. 2) Mental operations: analysis, etc.
Barbolin M.P.	1) Ways of cognitive activity: empirical, mathematical, theoretical, activity-transforming 2) Methods of cognitive activity: analysis, synthesis, etc.

So, our position is to determine the main manifestations of educational and cognitive activity as its types. In this case, for each of the species, we must determine its subject.

Is it possible, on the basis of this feature, to single out certain types of educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren?

A specific feature of educational and cognitive activity is its focus on the acquisition by students of new knowledge, skills and abilities, on the knowledge of objective reality. But the nature of the acquired knowledge may be different. This, in our opinion, determines the difference between the subjects of various types of educational and cognitive activity.

The subject can be external signs, properties of the object of knowledge, cognizable without interference in ongoing processes. This is an observation.

The subject of educational and cognitive activity can also be the essential, leading properties of objects, the patterns of ongoing processes, which can be studied only by intervening in the processes, penetrating into the objects of knowledge. This is an experiment.

The subject can also be significant informational provisions set out in textbooks, popular educational literature.

Another subject of educational and cognitive activity is the essential connections and relationships of the knowledge system itself. This is systematization. Etc.

When studying each subject, several aspects are distinguished:

informational - mastery of information;
activity - mastering the methods of activity;
personal - awareness of the personal meaning of a cognizable object.

You can name other options for subjects of types of educational and cognitive activity (for example, solving problems, problems). But the provisions noted above are the most important, the main subjects of certain types of this activity, since:

firstly, maximum time is allotted to work with them, to master them in the educational process;
secondly, they represent the greatest opportunities for the knowledge of reality;
thirdly, mastering them makes it possible to accelerate the mastery of other types of activity by students.

The types selected depending on the subject are presented in Table. 7.

Thus, the main types of educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren in the classroom are observation, experiment, work with a book, systematization of knowledge, etc. The objects of these types of activity are not isolated from each other. Consequently, the types of educational and cognitive activity are interconnected. The objective basis of this relationship is that in all cases we obtain objective knowledge about reality.

Table 7

Types of educational and cognitive activities and their subjects

Types of educational and cognitive activities	Species Items educational and cognitive activity
Observation	External signs, properties of objects of knowledge obtained without interference in them
Experiment	Essential, leading properties, patterns of objects of nature, obtained directly by intervention, impact on them
Working with a book	Systematized information presented in educational, scientific and popular science literature
Systematization of knowledge	Significant connections and relationships between individual elements of the system scientific knowledge
Solving cognitive tasks (problems)	Complex diverse information of a cognitive nature
Plotting	Regular connections between phenomena (properties, processes, characteristics)

In addition to them, students are subjects of many other fairly important types of educational and cognitive activities, that is, ensuring that students receive new knowledge, skills and abilities, mastering their methods of activity and their development.

Unfortunately, these activities are not widely used in schools. Students prefer passive activities. Meanwhile, the content educational material in all academic subjects, its structure creates the prerequisites for the implementation of a wide variety of active types of educational and cognitive activities.

When studying material on physics, chemistry, biology and other subjects for use in classrooms, after school hours, when doing homework, the following types of educational and cognitive activities of students can be recommended:

I - activities with a verbal (sign) basis:

Listening to the teacher's explanation.
Listening and analyzing the speeches of their comrades.
Independent work with the textbook.
Work with popular science literature;
Selection and comparison of material from several sources.
Writing essays and reports.
Derivation and proof of formulas.
Formula analysis.
Programming.
Solving text quantitative and qualitative problems.
Performing tasks to distinguish between concepts.
Systematization of educational material.
Program editing.

II - activities based on the perception of elements of reality:

Observation of the teacher's demonstrations.
Watching educational films.
Analysis of graphs, tables, charts.
Explanation of the observed phenomena.
The study of the device devices according to models and drawings.
Analysis of problem situations.

III - activities with a practical (experimental) basis:

Work with kinematic schemes.
Solution of experimental problems.
Working with handouts.
Collection and classification of collection material.
Assembly of electrical circuits.
Measurement of quantities.
Setting up experiments to demonstrate to the class.
Setting up frontal experiments.
Performing frontal laboratory work.
Implementation of the workshop.
Assembly of devices from finished parts and structures.
Identification and elimination of malfunctions in devices.
Implementation of tasks for the improvement of devices.
Development of new variants of experience.
Building a hypothesis based on the analysis of available data.
Development and verification of experimental work methodology.
Conducting a research experiment.
Modeling and design.

We have given a list of only those types of educational and cognitive activity of students that are found in educational practice and are recommended by methodologists. This list does not exhaust the variety of types of educational and cognitive activity. The task of the teacher, the teacher is to look for and find new, more effective activities for students in the classroom. It should be noted that the division of all the types of educational and cognitive activity in the list into three groups is rather arbitrary. At the heart of this division is a sign - a source of knowledge, the formation of skills and abilities. In the first group, such a main source is a word, a sign; in the second group - an image, a visual sensation; in the third group - practical action.

In other words, it is possible to conditionally define the activities of the first group as working with text; activities of the second group - observation of various objects; activities of the third group - the implementation of various practical work. That is, all the diversity can be reduced to the main types of educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren that we have identified.

Before the teacher, the teacher faces the task of teaching students how to perform each type of educational and cognitive activity, to form their ability to plan and rationally organize their activities. On how well students master various types of activities, how well they are able to apply them to gain new knowledge, their cognitive activity, as well as cognitive interests and needs, and development in general, largely depend. However, in practice, we observe a significant predominance of those types of educational and cognitive activities that provide the least effective development of the student's personality.

We, on the basis of multiple surveys, conducted in schools among students in grades 9-11 (1982, 1989, 1993, 2002, 2009) and students of 1-2 courses of universities (Magnitogorsk State University, Magnitogorsk Technical University etc.), interesting results were obtained. The results of the survey conducted by students allow us to draw the following conclusions:

Students in all years prefer passive activities.
Students assess their own activity as insufficient.
Most students are not accustomed to independently find answers to emerging questions.
The educational and cognitive activity of students is predominantly non-purposeful.

These conclusions were subsequently confirmed by other questionnaires, observations of the activities of students in the classroom, analysis of control and independent work, analysis of the answers of school graduates in exams.

What is the reason for the low activity of students in the learning process, for example, at school?

In our opinion, these are the following reasons:

The study at school is subject to complex educational material, difficult for students to master.
The ability of schoolchildren to work independently, independently study educational material is formed at a low level.
Teachers often do not know how to effectively organize and manage the educational and cognitive activities of schoolchildren, they cannot teach schoolchildren to perform this activity.

We draw similar conclusions about the reasons for the low activity of students.

So, the types of educational and cognitive activity are observation, experiment, work with a book, systematization of knowledge and other types. Psychologists and educators consider actions and operations to be an integral part of each type of activity. We have already touched on this issue.

In the structure of educational and cognitive activity, the following elements are distinguished:

separate types of educational and cognitive activity, interconnected;
actions, execution certain population which ensures the performance of activities in general;
operations as ways of performing actions.

Thus, in the types of educational and cognitive activity named in the tables, sets of actions and operations can be distinguished.

Mastering educational and cognitive activity by students begins from the first grade. This is to read fluently, to grasp the text, to retell it in your own words, to observe, to draw some simple conclusions, etc. Subsequently, students in the natural history course begin to form the ability to make simple experiments. These skills are developed during the study of courses in geography, physics, chemistry. Despite numerous studies, the various methodical work, which show the importance of the formation of educational and cognitive skills and ways to solve this problem, students still come to the senior classes of a mass school with a low level of formation of these skills, and they graduate with a low level of these skills. With a low level of formation of educational and cognitive skills, it is impossible to successfully solve the problem of improving the quality of the educational process. In the existing conditions, teachers of all subjects need to carry out purposeful work on the formation of educational and cognitive skills of students throughout the entire period of their schooling. And this can be done only by organizing educational and cognitive activities.

At present, pedagogy recognizes the fact that in the process of educational and cognitive activity, students should develop generalized educational and cognitive skills and abilities. This was first pointed out by A.V. Usova.

Generalized skills are skills based on students' understanding of the scientific foundations and structure of activity, on the independent determination of the rational sequence of operations and actions of which it consists. The student, possessing generalized skills and abilities, can use them in solving a wide range of cognitive tasks not only within the framework of one subject, but also in classes in other academic disciplines, as well as in practical activities. That is, the main property, the distinguishing feature of generalized skills, is the property of a wide transfer from one type of activity to others.

When planning work, it must be taken into account that the spontaneous formation of generalized skills does not occur. We need targeted training, specially organized activities. In addition, it should be taken into account that an important component in preparing students for mastering generalized skills is the formation of their particular educational and cognitive skills.

Based on these considerations, relying on the data of our experimental work, we carried out the process of forming generalized educational and cognitive skills in the following stages:

Formation of private skills and abilities.
Familiarization of students with the scientific foundations of activity.
Familiarization of students with the structure of activities.
Formation of the ability to independently determine the rational sequence of actions and operations.
Formation of the ability to analyze their activities.

These stages are common to all types of educational and cognitive activities.

In the work on the formation of generalized skills and abilities of students, it is necessary, first of all, to identify the level of formation of these skills and, depending on the level, plan further activities.

The methodological basis for the formation of schoolchildren's skills to perform educational and cognitive activities is the doctrine of the phased formation of mental actions, first of all, the doctrine of the types of orientation.

Guided by the provisions of this doctrine, we recognize that the successful formation of educational and cognitive skills is carried out under the condition of creating and using an indicative basis of action (OOD), as well as an indicative basis of activity in general. To create it, it is necessary to highlight the key points of the activity, based on which and consistently performing them, the student will be able to complete the activity as a whole. Moreover, strong points must be stable: they must not depend on the conditions in which the activity is carried out, on the nature of the task being performed, on the characteristics of the material being studied.

In fact, we are talking about creating an algorithm for performing activities.

A problem arises - for the successful formation of generalized educational and cognitive skills, an indicative basis of activity (algorithm) is needed. What can serve as reference points (algorithm steps) of OOD for any of its types?

Based on the research of psychologists and teachers, it can be assumed that one of the ways to determine the strong points of activity can be the allocated structures of each type of educational and cognitive activity: what actions, operations and in what sequence are subject to mandatory implementation in each type of educational and cognitive activity. The list of these actions, compiled taking into account a certain sequence, will be the OOD (algorithm).

The possibility of using the activity algorithm as an indicative basis that ensures the formation of generalized skills is recognized by many psychologists and educators - A.V. Usova (experiment, work with a book, observation, etc.), N.N. Tulkibaeva (problem solving), A.A. Bobrov, E.T. Izergin and others (experiment), A.N. Zvyagin, S.F. Shilova, L.Ya. Zorina (systematization), V.K. Buryak (work with the book), B.I. Korotyaev, P.I. Pidkasistym, Z.F. Chekhlova (methods of activity) and other researchers. When constructing algorithms for all types of educational and cognitive activity, we proceeded from the following methodological provisions:

The algorithmic stage of mastering the activity is necessary as a stage in the formation of the basis of self-esteem of the individual, i.e. mastering the activity algorithm is not the ultimate goal, but is a means for the student to realize his strong readiness to perform the activity in all its diversity.
The subject of activity and the activity itself have an objective and subjective side. Therefore, the algorithm must contain actions that implement these aspects.
A generally recognized position in science is the allocation of preparatory, executive and analytical stages in any activity. Therefore, the actions of the algorithm must correspond to these stages.

Let us consider variants of algorithms for the main types of educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren, taking into account these requirements. Let's start with observation.

In science, observation is understood as an activity that is a systematic, continuous and purposeful perception of the objects under study, which makes it possible to trace the course of any phenomena or processes, or those changes that occur in the observed object. Observation is carried out without direct intervention during the process, which makes it possible to see the natural course of events, not changed by human influence.

Observation is an important method of cognition, a source of scientific knowledge about the world.

On the basis of observation in the course of theoretical analysis and mathematical processing of results, scientific facts are established, scientific concepts are formed, etc.

A person, performing observation, expresses his active attitude to the world around him with the help of his sense organs. In this case, the motive is the needs and interests of a person, including cognitive ones.

It follows from the definition that observation is, first of all, perception. Perception is the knowledge of the world through the senses. In educational observation, it is important to involve as many senses as possible in the perception. Leading in learning is Golden Rule didactics”, formulated by Ya.A. Comenius.

In the aspect of our research, we must define observation as a type of educational and cognitive activity, the subject of which is external signs, properties of objects of knowledge.

The organization of observation in the learning process has certain goals, the main of which are:

development of observation and other important qualities of a student's personality;
familiarization with the features of observation as a method of scientific knowledge and preparation for conducting scientific observations;
study of the properties of bodies, phenomena of nature and society.

Observation skills are mastered by schoolchildren from grades 1 to 11. At the same time, almost all subjects studied at school contribute to the formation of these skills.

An analysis of the curricula of subjects, methodological literature on the problem of organization of observation (1, 2, 3, etc.) makes it possible to determine the list of skills for performing observations that should be formed in students in each class (Table 8).

The main stages in the formation of these skills were identified by N.M. Belyakova. But it is important to note that the introduction of the unified state exam has significantly changed the requirements for students' skills at each stage, significantly reducing their relevance.

Table 8

Developing Observation Skills in Students

Classes		Skills
	Native language, familiarization with the surrounding world, natural science, fine arts	Acquaintance with the ability to observe is carried out, skills are practiced: oral or written description of the observed; formulation of simple conclusions; careful consideration of the object; highlighting signs of similarity or difference; separating objects according to characteristics
	Natural history, labor, native language, fine arts	The skills of the first stage are being developed, new ones are being formed: formulation of the purpose of observation; monitoring activities planning; fixing the results of observation
	Geography, biology, physics	The skills of the first and second stages are developing, new ones are being formed: application of the observation plan when compiling the report; handling of devices and preparations; creation and maintenance of observation conditions
	Geography, biology, physics	The degree of independence in the implementation of observation is growing. The ability to transfer the formed skills to other activities is formed

Classes	Subjects on which skills are mainly formed	Skills
	Physics, chemistry, biology and other subjects	Further growth of independence in the implementation of observation. Develops the ability to transfer the formed skills to other activities
Graduation	In all subjects	Complete independence in the implementation of observation is achieved, the ability to creatively approach the implementation of any observation and transfer the formed skills to other areas is formed.

These are the basic observational skills that must be formed at each stage. Their formation is carried out, first of all, by organizing observation in the system of educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren. At the same time, the task of the teacher is to form them at the level of generalization.

As noted, the formation of generalized skills is facilitated by the creation of OOD, which is the structure of activity.

The problem arises - to determine the observation algorithm, that is, to identify the main actions and determine their sequence.

To determine the observation algorithm means to determine what actions are included in the observation and in what sequence they are performed. Moreover, it is necessary to single out those actions and the sequence that do not depend on the conditions in which they can be carried out, the nature of the task, the characteristics of the object.

When highlighting the main actions that make up the educational observation, determining the sequence of their implementation, you can use the method of comparing educational and scientific observation.

Based on the definition of observation, we can conclude that the main action in it is perception. That is, the main thing in observation is to see, hear, feel (feel) the object of observation. But is observation reduced only to perception? Judging by the results of the 10-11 grades of some schools Chelyabinsk region surveys, most students think so. To the question of the questionnaire “What does it mean to observe an object?” they replied, "Watch and listen." There were practically no other actions named.

In scientific observation, any perception is accompanied by the performance of some practical actions. For example, actions with devices, preparations. In addition, any scientific observation involves comprehension, awareness of the perceived object.

Consequently, one of the main actions of educational observation will be perception, accompanied by the implementation of practical actions and comprehension, awareness of the observed. This is the main action of educational observation, but by no means the only one.

We have already noted that any human activity is reflexive and that this is expressed in the presence of a goal and a motive for activity. It is with the definition of the purpose and motive of the activity that the implementation of the observation begins.

Thus, before perceiving, performing practical actions, comprehending something, it is necessary to determine the purpose and motive of observation.

Based on a general understanding of the purpose of the activity, this question can be answered as follows: to determine the purpose of observation means to establish what knowledge should be obtained as a result of observing phenomena and objects of reality, what personality qualities should be formed.

To determine the motive for observation means to recognize and formulate the inner motivation on which the observation is based. It would probably be correct if the procedure for motivating observation is denoted by the answer to next questions: “Why does the student need the knowledge gained in the course of observation? Where will he use them? What cognitive interests drive the student when performing the observation?

Thus, the first action in observation is the formulation of the goal, the second is the motivation for observation.

Any scientific observation involves the choice of a specific object for which it will be conducted. Obviously, educational observation also involves the choice of a particular object, its selection among many other objects.

The object of educational observation can be different phenomena, objects, processes. For example, in physics - the phenomena of boiling, electrolysis, interaction; electrical measuring instruments, technological processes; tables, posters, graphs, films, etc.

To achieve the goal, of all objects, you need to choose the one (or those) that is important at the moment. Choose and watch.

So, observation includes the choice of an object. This action is performed following the observation motivation action.

A feature of observation is that it is carried out without the intervention of the observer in the observed objects. But this object is influenced by many other factors that often interfere with the achievement of the goal of observation. The task of the observer is to create such observation conditions under which the influence of extraneous factors on the object is minimally or completely eliminated. The action - the creation of conditions for observation - is an obligatory component in the observation and is carried out after the choice of the object.

In both scientific and educational observation, not one, but several practical actions are almost always performed. And the fulfillment of each of them, the perception of each moment in the course of the observed phenomenon must be carried out in a certain predetermined sequence. Otherwise, there is a danger of errors, missing some important results. Therefore, determining the sequence of performing all practical actions, that is, drawing up an observation plan, is another action in its structure.

As a result of observation, some result should be obtained. The observer must be prepared for its fixation (recording, encoding) in advance, since one or another means of fixing (coding) may be needed. That is, there is a need to perform one more action - the definition of ways to encode information. The use of this or that method of coding depends on the goals and motives of the observation, on the nature of the object, on the conditions, on the material capabilities of the observer.

So, the perception, practical actions of the observer must be preceded by the choice of the method of encoding the information that will be obtained during the observation. And the list of practical actions includes coding information.

The results obtained during the observation need to be processed and analyzed. This is another action. To analyze the results of observation means:

establish the conformity of the result with the goal;
determine the reality, the reliability of the result;
explain the result based on existing knowledge;
evaluate personal satisfaction with the course and result of observation.

The final result (final action) of the observation is the formulation of the conclusion.

We draw attention to the fact that when performing all the actions of observation, we did not rely on any specific observation, specific task. We talked about observation in general. At the same time, we managed to identify a number of actions that do not depend on the subject, task, conditions, etc. The steps listed above are common to all observations.

Thus, observation as a type of educational and cognitive activity of students includes the following actions:

Formulation of the purpose of observation.
Observation motivation.
The choice of the object of observation.
Creation of conditions for observation.
Drawing up an observation plan.
The choice of information encoding method.
Implementation of the observation itself - practical actions; perception; comprehension and awareness; information encoding.
Analysis of the received data and the course of activities.
Formulation of conclusions, their coding.

The list of actions given by us with the specified sequence of their execution is an algorithm, more precisely, an observation structure. Guided by it in the performance of any particular observation, students have OOD. The role of strong points is played by actions (Fig. 23).

Rice. 23. Structure of observation

When conducting a training experiment on the application of the structure of the main types of educational and cognitive activity, we encountered at first the fact that students could not use them in their activities. It took some time for the algorithms to work. This happened only when the students had formed the ability to perform each individual action. Mastering the activity was carried out in accordance with the stages of the formation of generalized skills.

The need to perform the listed actions and their sequence follows from the logic of scientific observation and its connection with educational observation. It can be concluded that it is possible to form the ability to observe only by teaching students to perform each action that is part of the observation algorithm. There are no these individual skills - there is no ability to perform observation as a whole.

An experiment is a type of educational and cognitive activity closely related to observation. In the aspect of our study, we define an experiment as a type of educational and cognitive activity, the subject of which is the essential, leading properties, regular connections and relationships of objects of nature.

Observation is an integral part of the experiment. Under certain conditions it can be difficult to distinguish between observation and experiment. The most important distinguishing features are the following features, given in table. nine.

Table 9

Distinguishing Features of Observation and Experiment

Observation	Experiment
Is part of an experiment	Includes observation.
It is carried out without interference in the studied objects	Involves human intervention in the studied phenomena, objects
Surface connections and relationships, their external manifestations are studied.	Deep, fundamental connections and relationships, their internal characteristics are studied
Often carried out in natural conditions without the possibility of repetition	Assumes the creation special conditions studying the object, making it possible to repeat the experience

An experiment as a type of educational and cognitive activity makes it possible to achieve goals of both cognitive and personal nature.

The works of V.I. Andreeva, M.T. Becker, T.N. Shamalo, V.N. Lange, G.D. Bukharova and other methodologists and didactists.

There is a lot of literature on the experimental methodology in all academic subjects. The manuals discuss the forms of organizing a school experiment, its essence, the ways and means of setting it up, and the conditions for the effective organization of the experimental activities of schoolchildren.

It should be noted that in methodological literature the position of the authors about the need to highlight the actions of this type of activity is common. But there is no single approach to the implementation of this position.

It seems to us that the approach implemented by A.V. Usova and A.A. Bobrov. They show the need to develop in high school students not private, but generalized experimental skills. They, like other researchers, consider the structure of the experiment as a type of educational and cognitive activity to be the basis of this formation and offer their own version of the structure. The same approach underlies our work on the organization and management of this type of activity.

Based on the analysis of pedagogical literature on the problem of educational experiment and taking into account methodological requirements, we have implemented in practice the following version of the experiment algorithm as a type of educational and cognitive activity:

I.Preparatory stage

1. Formulation and justification of the experiment.

2. Motivation of the experiment.

3. Formulation and justification of the hypothesis of the experiment.

4. Finding out the conditions necessary to achieve the goal.

5. Experiment design:

a) what experiments and in what sequence to conduct;

b) what observations to make;

c) what quantities to measure.

6. Choice of the method of coding the information received in the course of the experiment.

7. Determining the necessary devices, materials, tools, establishing their availability and serviceability.

8. Selection of devices, materials and tools for direct use.

II. Stage of direct execution of the experiment

9. Assembly of the installation (electrical circuit), taking into account the conditions of the experiment.

10. Carrying out in the planned sequence:

a) experiences; b) observations; c) measurements.

11. Coding information.

III. Results processing stage

12. Mathematical processing of the results of observations and measurements, obtaining the final result.

13. Analysis of the received data.

14. Formulation and coding of the output.

Thus, the algorithm of the experiment includes the execution of 14 actions in a given sequence (Fig. 24).

Rice. 24. Structure of the experiment

Similarly to the choice of algorithms for observation and experiment as types of educational and cognitive activity, we have defined algorithms for studying educational texts, systematizing knowledge, solving cognitive problems, listening and many other types of educational and cognitive activities.

Algorithm for studying educational texts:

Formulation of the goal of working with a book, text.
Work motivation.
Determination of forms, methods of work that are most appropriate to the goal and motive of the activity.
Forecasting to some extent the results of the work performed.
Highlighting the main provisions, ideas in the text.
Studying every position, ideas according to the plan.
Analysis of the results obtained and the progress of activities.
Formulation of work results.

Thus, the algorithm of activity for the study of educational texts includes eight actions performed in a given sequence (Fig. 25).

Rice. 25. The structure of activities for the study of educational texts

Knowledge systematization algorithm:

Goal formulation.
Activity motivation.
Delimitation of the material to be systematized.
The choice of a way to visualize the material processed in accordance with the goal.
Highlighting the main provisions and ideas in the selected material.
Identification and consideration of the main features of each provision.
Isolation and consideration of connections and relationships between provisions and ideas.
Formulation of the result.

Thus, in order to systematize knowledge, it is necessary to perform all eight actions in the specified sequence (Fig. 26).

Rice. 26. Structure of knowledge systematization

Analysis and experience in implementing algorithms for the main types of educational and cognitive activity allowed us to identify a generalized algorithm for educational and cognitive activity in general:

1- setting the goal of the activity;

2- motivation of activity;

3- choice (delimitation) of the object of activity;

4- determination of the conditions for the effectiveness of activities;

5- activity planning;

6- implementation of the activity plan;

7- processing of results;

8- analysis of the results;

9- formulation of conclusions.

It is these actions that the student has to master in the process of education.

Concluding the presentation of the material on this issue, we can draw the following conclusions:

1) Cognitive activity carried out in educational conditions is an independent type of universal human activity.

2) Educational and cognitive activity is implemented depending on the subject in one form or another.

3) The subject of educational and cognitive activity, the subjects of its types, as well as their structure, have at least two sides:

objective (external, objective);
subjective (internal, reflective).

The subjective side of the subject of activity and the actions corresponding to it are given insufficient attention in the practice of education.

4) We can single out the types of educational and cognitive activity if we indicate its subject. We believe that observation, experiment, study of educational texts, systematization of knowledge, etc. have their own objects and can be called activities.

5) The initial basic mastery of them is most successful in the presence of algorithms, which are a set of actions.

Further, based on the methodological position on the possibility of distinguishing a type of activity only when determining its subject, we aim to consider the essential features of the subject of educational and cognitive activity.

Based on the general understanding of activity, we can assume that its subject is the entire objective reality.

Based on the definition of the concept of educational and cognitive activity, we must narrow and clarify its subject and define it as "educational material". Then, taking into account the main features of educational and cognitive activity, it can be represented in the following form (Fig. 27).

Rice. 27. The structure of the concept of educational and cognitive activity

Educational material (assimilable, transformable and transformative) is the subject of educational and cognitive activity in general. Parts, portions of educational material are subjects of certain types of educational and cognitive activity.

Thus, clarifying the purpose of this paragraph, we form it in the following way - the selection and consideration of the elements of educational material and the links between them. In other words, consideration of the structure of the educational material.

T.V. Gabai, considering the procedure of educational activity, notes the important role of its subject and believes that the subject of this activity includes the subject of learning and the subject of learning. At the same time, “the subject of the activity of teaching is that which, in its content, is related to the knowledge and skills that should be formed in the student” . With all the ambiguity of this definition, we can understand that T.V. Gabay distinguishes at least two components in the product of the doctrine (more precisely, in its content):

the knowledge part of the product;
the skill part of the product.

She further defines the structure of a learning product as "some basic skills and a sum of related knowledge." The final conclusion: “The subject of the activity of the teaching can be represented by certain fragments of knowledge, ... a part of the ability to perform this activity itself; in other cases, it is a complete skill in its composition.

In addition, to the subject of the activity of the doctrine, according to T.V. Gabai, it is necessary to attribute the awareness of its content (as well as the product of activity).

G.P. Shchedrovitsky and others in the content of the teaching by the obligatory “necessary objective law of learning” highlight the requirement for a valuable consideration of the processes of activity and abilities of a person, because it is the abilities that often make it possible to know the subject of activity, the activity itself in a much larger volume than it is offered by the teacher.

In pedagogy, it is generally recognized that the subject of educational (in our understanding - educational and cognitive) activity is a reflection of the content of scientific knowledge. Those. scientific knowledge, being the result of scientific knowledge, with some simplification becomes the subject of educational knowledge. Thus, the peculiarity of educational and cognitive activity is that for the most part it is not objective reality itself that is studied, but the results of its study in a particular science.

Therefore, when defining the structure of educational material as a subject of activity, we must take into account the structure of scientific knowledge.

In addition, the educational material includes the student's personal experience of studying reality, which is based on reflexive processes.

As a result, we have approximately the following structure of educational material (Fig. 28).

Rice. 28. The structure of the educational material

As studies of school practice show, maximum attention is paid to students' mastery of the first component - the result of scientific knowledge, less - to the personal experience of students, subjective sensations are practically not taken into account.

A generalized analysis of various approaches to the definition of the subject of educational and cognitive activity allows us to conclude that the following idea of the subject is generally recognized:

it is identified with the content of education (Yu.K. Babansky, B.T. Likhachev and others);
the result of mastering the subject is knowledge, skills and abilities;
it is possible to single out the objective and subjective sides in it (A.N. Leontiev and others);
the effectiveness of mastering the subject is determined by the unity of the process and results of activity, as well as human abilities (G.P. Shchedrovitsky);
the subject and product of activity are interrelated (T.V. Gabay).

Now it is necessary to determine the specific structural elements of the educational material.

In didactics there is no single approach to the selection of these elements. But the idea that any material (text), regardless of the subject, science, has some common elements, is generally accepted. We consider the most interesting and correct approach of A.V. Mustache to highlight these elements.

As structural elements of the knowledge system A.V. Usova highlights scientific facts, concepts, laws, theories, methods scientific research.

These elements and the connections between them, shown in Fig. 29, form the educational material:

Rice. 29. Structural elements of educational material

Thus, the student, studying the educational material, must master these elements.

A scientific fact in science is understood as a reflection of some event, phenomenon, fragment of reality in the human mind. Examples of scientific facts are the following provisions: “All bodies are composed of particles”, “Bodies have mass”, “Electric current is a directed movement of charged particles”, etc.

Accumulating scientific facts, the student tries to explain them: why is the Moon a satellite of the Earth? Why do the planets revolve around the sun? As a result of observations, experiments, the concept of the gravitational interaction of bodies is formulated. The formulation of definitions of concepts is one of the main tasks of both science and educational and cognitive activity.

A concept is a thought, which is a generalization of objects of a certain class (or phenomena) according to their specific essential features.

Example. The concept of " electricity" means the ordered, directed movement of electrically charged particles. An essential feature by which various phenomena of the movement of electrically charged particles are combined by this concept is the presence of free charge carriers and the direction of their movement. Free electrons can move randomly without creating an electric current. And the directed movement of electrically neutral molecules and atoms also cannot be considered an electric current. Only by the presence of both essential features can one judge the existence of a current.

Thus, in order to formulate a definition of any concept, it is necessary to identify, establish the essential specific features of the objects of study.

The concept of something can be expressed in one word (“table”, “mass”, “engine”), in several words (“electric current”, “gravitational interaction”, “socio-economic formation”, “formation of chlorophyll in the light” ).

Words denoting concepts are called terms.

A.V. Usova in her fundamental works comprehensively considered the methodology and methods of mastering scientific concepts by students:

about the forms of matter;
about phenomena;
about the properties of bodies, substances and fields;
about devices, machines, installations;
about quantities characterizing properties, phenomena, etc.

But concepts by themselves cannot explain the ongoing processes or phenomena. This can be done with the help of other structural elements of the system of scientific knowledge - laws and theories (axioms).

Law is an internal, essential and stable connection of phenomena, processes or objects, which determines their orderly functioning and development. The law reflects stable, recurring connections between phenomena, processes, objects.

A feature of the law is that, in terms of scientific facts, it is expressed through concepts.

There are laws in every science. In the social sciences, this is the law of development and change of socio-economic formations; in physics - Ohm's law, gas laws, laws of dynamics, etc.; in biology - Mendel's law, etc.

Ohm's law, for example, establishes a relationship between current and voltage at the ends of a conductor that has resistance. To answer the question: “Why is this happening?”, it was necessary to create an electronic theory of the structure of matter.

Theory is a system of reliable knowledge about any part of reality that describes, explains and predicts the development of phenomena, processes and objects.

Just like other structural elements of the knowledge system, there are theories in every science. In physics - molecular-kinetic theory, electron theory, quantum theory of light, theory of the structure of the atom and others. Each of them operates with a large number of scientific facts, concepts and laws.

The correctness of each theory, its reliability is confirmed by experiments. With the help of certain methods of scientific research, the collection and accumulation of scientific facts, their classification, analysis, and generalization are carried out. On their basis, new concepts are introduced into science.

The discovery of the law is also carried out using certain methods of cognition. Observation and experiment are one of the most important and widespread methods of scientific research. Therefore, by forming in schoolchildren the ability to independently observe and set up experiments, the teacher prepares them for research activities. The same can be said about the ability to work with a book, about other skills.

At the lessons of chemistry, physics, history, biology and other subjects, the activity of students is aimed at mastering the structural elements of the system of scientific knowledge listed above.

A.V. Usova determined the most effective way for students to master the structural elements of educational material. Its essence is as follows.

Having singled out the structural elements of the knowledge system, it is possible to determine the general requirements for the assimilation of each of them, that is, to determine what you need to know about phenomena, about the forms of matter, quantities, laws, theories, regardless of what field of science they belong to. This will determine the general approach to the assimilation of knowledge.

The requirements for the assimilation of the structural elements of the knowledge system, formulated in a certain sequence, are plans for studying the relevant groups of questions (about a phenomenon, about a law, etc.). They are called generalized plans. They are suitable for studying any phenomena, laws, theories - phenomena, laws, theories in general, regardless of the subject in which they are studied. Each plan makes it possible to organize the educational and cognitive activity of the student in studying educational material.

The selection of structural elements in the educational material gives us the opportunity to clarify the name of some actions in the algorithms of such types of educational and cognitive activities as the activity of studying educational texts and systematizing knowledge. Namely, the actions associated with the selection and consideration of the main provisions of the material can be defined as actions to identify the main structural elements and study them according to a certain plan of a generalized nature.

When organizing the experimental teaching of physics, chemistry, biology and mathematics to children, we faced the problem of realizing the subjective side of the subject of educational and cognitive activity. The essence of this problem was that students, regardless of the class and academic discipline, perceived the educational material offered in the form of structural elements, formally, alienated. According to the students' feedback, according to the conclusions of the teachers of the experimental classes, the study of the material of these academic disciplines as a set of scientific facts, concepts, laws, theories, methods "weighted" the curricula (from the answers to the questionnaire), slowed down the pace of their study, etc.

To overcome this alienation, we were helped by the organization of the work of students in visual representation of the structure of educational material to students with the help of graph diagrams, tables, graphs, crossword puzzles, drawings, etc. The students' assessment of their activity in studying the material changed to a positive one: "Very useful and interesting for work" (63% of respondents).

When organizing the work of students on a visual representation of the structural elements of the educational material and the connections between them, we were guided by the following theoretical and practical provisions:

1) The cognitive value of classification when filling out tables lies in the fact that in this case, common distinguishing features of elements are distinguished, significant relationships between them are established and considered. This makes it possible to more fully study each structural element of the knowledge system.

2) The main thing that the tables give is that when they are filled in, there is a comparison of certain structural elements and their visual comparison. When constructing tables, it is important to clearly define the features by which the structural elements of the educational material are compared, and to choose the appropriate form.

3) Classification is of the greatest importance in the study of scientific facts and concepts due to their large number.

4) The greatest difficulty in constructing graphs is the selection of structural elements (vertices) and the connections between them (edges).

5) The top of the graph can be any structural element of the educational material.

6) We chose the following criteria for highlighting links between elements:

the presence of cause-and-effect relationships between elements;
the presence of a connection between the main, so-called generic concept and its derivatives;
the presence of coinciding words, scientific terms that are either the subject of study in this text, or important for understanding the entire text;
relationship between elements, one of which is part of the other.

7) Graphs in the systematization of knowledge due to the abundance of elements are cumbersome. To simplify them, it is necessary to take into account only the main structural elements that are important for understanding the entire course.

8) To develop the ability to build graph diagrams, students can be recommended to perform exercises such as:

Highlighting structural elements in small texts;
Drawing up graph-schemes of formulas, unambiguous provisions, conclusions;
Compilation of graph-schemes of a simple text containing several provisions.

After these exercises are mastered, you can proceed to compiling graph diagrams of complex unfamiliar texts.

Having organized the work on the visual presentation of educational material in various ways, we thereby turned a complex, unattractive activity into intellectual game(“Who will present the image of the studied material faster, more correctly, more fully and more beautifully”). There is an emotional coloring of activity of a positive orientation, impersonality and denial disappear. Thus, the personal component of the subject of educational and cognitive activity is enhanced.

An extremely important issue in solving the problem of education - the mastery of educational and cognitive activity by students, is the question of the levels of organization of personality-oriented educational and cognitive activity.

In this regard, we are faced with the task, based on the methodological position on the unity of activity and development, on the basis of certain criteria and indicators, to determine the levels of organization of educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren, as well as to formulate patterns and principles for transferring activity from a low level to a higher one.

In general, this goal can be defined as follows - the study of the process of personality development in the main activity.

There is no generally accepted approach to solving this problem either in psychology or in pedagogy.

The most common approach to identifying the levels of educational and cognitive activity is based on determining its nature, the degree of independence of students (Yu.K. Babansky, I.Ya. Lerner, G.I. Shchukina, etc.). Levels stand out:

1 - reproductive;

2 - explanatory and illustrative;

3 - problematic;

4 - partial search;

5 - search.

An undisputed approach to the allocation of levels of intellectual activity was proposed by D.B. Epiphany:

1 - reproductive;

2 - heuristic;

3 - creative.

Based on these levels, V.P. Panyushkin identifies implementation levels pedagogical activity(impact - interaction - co-development) and levels of "Self-regulation of interconnected educational activities" (monologic - interactive - dialogic).

In this case, it seems to us useful to distinguish levels in educational and cognitive activity:

1 - the impact of the subject (student) on the object (training material);

2 - interaction of subject and object;

3 - co-development (changing learning material ensures the development of the individual; a developing student is capable of mastering more and more complex material).

In this case, the sign in the basis of the allocation of levels is the nature of the relationship between the subject and the object of activity.

Let us consider other approaches to identifying levels and development criteria.

An interesting option was proposed by V.P. Bespalko.

Based on the teachings of psychologists about the stages of assimilation of educational material by schoolchildren, he identifies the levels of mastery of activities:

Level 1 - recognition of objects of knowledge during the re-perception of previously studied material and the performance of actions with them;

Level 2 - reproductive action through independent reproduction of previously performed actions;

Level 3 - a productive action to acquire new knowledge by acting according to the model;

Level 4 - a creative action aimed at independently obtaining new knowledge.

A.V. Usova, considering the problem of the levels of formation of cognitive skills in students, identifies the following system of criteria by which these levels are determined:

composition and quality of operations;
their awareness;
their fullness and curtailment;
degree of difficulty;
rational sequence of their execution.

And it determines the levels of formation of cognitive skills in students:

I (lower) - students perform only individual operations (chaotically, unconsciously);

II (medium) - all the required operations are performed, but their sequence is not well thought out, the actions are poorly understood;

III (highest) - all operations and actions are consciously performed in a rational sequence.

ON THE. Polovnikova in the development of cognitive independence identifies levels:

copying;
reproducing creative;
constructive and creative.

AT psychological research much attention is paid to the problem of identifying the levels of development of personality thinking. The generally accepted approach is that thinking is defined as the activity of visual-effective, visual-figurative, verbal (or formally) - logical levels. Moreover, at the basis of the allocation of levels is the degree of presence in thinking of actions and operations of the activity of the external plan.

The problem of identifying levels of activity is quite relevant in historical terms. A classic example of this is the teaching of I. Herbart.

Stage I - the introduction of new material ("clarity");

Stage II - establishing a connection between the new and the already known (“association”);

Stage III - generalization and formulation of conclusions ("system");

Stage IV - practical application of knowledge ("method").

V.V. Belich, when distinguishing levels and types of mental activity, uses the following system of characteristics:

content (empirical or rational);
structure (eclecticism or theory);
depth (episodic or dialectical);
completeness (abstract or concrete);
accuracy (qualitative or quantitative);
generalization (ordinary or philosophical);
deployment (expanded or folded);
development (fragile or strong to automatism);
logic (inductive or deductive).

We see no obstacles in the application of these characteristics to determine the level of development of educational and cognitive activity. However, practice forced us to look for a slightly different system of characteristics.

We formulated the practical aspect of the problem as follows: what qualities, properties, that is, characteristics of the educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren, should be established using certain methods to assess the level of mastery of it. And the second point is what parameters exist for evaluating these characteristics. The first side of the problem can be expressed by the question:

“If the student has mastered the activity, then by what signs can one judge this?”

Finding an answer to this question means establishing characteristics.

To determine the system of characteristics, we suggest recalling the definition of educational and cognitive activity (see Fig. 19). That is, we must remember that educational and cognitive activity is aimed at mastering the educational material. There are no skills (educational-cognitive) only for the sake of the activity itself; all of them are necessary for the successful mastering of educational material in all its diversity and complexity. Therefore, we can distinguish interrelated groups of characteristics:

Group 1 - characteristics of skills (educational and cognitive);

group 2 - characteristics of acquired knowledge;

Group 3 - characteristics of subjective sensations.

There are two more points to be noted. First, there are quite a lot of characteristics, and pedagogy has not yet formed a complete system of them; the second - part of the characteristics is common to both groups, at least - by name.

As the main characteristics of educational and cognitive skills, we adopted those formulated in the pedagogical literature:

Completeness - a characteristic that determines the mastery by students of the actions that are part of this type of educational and cognitive activity; the completeness of educational and cognitive skills is the higher, the more actions can be performed by the student.
Awareness, that is, how consciously the student performs the activity; how much he realizes the goal, the motive of the activity, thinks over the sequence of actions, analytically approaches the result of his activity, how skillfully controls its course.
Curtailment and automatism of performance of activity. In the process of more and more complete mastery of activity, there is no need to perform individual (objective) actions. They are carried out internally as if automatically.
Speed characterizes the speed of the students' fulfillment of the entire task for this type of educational and cognitive activity.
Generalization, that is, to what extent a student can transfer this skill to other types of educational and cognitive activities, to other subjects, tasks.
Durability, that is, how long this skill is retained by the student.

Unfortunately, there is no unified, generally recognized, sufficiently developed system of characteristics in pedagogy.

The same can be said about the second group of characteristics - the characteristics of assimilation of the structural elements of the material. The most complete system of characteristics was proposed by A.V. Usova for concepts as a structural element of the system of scientific knowledge.

The main characteristics of the concept as a logical category, in her opinion, are:

The content of a concept as a set of all essential features of objects, processes or phenomena denoted by this concept.
The scope of a concept is the number of objects covered by a given concept.
Connections and relations of this concept with others. Thus, the process of assimilation of a concept is the student's mastery of the content and scope of the concept, as well as the assimilation of the connections and the relationship of the given concept being studied with others.

As characteristics of subjective sensations (reflection), we chose the recommended and well-studied:

cognitive interests;
learning goals;
emotions: personal anxiety and emotional stability;
need for achievement and communication;
abilities: intellectual and sociability.

In doing so, we proceeded from the following proposals:

the presence in psychology of sufficiently important methods for studying these characteristics;
these characteristics make it possible to fairly confidently judge other subjective characteristics (relevance, thoroughness, confidence, etc.).

The second problem, in our opinion, can be expressed by the following question: “The student masters the UPD gradually, moving from one level to another. Do the features stay the same or do they change in some way? If they change, then how, by what points can this be established? For example, a student, mastering an activity, gets the opportunity to perform it faster. How can we judge this fact? Or what can be used as the basis for determining the degree of awareness of the performance of an activity? Etc.

That is, a certain measure is needed, an indicator of speed, awareness, completeness, etc. The easiest way to find a measure of speed is to measure the time spent on performing an activity. Finding a measure of other characteristics is much more difficult.

As has been said more than once, this problem has not yet been solved in pedagogy either. The most significant results were obtained, in our opinion, by A.V. Usovoi, V.P. Bespalko, in works on the methodology of scientific and pedagogical research (N.V. Kuzmina, L.V. Zankov, V.I. Zagvyazinsky, Yu.K. Babansky, etc.). We, without claiming to solve this problem, will present the option we have chosen.

As the main measures of the characteristics of mastering the activity of A.V. Usov and V.P. Bespalko propose to introduce:

action (operation), which is part of the activity;
test operation (question, test task);
leading features of the concept (as well as features of other structural elements of the educational material) to be mastered.

For example, the quality of mastering an activity can be judged by the number of successfully performed actions; about the quality of assimilation of the concept - by the number of correctly assimilated signs; about the formation of interest - according to its unambiguous (1-2 subjects) certainty; about the level of intelligence - in terms of the quantity and quality of successfully solved logical problems, etc. These will be absolute estimates. In pedagogy, the most important are relative assessments, that is, assessments that show the mastery of the activity by a given student relative to other students in the class, relative to specialists, relative to himself in the process of development.

These measures are called parameters. It must be borne in mind that each parameter can have a certain coefficient. We will deal with this issue in detail in the third chapter.

Thus, a set of characteristics and parameters makes it possible to determine the level of mastery of educational and cognitive activity by students and the level of personality development associated with it. Summarizing various approaches to the allocation of activity levels, we come to the conclusion that the most accurate and justified approach is:

I level - reproductive (reproducing);

II level - heuristic (reproducing creative);

III level - creative.

The essence of educational and cognitive activity at each level is as follows:

Reproductive - activity according to the model, according to the algorithm;
Heuristic - activity according to an independently chosen version of the algorithm, the most appropriate task and conditions;
Creative - independent planning and free performance of activities.

The problem that every teacher, every researcher faces is how to ensure the transition of the student's activity from a low level of development to a higher one?

It is generally recognized that this process is subject to certain laws and the requirements arising from them. However, there is no single approach to distinguishing them in psychology, pedagogy and private methods.

In his dissertation research, monograph, and other works, B.I. Korotyaev formulates and implements the main condition for schoolchildren to master the methods of educational and cognitive activity - the unity of reproduction and creativity. Probably, it is necessary to agree with this statement.

Many other researchers also point to the need to fulfill the law of the unity of reproduction and creativity. V.Ya. Laudis writes: “The study of the developmental possibilities of the SPD situation (joint productive activity) showed that it is psychologically the most effective for the development of all cognitive activity and the most justified from the point of view of more high level motivation, interest and, consequently, less arbitrariness of efforts - greater ease of learning and education - is such an organization of the system of educational tasks (both on the scale of a single lesson, and in the system of educational work of the entire school), in which productive and creative tasks come to the fore , and tasks are reproductive, simple formal-logical ones, which do not occupy the leading and first places, but are solved in the context of productive and creative tasks. Thus, it is saved for each cycle of classes high role meanings and goals that are introduced by the specified tasks, and the development of the operational and technical aspects of the generated activity becomes meaningful and internally motivated.

Another approach to identifying the laws of development of educational and cognitive activity is to recognize the natural nature of the relationship between a teacher and a student, as well as a student and another student in this activity. This is the basis for the concept of joint productive activity (V.Ya. Lyaudis, V.S. Shvyrev, V.P. Panyushkin, etc.).

Systems of regularities of the learning process are contained in any textbook. For example, the system of regularities and principles identified by Yu.K. Babansky. In table. 10 shows the result of the generalization of these systems.

From the formulations of regularities and principles of education given in the table, it can be seen that in order to ensure the effectiveness of education, it is necessary to ensure the active educational and cognitive activity of schoolchildren.

B.I. Korotyaev believes that it is possible to develop the cognitive activity of students, transfer it from one level to another, qualitatively new, only when qualitatively new methods are formed that correspond to a new level of activity.

Thus, the development of educational and cognitive activity is the process of transferring it from a lower level to another, higher one. Moreover, each level is characterized by its own system of methods of educational and cognitive activity.

Thus, the connection between the level of activity and the methods of this activity is another regularity.

Analyzing the organization process independent work schoolchildren, A.V. Usova offers her system of principles (349).

Summarizing the existing approaches to the identification of patterns and principles of organization of educational and cognitive activity of students, we came to the conclusion that none of them, not a single system contradicts the concept we are considering.

At the same time, the analysis of the problem and the organization of the experimental work forced us to determine more precisely the basic regularities and principles of organization of the system of educational and cognitive activity of students. Their presentation was carried out by us within the framework of a holistic concept.

Table 10

System of patterns and principles of learning

Patterns of learning

Learning principles

The learning process is determined by the needs of society.

The effectiveness of teaching is determined by the nature of the motives for teaching schoolchildren.

Methods and means of organization, stimulation and control are interconnected and depend on the tasks and content of training.

Feedback in training is determined by the level of organization of control and adjustment.

The interconnection of the components of training, under the necessary conditions, provides lasting, conscious and actionable results.

The principle of linking learning with life, with practice.

The principle of taking into account the interests and needs of schoolchildren in education.

The principles of scientific, systematic, consistent, accessible.

The principles of visibility, consciousness and activity of students, the combination of various methods and teaching aids.

The principle of objectivity, a combination of control, self-control and mutual control.

The principle of strength, awareness and effectiveness of learning outcomes

The structure of the learning process has always attracted the attention of psychologists and didacticists. Different psychological schools, in accordance with their views, differently represented the content and essence of the doctrine. The main psychological theories that considered the problem of learning include: behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, cognitivism, activity theory and humanistic psychology.

Behaviorists (D. Watson, E. Thorndike) believe that learning (learning) is the acquisition of new forms of behavior by the body. "The formula" situation response "expresses any process of learning" so formulated the initial position of behaviorism E. Thorndike. (Thorndike E. The process of learning in humans. M., 1935. P. 16.). Later this theory was intensively developed by B.F. Skinner, who put forward the concept of operational learning (from operation). The essence of this concept is that the body acquires new reactions due to the fact that it itself reinforces them, and only after that the external stimulus causes a reaction.

The most important position of behaviorism in substantiating the theory of learning is the structure of the stimulus response reinforcement. The individual is a passive element. He only reacts to external influences, to external stimuli. The activity of the student in this case is reduced to the mechanical performance of specific operations.

A different position in the interpretation of the essence of the doctrine is called those staltpsychologists. According to their concept (see the works of M. Wertheimer, W. Koehler, K. Kaffka, L. Levin), the student's activity in learning is reduced to the role of a stimulator of internal changes in integral structures and motivations based on discretion, comprehension, insight (insight).

Representatives of cognitivism, in particular J.S. Bruner, consider learning as a process of creating a student's own "cultural experience", which has a social character and is conditioned by the cultural and historical context. According to another representative of the same trend, the Swiss psychologist J. Piaget, the student in the learning process masters structured information, performs formal logical operations. Its activity is completely determined by the age stages of mental and cognitive development: from sensory and doope

rational stages (preschool age) through stage concrete operations (younger school age) before stages formalistic operations (fifteen years old age).

The activity theory (A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinshtein) has played and is playing a special role in substantiating the theory of learning. According to this theory of learning in the process, learning performs specific, formal logical and creative operations provided for by a programmed and completely socially determined activity. At the same time, the student has a high degree of comprehension of the teaching.

Against the background of the presented concepts of teaching, the ideas of representatives of humanistic psychology (K.R. Rogers, A.H. Maslow) are of particular importance in revealing the essence of learning as an activity. Teaching in their understanding is a self-governed structuring of personal experience for the purpose of self-development and self-organization of the individual. They perceive and interpret learning as an independent activity of the student, recognize the leading role in the learning process, justify the need for the student to use personal experience in solving educational and creative problems and preserve his freedom to choose forms of activity.

performed by him to achieve the intended result of the activity prompted by one or another motive.

The structure of educational activity in terms of its composition should include content, operational and motivational components. In the procedural structure of educational activity, as an activity for solving educational problems, the following interrelated components can be distinguished that determine the sequence of activities: task analysis; acceptance of a learning task; actualization of the existing knowledge necessary for its solution; drawing up a plan for solving the problem; its practical implementation; decision control and evaluation

problem solving, awareness of the methods of activity that take place in the process of solving a learning problem.

The use of general actions in teaching is a characteristic feature of the fundamentalization of content, due to the fact that in teaching, along with the process

assimilation, a purposeful process of constructing new knowledge must constantly function. The constructive activity of the student begins where he enters into a specific interaction with its elements of knowledge about objects and phenomena of the external world as means of cognition. These interactions are included in the content of search cognitive activity with a wide use of intuition and are associated with the development of cognitive interest and knowledge needs. The most effective search activity is carried out when knowledge invariants act as means of educational knowledge - fundamental (theoretical) scientific provisions that underlie all variants of activity.

In the general case, the problem is not so simple, and without pretending to analyze it comprehensively, let us consider some approaches to its solution that exist in theory. It is known that these three forms of activity exist objectively as forms of social, scientific, labor activity (production, science, culture, etc.), which perform certain specific functions both in society as a whole and in education, exerting their influence on all aspects of the educational process. This influence can be realized directly, in the form of requirements for the quality of practical training of students in writing, counting, mathematical calculations, etc., and also indirectly, through the content of academic disciplines and forms of education. Public forms of activity affect the educational process collectively, in interconnection with each other. So, in lectures, scientific positions are usually illustrated contemporary examples from life, technology, and manufactured

processes are described with the involvement of the theoretical apparatus of the subjects studied.

Simultaneously with the process of the systematic use of speech as a means of communication between people, there were other processes associated with the development of production: the accumulation of experience in creative transformative activity, the expansion of the sphere of material production and social needs, the identification of the characteristics of the labor process, the properties of various material objects and their relationships in time and in space, establishing causal relationships between phenomena. The generalization of this experience and its transfer to the younger generation required new, adequate goals and means. Therefore, in the process of development and systematic use of speech structures, analytic-synthetic methods of theoretical activity gradually mature, and mental actions are formed. Thus, mental activity is initially generated by verbal activity, and only later, at a certain stage of its development, does it "bud off" from speech, becomes a relatively independent activity, retaining, like speech, its main property of reflecting reality, but in a qualitatively new, scientific level.

The briefly considered phylogenetic development of forms of activity is important in the analysis of the ontogene

This is the essence, the general characteristic of the structure of the Teaching - the basic concept of the education system as an integral pedagogical process. Having opened it, you can already begin to consider the technology itself

the teacher's ability to ensure and organize the activities of students in various types of education.

Pedagogy. Textbook for students of pedagogical universities and pedagogical colleges / Ed. P.I. piddly. - M: Pedagogical Society of Russia, 1998. - 640 p.