Age features of higher nervous activity presentation. Features of the higher nervous activity of man. Classification of unconditioned reflexes according to I.P. Pavlov

Compiled by Nemirovich N.N. biology teacher, MBOU "Secondary School No. 6", Sergiev Posad

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• First and second signal system
• Formation of a dynamic stereotype
• Consciousness as a specific property of a person.
• Features of unconscious subconscious processes.

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Target

• Using knowledge of the social factors of human evolution, explain the causes of the emergence of consciousness as an exceptional property of man.

• Develop knowledge of higher nervous activity based on consideration of the characteristics of human GNI.
• Develop the ability to compare.

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• Consciousness is the result of the action of social factors of human evolution.
• Consciousness is the highest stage of development of the psyche, peculiar only to man.

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Social factors of anthropogenesis

• Collective labor activity
• Communication - Speech
• Consciousness

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First signal system

• Sensation - effect on the receptor
• Perception is the basis of ideas
• Image

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"Reflexes of the Brain" 1863

Mental (“mental”) human activity is explained by the reflex principle of the nervous system

Sechenov I. M. 1829-1905

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Principles of the reflex theory

• Principle of Causality: Nervous phenomena do not occur without a cause
• The principle of structurality: the functions occurring in the brain correspond to its material carrier - an element of the nervous system
• The principle of the unity of analysis and synthesis: the work of the brain is based on analysis and synthesis. The body extracts useful information, processes it and forms response actions.

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Sechenov said:

That the reflexes of the brain include three links:

• Excitation in the senses
• Processes of excitation and inhibition in the brain
• Human movements and actions, i.e. behavior

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Pavlov I. P. - the founder of the physiology of behavior.

Pavlov I. P. 1849-1936

• Opened a second signaling system
• Behavior is a combination of conditional and unconditioned reflexes
• Created the doctrine of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes

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The formation of conditioned reflexes.

• Reaction to external influences (noise) - unconditioned reflex - conditioned reflex (indicative).
• A conditioned reflex is a temporary connection for the duration of the conditions.
• The conditioned reflex is the basis of teaching and education.

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imprinting

Link between innate and acquired behaviors

Meaning:

• Remembering parents;
• Adopt behavioral skills;
• Formation of a person's personality;

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Second signal system:

• Words are the second signals - signals of signals.
• Words are formed in the process of communication
• Word - thinking - knowledge.

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dynamic stereotype

• Combining several conditioned reflexes into a dynamic chain.
• The basis of reading and writing, habits, acquiring the skills of walking, swimming, running.
• The basis of human behavior
• Prevents overcoming bad habits.

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Consciousness is the highest level of development of the psyche.

Conscious activity:

• Makes a plan.
• Considers how to carry out the plan.
• Relies on the experience of other people (or advises).
• Achieves the set goal.

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Processes of consciousness

• In man
• Memory.
• Imagination
• Thinking
• Animals
• Reasoning activity
• Concrete thinking

Description of the presentation on individual slides:

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Features of the higher nervous activity of man. The teachings of I.P. Pavlova about signaling systems Developed by the teacher of the 1st category Kisilishina A.V.

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Creation of the doctrine of higher nervous activity Higher nervous activity (HNA) is a set of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes, as well as mental functions that provide adequate behavior in changing natural and social conditions. The founder of the doctrine of GNA is I.M. Sechenov, who believed that all human mental activity is based on reflexes. I.P. Pavlov experimentally confirmed the validity of the views of I.M. Sechenov and developed a method for objective assessment of the functions of the higher parts of the brain - the method of conditioned reflexes I.P. Pavlov experimentally confirmed the validity of the views of I.M. Sechenov and created the doctrine of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. For the first it is characteristic: these are congenital reflexes, are inherited (swallowing, salivation, breathing); are specific, characteristic of all individuals of a given species; have constant reflex arcs; relatively constant; carried out in response to a certain irritation; reflex arcs close in the spinal cord or subcortical nodes of the brain. An example of an unconditioned reflex is salivation in a dog with a salivary gland fistula. When food enters the oral cavity, the receptors of the tongue are excited, through the processes of sensory neurons, the excitation is transmitted to the medulla oblongata, where the salivary center is located, then the excitation is transmitted through the motor neurons to the salivary gland and salivation begins. Unconditioned reflexes include food, respiratory, defensive, sexual, orienting reflexes. A certain sequence of unconditioned reflexes that determines some forms of behavior is called instinct. An example of instinctive activity is the construction of a trapping net by a cross-spider, a dam by beavers. Conditioned reflexes are characterized by: acquired by the body during life; individual, formed on the basis of personal life experience; do not have ready-made reflex arcs, arcs are formed under certain conditions; fickle, may disappear (slow down); are formed on the basis of innate reflexes in response to any irritation; carried out by the activity of the cerebral cortex. The formation of a conditioned reflex occurs when an indifferent stimulus is combined in time with an unconditioned one. The indifferent stimulus must precede the unconditioned one. Then it becomes conditional. For the formation of a strong temporary connection, it is necessary to repeatedly reinforce the conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned one. The action of an indifferent stimulus leads to the appearance of excitation in the nerve center of the cortex, then excitation occurs in another nerve center under the action of an unconditioned stimulus, and a temporary connection arises between them. With repeated combinations, this connection becomes stronger, a conditioned reflex to a given stimulus is developed. An example is the secretion of saliva in response to the type of food, its smell, at the time of feeding, to any conditioned food stimulus. In the cerebral cortex, along with the processes of excitation, processes of inhibition also take place. There are two types of braking - external and internal. external braking. Occurs as a result of the action of a new stimulus. A new focus of excitation inhibits the existing focus. It is characteristic not only for the cortex, but also for the lower parts of the central nervous system, therefore the second name is unconditioned inhibition. For example, extraneous noise inhibits salivation in a dog. Internal inhibition develops only in the cortex. Hence the second name - conditional inhibition. An indispensable condition is the non-reinforcement of the conditioned stimulus by the unconditioned one. If the reflex to light developed in the dog is not reinforced with food, then the reflex weakens and disappears. In nature, unreinforced conditioned reflexes are inhibited and new ones are formed. For example, the drying up of a reservoir from which animals drank will lead to the fact that they will stop coming to it and will find a new reservoir. There will be inhibition of some conditioned reflexes and the formation of new ones. Another type of internal inhibition is differentiation. If one stimulus is reinforced, and the one close to it is not reinforced, then a conditioned reflex reaction will occur only to the reinforced stimulus. For example, by the nature of the conditional knock on the door, you can determine who came - your own or others. Higher nervous activity is inherent in both man and animals. In animals, the higher nervous activity depends on the complexity of the nervous system, the more complex it is, the less role play the instincts, the greater the role played by learning. For example, the offspring of the cross-spider appears in the spring, when the parents have already died, but young spiders are able to build a trapping web, their behavior is quite hard-coded. And human children raised by animals will never become full-fledged people due to the lack of proper education. Unlike animals, the human cortex has a greater ability to perceive patterns in the surrounding world. And the main difference between the higher nervous activity of people is associated with the presence of speech - the second signal system according to I.P. Pavlov. The first signaling system delivers information directly through the senses, the second signaling system is associated with the perception of words heard during pronunciation or visible during reading. With the development of the second signaling system, it became possible to store and transmit information to the next generations, there was a basis for the development abstract thinking, consciousness. “The word,” wrote I.P. Pavlov, “made us people.”

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GNI of humans and animals The basis of GNI is conditioned reflexes that arise in the course of the life of an organism. The patterns of conditioned reflex activity established for animals are also characteristic of humans. Unlike animals, a person is able to: perceive the meaning of a word, perceive the properties of objects, phenomena, perceive human experiences, think generally, communicate with each other using speech. Irritants for the formation of conditioned reflexes in a person are not only environmental factors (heat, cold, light, smell), but also words denoting a particular object, phenomenon

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high development rational activity (thinking) The dependence of the level of thinking on the level of development of the nervous system, which is the most developed in humans Awareness of the internal processes of life (consciousness) Conscious reflection of reality that regulates the purposeful systematic activity of a person not just as an organism, but as a subject of socio-historical activity Features of human GNI

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The teachings of I.P. Pavlova about signaling systems In the study of GNI I.P. Pavlov identified two signaling systems. The first signaling system (according to his teaching) receives stimuli caused by the direct action of "external agents" - objects or phenomena on our senses. With the help of the first signaling system, we see, hear, touch, smell. The word, speech, according to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, constituted the second, specific only for a person, signal system. “The word,” wrote I.P. Pavlov, “made us people”

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I.P. Pavlov believed that the cerebral cortex can be represented as a collection of centers of various analyzers. It is believed that the center consists of a nucleus, which has a certain localization in the cortex, between which there are scattered elements belonging to different analyzers. This allows us to speak about the dynamic localization of functions in the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres. At the same time, the functions of the cortical fields are associated with the opposite half of the human body, because. all the paths connecting them necessarily cross. IP Pavlov divided all analyzer centers into two signal systems.

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He referred to the FIRST SIGNAL SYSTEM (SI) those centers that perceive signals from the external or internal environment in the form of sensations, impressions, ideas (with the exception of speech and words). These centers are present in both animals and humans. They are located in both hemispheres, given from birth and are not restored when destroyed. These include (drawings): 1, 2, 3 - cores of general sensitivity (temperature, pain, tactile and proprioceptive). 4, 6 - the core of the motor analyzer. It has developed cells of the 5th layer of the cortex, which innervate the muscles of the opposite half of the body. The muscles of the body are projected onto the anterior central gyrus (motor field) and the near-central lobule, as it were, upside down (motor homunculus). 8 - premotor field.

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46 - combined turn of the head and eyes. This nucleus receives impulses from the receptors of the muscles of the eyeball and from representation in the cortex of the retina (from field 17). 5, 7 - stereognosia. The receptors of the upper limb are projected into this center to recognize objects by touch. 40 - praxia. The implementation of all complex combined movements acquired as a result of practical activities, mainly professional. 41, 42, 52 - the core of the auditory analyzer (on the convolutions of Heschl), fibers from the left and right ear approach its cells, therefore, a unilateral lesion of the core does not lead to complete hearing loss: 41 - the primary field, it perceives impulses, 42 - the psychological field , auditory memory, 52 - evaluation field, with its help we navigate in space. 17, 18, 19 - the core of the visual analyzer, fibers from the lateral side of the retina of the eye of its half of the body, as well as from the medial retina of the eye of the opposite half of the body, approach its cells. Therefore, complete cortical blindness occurs when the centers of both hemispheres are affected: 17 - primary field, 18 - psychological, 19 - evaluative. A, E, 11 - the core of the olfactory analyzer, located in the most ancient structures of the cerebral cortex (in the hook and hippocampus) 43 - the core of the taste analyzer. As V. M. Bekhterev noted, this analyzer is closely interconnected with the olfactory fields of both hemispheres.

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SECOND SIGNALING SYSTEM (SII) is available only in humans. It is due to the development of speech and, as I. P. Pavlov believed, is "signals of signals." They represent a distraction from reality, allow the generalization of information and form the basis of higher thinking. Speech and mental functions are performed with the participation of the entire cortex. However, certain fields can be distinguished, which have strictly defined speech functions. Speech centers develop after birth, usually in the left hemisphere (there are exceptions for left-handers). If they are lost, a person can again develop speech centers, but in this case other fields will take over their function.

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44 - the core of the motor analyzer of written speech, innervates the thin muscles of the hand and fingers. For left-handers, this center is located in the right hemisphere. With the destruction of this center, there is a loss of the ability to write - agrophy. 45 - the core of the motor analyzer of oral speech (Brock). Innervates the muscles of the larynx, tongue, lips, and others involved in articulation. Motor aphasia is the loss of the ability to pronounce words. 47 - speech analyzer of singing, allows you to pronounce words in a singsong voice Used to restore speech in children with stuttering. Amusia is the loss of the ability to sing. 22 - the core of the sensitive analyzer of auditory speech (Wernicke), we perceive and distinguish speech by ear, its destruction is sensory aphasia. The patient continues to speak fluently, but does not understand the meaninglessness of what was said. 39 - the core of a sensitive analyzer of visual speech, we perceive and distinguish letters and symbols on paper with the help of the organs of vision. The loss of this ability is sensory alexia. In the right hemisphere 39 the field is connected with orientation in space. "Free", "unoccupied" by the centers of the analyzers of the field of the cortex, are located mainly in the region of the frontal pole, as well as between the temporal and occipital lobes. They belong to the associative zone. This zone is important for creative and critical thinking, for programming one's actions, for comparing the result with the program, etc. In other animals, these fields are poorly developed.

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TWO SIGNAL SYSTEMS OF REALITY The first signal system of reality, common to both humans and animals: it deals with specific images of the external world; this is the system of our direct sensations, perceptions, impressions from specific objects and phenomena of the surrounding world; into signals of various types of body activity is the physiological basis of specific (objective) thinking and sensations

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TWO SIGNAL SYSTEMS OF REALITY The second signal system of reality is developed only in humans: this word is audible, visible (written) and pronounced, which gives a name to an object and contains a generalization; this is a communicative function of the human brain and a function of reflecting objective patterns; it arose on the basis of the first signal system is the basis of abstract (abstract) thinking is the highest regulator of human behavior

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Language and speech Language is a means of expressing thought and a form of existence of thought. Language consolidates the results of the work of thinking in sentences, makes it possible to exchange thoughts. One and the same phenomenon, an object in different languages ​​is indicated by words that have different sounds and spellings, abstract concepts are created from these verbal (verbal) signals.

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Language and Speech A good word can increase one's working capacity and contribute to a good mood. A word carelessly uttered in the presence of a patient can significantly worsen his condition. Speech makes it possible to create scientific concepts, formulate laws. Speech can participate in the regulation of the activity of various organs with the help of the word. Verbal stimuli are physiologically active factors, they change the functions of internal organs, the intensity of metabolic processes, affect the muscular and sensory systems.

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Speech perception occurs with the help of speech-motor and speech-auditory analyzers (Wernicke's center). Physiological bases of speech. The functions of the motor, auditory, visual analyzers and frontal parts of the brain ensure the activity of the second signaling system. Speech regulation is associated with the starting and regulatory role of the cortex, which receives afferent impulses from the receptors of the muscles, tendons and ligaments of the vocal apparatus and respiratory muscles. The cortical nucleus of the speech-motor analyzer is located in the region of the second and third frontal gyri - Broca's speech-motor center.

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The first level is the unconscious, its basis is unconditioned reflexes The second level is the subconscious, its basis is the first signal system The third level is conscious, its basis is the second signal system Levels of the human GNI mechanism Word (speech) functions: analytical; signaling about a particular subject, the word distinguishes it from a group of others synthetic; the word as an irritant has a generalizing meaning for a person

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The mechanism of generalization is inherent in a person in the properties of the word as a signal of signals. The word in this quality is formed due to its participation and the formation of a large number of temporary connections. Generalization and abstraction are based on two principles: the formation of a system in the cerebral cortex; gradual reduction of the signal image. Generalization mechanism, explains the formation of new concepts. In this case, the transformation of words into integrators of various levels should be regarded as the development of broader concepts in schoolchildren. Such changes lead to the construction of an increasingly complex system and to a wider development of the scope of integration. The extinction of the conditional links included in this system narrows the scope of integration and makes it difficult to form new concepts. It follows that the formation of concepts in the physiological sense has a reflex nature, i.e. its basis is the formation of temporary connections to a speech conditioned signal with adequate unconditional reflex reinforcement. Physiological mechanism of generalization

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A.S. Makarenko, influencing the word (through the second signaling system) and reinforcing the action (through the first signaling system), normalized the behavior even in very "difficult" children. A.S. Makarenko proved that the interaction of signal systems contributes to: the formation of cognitive, labor, play activities the development of moral education violation of the manifestations of the second signal system. The first signaling system gets out of control of the second signaling system: children quickly develop behavioral breakdowns, resentment, tearfulness, and aggressiveness appear. Elimination of broken relationships between systems Breaking relationships between systems

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The second signaling system is more easily subjected to fatigue and inhibition. Therefore, in the primary grades, classes should be structured so that lessons that require the predominant activity of the second signaling system (for example, mathematics) alternate with lessons in which the activity of the first signaling system would prevail (for example, natural science). Interaction of signaling systems In a younger child school age in connection with the insufficient development of the second signal system, visual thinking predominates, and therefore his memory has a predominantly visual-figurative character. In the school methodological practice of elementary grades, subject visibility acts both as an object of study and as a source of knowledge acquired by students in the learning process.

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Interaction of signaling systems The "living word" of the teacher is already a means of visualization. Objective visualization in the educational process acts both as an object of study and as a source of knowledge acquired by students in the learning process. The visibility of learning is a means of organizing a variety of student activities and is used by the teacher to ensure that learning is the most effective, accessible and contributes to the development of children. The joint action of words and visual aids contributes to the emergence of students' attention, maintains their interest in the issue under study. Interaction between verbal explanation and visualization

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Interaction of signal systems Interaction between the concrete and the abstract The word is a conditional signal for the student's activity, and visualization is a means of perception. The essence of the phenomenon is perceived by students from a verbal explanation, and visualization only serves as a means of confirming the correctness of what is being explained. The teacher can apply each method separately or both together, but one should always remember that in physiological terms they are not unambiguous. The combination of a word with visualization is effective only if the teacher finds the means to establish the relationship between the first and second signal systems of reality.

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Types of GNI of a person Depending on the predominance of the first or second signal system in the perception of reality, I.P. Pavlov distinguished: the artistic type is artists and musicians, people with imaginative thinking, in whom the first signal system predominates; the thinking type is scientists and philosophers, people with logical, in which the first second system prevails mixed type - these are the majority of people in whom the first and second signal systems create nervous processes of the same strength an extremely rare typological variant, which includes very rare people who have a particularly strong development of both the first and second signal systems. These people are capable of both artistic and scientific creativity, I.P. Pavlov attributed Leonardo da Vinci to the number of such brilliant personalities

Types

HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY

Temperament - an individually unique, naturally conditioned set of dynamic manifestations of the psyche.

TYPES OF TEMPERAMENT

Choleric (strong, unbalanced

sanguine (strong, balanced, mobile)

Phlegmatic person (strong, balanced, slow)

melancholic (weak)

Very energetic, fast, impulsive, with a violent display of emotions, a sharp change in mood, passionately given to the cause.

Unperturbed, with a stable mood, constancy and depth of feelings, uniformity of actions and speech, weak external expression of feelings.

Quickly responds to surrounding events, tends to frequent changes of impressions, easily experiences failures, mobile, with expressive facial expressions.

Impressive, with deep feelings, easily vulnerable, outwardly weakly reacts to the environment.

Character traits expressing the orientation of the personality

Character traits

Attitude to society , team, other people

Positive

Negative

Collectivism

Attitude to labor

sensitivity

selfishness

Attitude towards oneself yourself

industriousness

Honesty

Coarseness

Laziness, carelessness

Modesty

Initiative

Closure

Responsiveness

Thrift

Inertia, conservatism

Self esteem, self esteem

Boasting

stealth

Greediness, greed

Self-criticism

Arrogance, arrogance, arrogance

Type of temperament depending on personality traits

famous English psychologist Eysenck proposed to determine the type of temperament depending on personality traits:

1) extraversion - introversion 2) neuroticism - emotional stability

Extroverts characterized by sociability, the desire to be among people, impulsiveness, flexibility of behavior, great initiative and high social adaptability.

Introverts inherent: unsociable, withdrawing, rich inner world, social passivity, a tendency to introspection.

Index "extraversion - introversion" characterizes individually - the psychological orientation of a person or to the world of external objects ( extraversion ), or on the inner subjective world ( introversion ).

Index " neuroticism " characterizes a person emotional stability. The indicator of types is biopolar and forms a scale, at one pole of which are people characterized by high emotional stability, and on the other - nervous, unstable and poorly adapted individuals.

Who are you: extrovert or introvert? The proposed questions must be answered "yes" or "no" without hesitation.

Is it true that:

• You like to sit quietly alone with your thoughts.
• Traffic jams annoy you.
• Do you like to explore one subject in depth than

constantly look for new

• You feel like you are constantly on the move.
• You would rather talk to a client on the phone than meet them.

• You are annoyed by drivers who drive slowly.
• You feel uncomfortable if the interlocutor comes too close to you during a conversation.

• Do you like to take part in theatrical

performances than watching them.

• You prefer quiet passive rest to active rest.
• Do you like it when a lot of interesting things happen at the same time? .

11. You try to avoid meeting people.

12. You like it better when the characters in a novel act rather than talk.

13. Sometimes you want to relax.

14. Do you agree with the statement: "The more the better."

15. You like to reflect on your life.

16. There are moments when you feel explosive energy in yourself and you need to act immediately.

• Prefer to work alone.
• You are more attracted to work that requires immediate action, rather than long deliberation.

• You rarely talk about yourself to your friends.
• You like to make some noise with close friends or even people you know.

Key.

If you answered " Yes » for eight or more even questions and No » for eight or more odd It means you have an extroverted nature.

The inverse distribution of positive and negative answers indicates an introspective attitude to life.

Presentation on the topic "Features of human higher nervous activity" in biology in powerpoint format. This presentation for 8th grade students tells about the features of the higher nervous activity of a person that distinguish him from other creatures, as well as what cognitive processes are inherent in a person. Presentation author: Natalya Alekseevna Kuznetsova, biology teacher.

Fragments from the presentation

The main difference between man and other creatures

• Consciousness
• Speech
• Ability to work
• Public life

Consciousness

• Consciousness- the highest, peculiar only to man, form of mental reflection of objective reality.
• Human consciousness- the ability to separate oneself ("I") from other people and the environment ("not me"), an adequate reflection of reality. Consciousness is based on communication between people, develops as individual life experience is acquired, and is associated with speech (language).

Speech

Speech is a form of communication that has developed in the process of human historical evolution and is mediated by language.

Speech functions:

• Speech is the most perfect capacious, accurate and high-speed means of communication between people.
• Speech serves as a tool for the implementation of many mental functions, raising them to the level of clear awareness and opening up the possibility of arbitrarily regulating and controlling mental processes.
• Speech provides an individual with a communication channel for obtaining information from the universal human socio-historical experience.

Work

• Labor is a fundamental form of human activity, in the process of which the entire set of objects necessary for satisfying needs is created.
• 
  In the process of evolution, a person has developed adaptations to work, the thumb is opposed to the rest.

Man is a biosocial being

Life, development, upbringing in society is a key condition for the normal development of a person, transformation into a personality. There are cases when people from birth lived outside of human society, were brought up among animals. In such cases, of the two principles, social and biological, only one remained in man - biological. Such people acquired the habits of animals, lost the ability to articulate speech, lagged far behind in mental development, and even after returning to human society did not take root in it.

cognitive processes

Cognition- the process of human activity, the main content of which is the reflection of objective reality in his mind, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around.

• The first step in knowing FEELING The immediate reaction of the nervous system to the fact of reality (irritation). For example: we hear the singing of a nightingale, i.e. sound waves of different lengths irritate the nerve cells of the ear, and the signals from the neuron go to the brain.
• At the second stage of cognition, the mechanism PERCEPTIONS Primary holistic analysis of nerve signals in the brain. If the sensation of sound is just a chaotic vibration, then PERCEPTION puts the chaos into a melody.
• The third step can be considered THINKING Sensual or logical analysis of a fact. Here, the brain already uses the existing experience, includes operations of comparison, analysis, generalization.

Thinking operations:

• Analysis
• Synthesis
• Comparison
• Generalization
• abstraction

MEMORY

Memory- this is the memorization, preservation and subsequent reproduction by a person of his experience. Without memory, learning, thinking, and skill cannot take place.

How to remember a lot, quickly and reliably

• It is very important to focus on what you want to learn and not be distracted.
• Tell other people what you have read.
• When reading in a whisper, you should not pronounce the words, or mentally pronounce what you read in this moment.
• Write down what you read
• The most important text for you is best read in the morning, when the brain works at its best, or in the afternoon, if you wake up hard.
• Repeat what has been learned. For the first time, update everything in memory 40 minutes after memorization. Repeat on the same day, 2-3 times. Then, if you remember, the next day one or two repetitions. And then, one repetition with an interval of 7-10 days.

Imagination

Every person has an imagination. Imagination images are fixed with the help of speech and can be transmitted to other people in the form of artistic images or scientific assumptions, which will then be analyzed by logical thinking and used in building ideas when creating new things.

Distinguish between active and passive imagination.

• Active imagination allows a person to imagine what will be the result before starting his work. These images allow you to bring the product to the required level, whether it is a homemade product in the hands of a child or a spaceship in the drawings of the general designer.
• Active imagination should be distinguished from passive imagination, which replaces active actions.

The first and second signal systems and their interaction

• Pavlov called the conditioned reflex activity of the cerebral cortex the signal activity of the brain.
• 1 signal system - signals entering the brain, which are caused by objects and phenomena that act on the senses (resulting in sensations, perceptions, ideas). It is found in humans and animals.
• 2 signal system - Word. Only man has.
• Both signaling systems are in constant interaction. If the signals of the second signal system (words) do not have support in the first signal system (do not reflect what was received through it), then they become incomprehensible. So, a word in a foreign language that we do not know does not tell us anything, so as behind this word there is no concrete content for us.

• Size: 4.9 MB
• Number of slides: 98

Description of the presentation Presentation of the physiology of GNI and SS children on slides

Age features of the development of the central nervous system, the physiology of higher nervous activity and sensory systems. Part

Higher nervous activity is the activity of the higher parts of the central nervous system, which ensures the most perfect adaptation of animals and humans to the environment. Higher nervous activity includes gnosis (cognition), praxis (action), speech, memory and thinking, consciousness, etc. The behavior of the organism is the crowning result of higher nervous activity. Mental activity is an ideal, subjectively perceived activity of the body, carried out with the help of neurophysiological processes. The psyche is the property of the brain to carry out mental activity. Consciousness is an ideal, subjective reflection of reality with the help of the brain.

History of science For the first time, the idea of ​​the reflex nature of the activity of the higher parts of the brain was broadly and in detail formulated by the founder of Russian physiology, I. M. Sechenov, and presented in the work "Reflexes of the Brain". The ideas of I. M. Sechenov were further developed in the works of another outstanding Russian physiologist - I. P. Pavlov, who opened the way for an objective pilot study functions of the cerebral cortex, as well as developed the method of conditioned reflexes and created holistic doctrine about higher nervous activity. The first generalizations concerning the essence of the psyche can be found in the works of ancient Greek and Roman scientists (Thales, Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Democritus, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Lucretius, Galen). Of exceptional importance for the development of materialistic views in the study of the physiological foundations of mental activity was the substantiation by Rene Descartes (1596-1650) of the reflex mechanism of the relationship between the organism and the environment. On the basis of the reflex mechanism, Descartes tried to explain the behavior of animals and simply the automatic actions of a person.

An unconditioned reflex is a relatively constant, species-specific, stereotyped, genetically fixed reaction of the body to internal or external stimuli, carried out through the central nervous system. Hereditarily fixed unconditioned reflexes can arise, be inhibited and modified in response to a wide variety of stimuli that an individual encounters. A conditioned reflex is a reaction of the organism to a stimulus developed in ontogenesis, previously indifferent to this reaction. The conditioned reflex is formed on the basis of the unconditioned (innate) reflex.

IP Pavlov at one time divided unconditioned reflexes into three groups: simple, complex and most complex unconditioned reflexes. Among the most complex unconditioned reflexes, he singled out the following: 1) individual - food, active and passive-defensive, aggressive, freedom reflex, exploratory, game reflex; 2) specific - sexual and parental. According to Pavlov, the first of these reflexes ensure the individual self-preservation of the individual, the second - the preservation of the species.

Vital ● Food ● Drinking ● Defensive ● Regulation of sleep - wakefulness ● Energy saving Role-playing (zoosocial) ● Sexual ● Parental ● Emotional ● Resonance, “empathy” ● Territorial ● Hierarchical Self-development ● Research ● Imitation ● Game ● Overcoming resistance, freedom. The most important unconditioned reflexes of animals (according to P. V. Simonov, 1986, amended) Note: due to the peculiarities of the terminology of that time, instincts are called unconditioned reflexes (these concepts are close, but not identical).

Features of the organization of the unconditioned reflex (instinct) An instinct is a complex of motor acts or a sequence of actions characteristic of an organism of a given species, the implementation of which depends on the functional state of the animal (determined by the dominant need) and the current situation. External stimuli that make up the starting situation are called "key stimuli". The concept of "drive and drive reflex" according to Yu. Konorsky Drive reflexes are a state of motivational excitation that occurs when the "center of the corresponding drive" is activated (for example, hunger excitation). Drive is hunger, thirst, rage, fear, etc. According to the terminology of Y. Konorsky, drive has an antipode - “anti-drive”, i.e. such a state of the body that occurs after satisfaction of a certain need, after the drive reflex is completed.

Many human actions are based on sets of standard behavior programs that we inherited from our ancestors. They are influenced by the characteristics of physiological processes, which can take place in different ways depending on the age or gender of the person. Knowledge of these factors greatly facilitates the understanding of the behavior of other people, and allows the teacher to more effectively organize the learning process. Features of human biology allow him to use standard behavior programs that contribute to survival in conditions from the far north to tropical forests and from sparsely populated deserts to giant megacities

How many instinctive programs do children have? Children have hundreds of instinctive programs that ensure their survival in the early stages of life. True, some of them have lost their former meaning. But some programs are vital. So, a complex program that works on the principle of imprinting is responsible for the development of a language by a child.

Why are the pockets of children full of all sorts of things? In childhood, people behave like typical foragers. The child is still crawling, but already notices everything, picks up and pulls into the mouth. Having become older, he collects all sorts of things in various places for a significant part of the time. Their pockets are stuffed with the most unexpected items - nuts, bones, shells, pebbles, ropes, often mixed with bugs, corks, wires! All this is a manifestation of the same ancient instinctive programs that made us human. In adults, these programs often manifest themselves in the form of cravings for collecting a wide variety of items.

The structure of the nervous tissue Nervous tissue: The neuron is the main structural and functional unit of the nervous tissue. Its functions are related to the perception, processing, transmission and storage of information. Neurons consist of a body and processes - a long one, along which excitation goes from the cell body - an axon and dendrites, along which excitation goes to the cell body.

The nerve impulses that a neuron generates propagate along the axon and are transmitted to another neuron or to an executive organ (muscle, gland). The complex of formations serving for such transmission is called a synapse. The neuron that transmits a nerve impulse is called presynaptic, and the one that receives it is called postsynaptic.

The synapse consists of three parts - the presynaptic ending, the postsynaptic membrane and the synaptic cleft located between them. Presynaptic endings are most often formed by an axon that branches, forming specialized extensions at its end (presynapse, synaptic plaques, synaptic buttons, etc.). The structure of the synapse: 1 - presynaptic ending; 2 - postsynaptic membrane; 3 - synoptic gap; 4 - vesicle; 5 - endoplasmic reticulum; 6 - mitochondrion. The internal structure of the neuron The neuron has all the organelles characteristic of a normal cell (endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, ribosomes, etc.). One of the main structural differences between neurons and other cells is associated with the presence in their cytoplasm of specific formations in the form of clumps and grains of various shapes - the Nissl substance (tigroid). In nerve cells, the Golgi complex is also well developed, there is a network of fibrillar structures - microtubules and neurofilaments.

Neuroglia, or simply glia, is a collection of supporting cells of the nervous tissue. It makes up about 40% of the volume of the CNS. The number of glial cells is on average 10-50 times greater than that of neurons. Types of neuroglial cells:] - ependymocytes; 2 - protoplasmic astrocytes; 3 - fibrous astrocytes; 4 - oligodendrocytes; 5 - microglia Ependymocytes form a single layer of ependymal cells, actively regulate the metabolism between the brain and blood, on the one hand, and cerebrospinal fluid and blood, on the other. Astrocytes are located in all parts of the nervous system. These are the largest and most numerous of the glial cells. Astrocytes are actively involved in the metabolism of the nervous system. Oligodendrocytes are much smaller than astrocytes and perform a trophic function. analogues of oligodendrocytes are Schwann cells, which also form sheaths (both myelinated and unmyelinated) around the fibers. Microglia. Microgliocytes are the smallest of the glial cells. Their main function is protective.

The structure of nerve fibers A - myelin; B - unmyelinated; I - fiber; 2 - myelin layer; 3 - the nucleus of the Schwann cell; 4 - microtubules; 5 - Neurofilaments; 6 - mitochondria; 7 - connective tissue membrane Fibers are divided into myelinated (pulp) and non-myelinated (non-pulp). Unmyelinated nerve fibers are covered only by a sheath formed by the body of the Schwann (neuroglial) cell. The myelin sheath is a double layer of the cell membrane and, in its chemical composition, is a lipoprotein, i.e., a combination of lipids (fat-like substances) and proteins. The myelin sheath effectively provides electrical insulation to the nerve fiber. It consists of cylinders 1.5-2 mm long, each of which is formed by its own glial cell. The cylinders separate the nodes of Ranvier - non-myelinated sections of the fiber (their length is 0.5 - 2.5 microns), which play an important role in the rapid conduction of the nerve impulse. On top of the myelin sheath, the pulp fibers also have an outer sheath - the neurilemma, formed by the cytoplasm and the nucleus of neuroglial cells.

Functionally, neurons are divided into sensitive (afferent) nerve cells that perceive stimuli from the external or internal environment of the body. , motor (efferent) controlling contractions of striated muscle fibers. They form neuromuscular synapses. Executive neurons control the work of internal organs, including smooth muscle fibers, glandular cells, etc., between them there may be intercalary neurons (associative) connection between sensory and executive neurons. The work of the nervous system is based on reflexes. Reflex - the body's response to irritation, which is carried out and controlled by the nervous system.

The reflex arc is the path along which excitation passes during a reflex. It consists of five departments: receptor; a sensitive neuron that transmits an impulse to the central nervous system; nerve center; motor neuron; a working organ that reacts to the received irritation.

The laying of the nervous system occurs in the 1st week of intrauterine development. The greatest intensity of division of nerve cells of the brain falls on the period from 10 to 18 weeks of intrauterine development, which can be considered a critical period for the formation of the central nervous system. If the number of nerve cells in an adult is taken as 100%, by the time the child is born, only 25% of the cells have been formed, by 6 months - 66%, and by the year - 90-95%.

The receptor is a sensitive formation that transforms the energy of the stimulus into a nervous process (electrical excitation). The receptor is followed by a sensory neuron located in the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral processes (dendrites) of such neurons form a sensory nerve and go to the receptors, while the central processes (axons) enter the CNS and form synapses on its intercalary neurons. The nerve center is a group of neurons necessary for the implementation of a certain reflex or more complex forms of behavior. It processes information that comes to it from the sense organs or from other nerve centers and in turn sends commands to the executive neurons or other nerve centers. It is thanks to the reflex principle that the nervous system provides the processes of self-regulation.

Scientists who made a great contribution to the development of the conditioned reflex theory of I. P. Pavlov: L. A. Orbeli, P. S. Kupalov, P. K. Anokhin, E. A. Asratyan, L. G. Voronin, Yu. Konorsky and many others . Rules for the development of a classical conditioned reflex In combinations, an indifferent stimulus (for example, the sound of a bell) must be followed by a significant stimulus (for example, food). After several combinations, an indifferent stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus - that is, a signal that predicts the appearance of biologically meaningful incentive. The significance of the stimulus can be associated with any motivation (hunger, thirst, self-preservation, care for offspring, curiosity, etc.)

Examples of some classic conditioned reflexes currently used in laboratory conditions in animals and humans: - Salivary reflex (combination of any SS with food) - manifests itself in the form of saliva in response to SS. — Various defensive reactions and reactions of fear (a combination of any CA with electric pain reinforcement, a sharp loud sound, etc.) – manifests itself in the form of various muscle reactions, changes in heart rate, galvanic skin response, etc. — Blinking reflexes (combination of any US with exposure to the eye area with a jet of air or a click on the bridge of the nose) - manifests itself in blinking of the eyelid - The reaction of aversion to food (combination of food as a US with artificial effects on the body that cause nausea and vomiting) - manifests itself in the refusal of the corresponding type of food despite hunger. - and etc.

Types of conditioned reflexes Natural are called conditioned reflexes that are formed to stimuli that are natural, necessarily accompanying features, properties of the unconditioned stimulus on the basis of which they are developed (for example, the smell of food during its preparation). Conditioned reflexes are called artificial, which are formed to stimuli that, as a rule, are not directly related to the unconditioned stimulus that reinforces them (for example, a light stimulus reinforced by food).

According to the efferent link of the reflex arc, in particular, according to the effector, on which reflexes appear: autonomic and motor, instrumental etc. Instrumental conditioned reflexes can be formed on the basis of unconditioned reflex motor reactions. For example, motor defensive conditioned reflexes in dogs are developed very quickly, first in the form of a general motor reaction, which then quickly specializes. Conditioned reflexes for time are special reflexes that are formed with the regular repetition of an unconditioned stimulus. For example, feeding a baby every 30 minutes.

Dynamics of the main nervous processes according to Pavlov The spread of the nervous process from the central focus to the surrounding area is called irradiation of excitation. The opposite process - restriction, reduction of the zone of the focus of excitation is called the concentration of excitation. The processes of irradiation and concentration of nervous processes form the basis of induction relationships in the central nervous system. Induction is the property of the main nervous process (excitation or inhibition) to cause around itself and after itself the opposite effect. Positive induction is observed when the focus of the inhibitory process immediately or after the cessation of the inhibitory stimulus creates an area of ​​increased excitability in the area surrounding it. Negative induction occurs when the focus of excitation creates around itself and after itself a state of reduced excitability. Scheme of experience for studying the movement of nervous processes: + 1 - positive stimulus (cassette); -2 - -5 - negative stimuli (kasalki)

Types of inhibition according to IP Pavlov: 1. External (unconditional) inhibition. - permanent brake - fading brake 2. Outrageous (protective) braking. 3. Internal (conditional) inhibition. - extinctive inhibition (extinction) - differential inhibition (differentiation) - conditional brake - delay inhibition

Dynamics of conditioned reflex activity External (unconditioned) inhibition is the process of an emergency weakening or cessation of individual behavioral reactions under the action of stimuli coming from the external or internal environment. The reason may be various conditioned reflex reactions, as well as various unconditioned reflexes (for example, an orienting reflex, a defensive reaction - fear, fear). Another type of innate inhibitory process is the so-called marginal inhibition. It develops with prolonged nervous excitement of the body. Conditional (internal) inhibition is acquired and manifests itself in the form of delay, extinction, elimination of conditioned reactions. Conditioned inhibition is an active process in the nervous system, developing, like conditioned excitation, as a result of production.

Fading inhibition develops in the absence of reinforcement of the conditioned signal by the unconditioned one. Extinctive inhibition is often referred to as extinction. A conditioned brake is formed when a combination of a positive conditioned stimulus and an indifferent one is not reinforced. During retardation inhibition, reinforcement is not canceled (as in the types of inhibition considered above), but is significantly removed from the onset of the action of the conditioned stimulus.

In response to repeated or monotonous stimuli, internal inhibition inevitably develops. If this stimulation continues, then sleep occurs. The transitional period between wakefulness and sleep is called the hypnotic state. IP Pavlov divided the hypnotic state into three phases, depending on the size of the area of ​​the cerebral cortex covered by inhibition and the corresponding reactivity of various brain centers in the process of realization of conditioned reflexes. The first of these phases is called equalizing. At this time, strong and weak stimuli evoke the same conditioned responses. The paradoxical phase is characterized by deeper sleep. In this phase, weak stimuli cause a more intense response than strong ones. The ultraparadoxical phase means an even deeper sleep, when only weak stimuli evoke a response, and strong ones lead to an even greater spread of inhibition. These three phases are followed by deep sleep.

Anxiety is a property determined by the degree of anxiety, concern, emotional tension of a person in a responsible and especially threatening situation. Emotional excitability is the ease of occurrence of emotional reactions to external and internal influences. Impulsivity characterizes the speed of response, decision-making and execution. Rigidity and lability determine the ease and flexibility of a person's adaptation to changing external influences: the one who is difficult to adapt to a changed situation, who is inert in behavior, does not change his habits and beliefs, is registrable; labile is the one who quickly adapts to a new situation.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM The central nervous system includes those parts of the nervous system whose neuron bodies are protected by the spine and skull - the spinal cord and brain. In addition, the brain and spinal cord are protected by membranes (hard, arachnoid and soft) of connective tissue. The brain is anatomically divided into five sections: ♦ medulla oblongata; ♦ hindbrain formed by the pons and cerebellum; ♦ midbrain; ♦ diencephalon formed by the thalamus, epithalamus, hypothalamus; ♦ telencephalon, consisting of cerebral hemispheres, covered with bark. Under the cortex are the basal ganglia. The medulla oblongata, the pons and the midbrain are the stem structures of the brain.

The brain is located in the brain region of the skull, which protects it from mechanical damage. Outside, it is covered with meninges with numerous blood vessels. The mass of the brain in an adult reaches 1100 - 1600 g. The brain can be divided into three sections: posterior, middle and anterior. The posterior section includes: the medulla oblongata, the bridge and the cerebellum, and the anterior section includes the diencephalon and cerebral hemispheres. All departments, including the cerebral hemispheres, form the brain stem. Inside the cerebral hemispheres and in the brain stem there are cavities filled with fluid. The brain consists of white matter in the form of conductors connecting parts of the brain to each other, and gray matter located inside the brain in the form of nuclei and covering the surface of the hemispheres and cerebellum in the form of a cortex.

The longitudinal fissure of the cerebrum divides the cerebrum into two hemispheres - right and left. The cerebral hemispheres are separated from the cerebellum by a transverse fissure. In the cerebral hemispheres, three phylogenetically and functionally different systems are combined: 1) the olfactory brain, 2) the basal nuclei, 3) the cerebral cortex (cloak).

The cerebral cortex is a multilayer neural tissue with many folds with a total area in both hemispheres of approximately 2200 cm 2, its volume corresponds to 40% of the mass of the brain, its thickness ranges from 1.3 to 4.5 mm, and the total volume is 600 cm 3 The composition of the cerebral cortex includes 10 9 - 10 10 neurons and many glial cells. The cortex is divided into 6 layers (I-VI), each of which consists of pyramidal and stellate cells. In layers I - IV, the perception and processing of signals entering the cortex in the form of nerve impulses occurs. The efferent pathways leaving the cortex are formed mainly in the V-VI layers. Structural and functional characteristics of the cerebral cortex

The occipital lobe receives sensory input from the eyes and recognizes shape, color, and movement. The frontal lobe controls muscles throughout the body. The area of ​​motor associations of the frontal lobe is responsible for the acquired motor activity. The anterior center of the visual field controls voluntary eye scanning. Broca's center translates thoughts to external, and then internal speech. The temporal lobe recognizes the main characteristics of sound, its pitch and rhythm. The area of ​​​​auditory associations ("Wernicke's center" - temporal lobes) understands speech. The vestibular region in the temporal lobe receives signals from the semicircular canals of the ear and interprets the senses of gravity, balance, and vibration. The olfactory center is responsible for the sensations caused by smell. All of these areas are directly related to the memory centers in the limbic system. The parietal lobe recognizes touch, pressure, pain, heat, cold without visual sensations. It also contains the taste center responsible for the sensation of sweet, sour, bitter and salty.

Localization of functions in the cerebral cortex Sensory zones of the cortex The central sulcus separates the frontal lobe from the parietal, the lateral sulcus separates the temporal lobe, the parietal-occipital sulcus separates the occipital lobe from the parietal. In the cortex, sensitive, motor zones and associative zones are distinguished. Sensitive zones are responsible for the analysis of information coming from the sense organs: occipital - for vision, temporal - for hearing, smell and taste, parietal - for skin and joint-muscular sensitivity.

And each hemisphere receives impulses from opposite side body. The motor zones are located in the posterior regions of the frontal lobes, from here come the commands for contraction of the skeletal muscles. Associative zones are located in the frontal lobes of the brain and are responsible for the development of programs for behavior and control of human activities; their mass in humans is more than 50% of total weight brain.

The medulla oblongata is a continuation of the spinal cord, performs reflex and conduction functions. Reflex functions are associated with the regulation of the work of the respiratory, digestive and circulatory organs; here are the centers of protective reflexes - coughing, sneezing, vomiting.

The bridge connects the cerebral cortex with the spinal cord and cerebellum, and performs mainly a conductive function. The cerebellum is formed by two hemispheres, externally covered with a bark of gray matter, under which is white matter. The white matter contains nuclei. The middle part - the worm connects the hemispheres. Responsible for coordination, balance and affects muscle tone.

Three parts are distinguished in the diencephalon: the thalamus, the epithalamus, which includes the pineal gland, and the hypothalamus. The subcortical centers of all types of sensitivity are located in the thalamus; excitation from the sense organs comes here. The hypothalamus contains the highest centers of regulation of the autonomic nervous system, it controls the constancy of the internal environment of the body.

The structure and functions of the brain Here are the centers of appetite, thirst, sleep, thermoregulation, i.e., the regulation of all types of metabolism is carried out. Neurons of the hypothalamus produce neurohormones that regulate the functioning of the endocrine system. In the diencephalon there are also emotional centers: centers of pleasure, fear, aggression. It is part of the brain stem.

The structure and functions of the brain The forebrain consists of the cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum. The surface is formed by the bark, the area of ​​which is about 2200 cm 2. Numerous folds, convolutions and furrows significantly increase the surface of the bark. The human cortex has from 14 to 17 billion nerve cells arranged in 6 layers, the thickness of the cortex is 2 - 4 mm. Accumulations of neurons in the depths of the hemispheres form subcortical nuclei.

A person is characterized by a functional asymmetry of the hemispheres, the left hemisphere is responsible for abstract-logical thinking, speech centers are also located there (Brock's center is responsible for pronunciation, Wernicke's center for understanding speech), the right hemisphere is responsible for figurative thinking, musical and artistic creativity.

The most important parts of the brain, which form the limbic system, are located along the edges of the cerebral hemispheres, as if “surrounding” them. The most important structures of the limbic system: 1. Hypothalamus 2. Amygdala 3. Orbito-frontal cortex 4. Hippocampus 5. Mamillary bodies 6. Olfactory bulbs and olfactory tubercle 7. Septum 8. Thalamus (anterior group of nuclei) 9. Belt gyrus (and others .)

Schematic diagram of the limbic system and thalamus. 1 - cingulate gyrus; 2- frontotemporal and subcallosal cortex; 3 - orbital cortex; 4 - primary olfactory cortex; 5 - almond-shaped complex; 6 - hippocampus (not shaded) and hippocampal gyrus; 7 - thalamus and mastoid bodies (according to D. Plug) Limbic system

The thalamus acts as a "distribution station" for all sensations entering the brain, except for olfactory ones. It also transmits motor impulses from the cerebral cortex through the spinal cord to the musculature. In addition, the thalamus recognizes sensations of pain, temperature, light touch and pressure, and is also involved in emotional processes and memory.

Nonspecific nuclei of the thalamus are represented by the median center, paracentral nucleus, central medial and lateral, submedial, ventral anterior, parafascicular complexes, reticular nucleus, periventricular and central gray mass. The neurons of these nuclei form their connections according to the reticular type. Their axons rise to the cerebral cortex and contact with all its layers, forming not local, but diffuse connections. Connections from the RF of the brain stem, hypothalamus, limbic system, basal ganglia, and specific nuclei of the thalamus come to nonspecific nuclei.

The hypothalamus controls the functioning of the pituitary gland, normal body temperature, food intake, sleep and wakefulness. It is also the center responsible for behavior in extreme situations manifestations of rage, aggression, pain and pleasure.

The amygdala provides the perception of objects as having one or another motivational-emotional meaning (terrible / dangerous, edible, etc.), and it provides both innate reactions (for example, an innate fear of snakes) and those acquired in the course of the individual's own experience.

The amygdala is associated with areas of the brain responsible for processing cognitive and sensory information, as well as with areas related to combinations of emotions. The amygdala coordinates reactions of fear or anxiety caused by internal signals.

The hippocampus uses sensory information from the thalamus and emotional information from the hypothalamus to form short-term memory. Short-term memory, by activating the nerve networks of the hippocampus, can then move into "long-term storage" and become long-term memory for the entire brain. The hippocampus is the central part of the limbic system.

Temporal bark. Participates in the capture and storage of figurative information. Hippocampus. Acts as the first point of convergence of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. The hippocampus is involved in fixing and retrieving information from memory. reticular formation. It has an activating effect on the structures involved in the fixation and reproduction of memory traces (engrams), and is also directly involved in the processes of engram formation. thalamocortical system. Helps organize short-term memory.

The basal ganglia direct nerve impulses between the cerebellum and the anterior lobes of the brain and thereby help control body movements. They contribute to the control of fine motor skills of the facial muscles and eyes, reflecting emotional states. The basal ganglia are connected to the anterior lobes of the brain through the substantia nigra. They coordinate the thought processes involved in planning the order and coherence of upcoming actions in time.

The orbito-frontal cortex (located on the lowest anterior side of the frontal lobe) seems to provide self-control over emotions and the complex manifestations of motivations and emotions in the psyche.

THE NERVOUS CIRCUITS OF DEPRESSION: THE LORD OF MOOD People with depression are characterized by general lethargy, depressed mood, slow reactions, and memory problems. It seems that brain activity is significantly reduced. At the same time, manifestations such as anxiety and sleep disturbances suggest that some areas of the brain, on the contrary, are hyperactive. Using visualization of the brain structures most affected by depression, it was found that the reason for this mismatch of their activity lies in the dysfunction of a tiny area - field 25. This field is directly related to such departments as the amygdala, which is responsible for the development of fear and anxiety, and the hypothalamus that triggers the stress response. In turn, these departments exchange information with the hippocampus (the center of memory formation) and the insular lobe (involved in the formation of perceptions and emotions). In individuals with genetic characteristics associated with reduced serotonin transport, the size of field 25 is reduced, which may be accompanied by an increased risk of depression. Thus, field 25 may be a kind of "master controller" of the neural circuitry of depression.

The processing of all emotional and cognitive information in the limbic system is of a biochemical nature: certain neurotransmitters are released (from Latin transmuto - I transmit; biological substances that cause the conduction of nerve impulses). If cognitive processes proceed against the background of positive emotions, then neurotransmitters such as gamma-aminobutyric acid, acetylcholine, interferon and interglukins are produced. They activate thinking and make memorization more efficient. If the learning processes are built on negative emotions, then adrenaline and cortisol are released, which reduce the ability to learn and remember.

Terms Development of the CNS in the prenatal period of ontogenesis Embryo stage 2-3 weeks Formation of the neural plate 3-4 weeks Neural tube closure 4 weeks Formation of three cerebral vesicles 5 weeks Formation of five cerebral vesicles 7 weeks Growth of the cerebral hemispheres, the beginning of neuroblast proliferation 2 months. Growth of the cerebral cortex with a smooth surface Fetal stages 2, 5 months. Thickening of the cerebral cortex 3 months. The beginning of the formation of the corpus callosum and the growth of glia 4 months. Growth of lobules and sulci in the cerebellum 5 months. Formation of the corpus callosum, growth of primary sulci and histological layers 6 months Differentiation of cortical layers, myelination. formation of synaptic connections, formation of interhemispheric asymmetry and intersexual differences 7 months. The appearance of six cell layers, furrows, convolutions, asymmetry of the hemispheres 8-9 months. The rapid development of secondary and tertiary sulci and convolutions, the development of asymmetry in the structure of the brain, especially in the temporal lobes

The first stage (from the prenatal period to 2-3 years) The basis is laid (the first functional block of the brain) for the interhemispheric provision of neurophysiological, neurohumoral, sensory-vegetative and neurochemical asymmetries. The first functional block of the brain provides the regulation of tone and wakefulness. The structures of the brain of the first block are located in the stem and subcortical formations, which simultaneously tone the cortex and experience its regulatory influence. The main brain formation that provides tone is the reticular (network) formation. The ascending and descending fibers of the reticular formation are a self-regulating formation of the brain. At this stage, for the first time, the deep neurobiological prerequisites for the formation of the future style of mental and educational activity of the child declare themselves.

Even in utero, the child himself determines the course of his development. If the brain is not ready for the moment of childbirth, then birth trauma is possible. The process of birth largely depends on the activity of the organism of the child. He must overcome the pressure of the birth canal of the mother, make a certain number of turns and repulsive movements, adapt to the action of gravitational forces, etc. The success of the birth depends on the adequacy of the cerebral systems of the brain. For these reasons, there is a high probability of dysontogenetic development of children born by caesarean section, premature or postmature.

By the birth of a child, the brain is large relative to body weight and is: in a newborn - 1/8-1/9 per 1 kg of body weight, in a child of 1 year - 1/11-1/12, in a child of 5 years - 1/13- 1/14, in an adult - 1/40. The pace of development of the nervous system occurs faster, the smaller the child. It proceeds especially vigorously during the first 3 months of life. Differentiation of nerve cells is achieved by the age of 3, and by the age of 8, the cerebral cortex is similar in structure to the cerebral cortex of an adult.

The blood supply to the brain in children is better than in adults. This is due to the richness of the capillary network, which continues to develop after birth. Abundant blood supply to the brain provides the need for rapidly growing nerve tissue in oxygen. And its need for oxygen is more than 20 times higher than that of muscles. The outflow of blood from the brain in children of the first year of life differs from that in adults. This creates conditions conducive to a greater accumulation of toxic substances and metabolites in various diseases, which explains the more frequent occurrence of toxic forms of infectious diseases in young children. At the same time, the substance of the brain is very sensitive to increased intracranial pressure. An increase in CSF pressure causes a rapid increase in degenerative changes in nerve cells, and a longer existence of hypertension causes their atrophy and death. This is confirmed in children who suffer from intrauterine hydrocephalus.

The dura mater in newborns is relatively thin, fused with the bones of the base of the skull over a large area. The venous sinuses are thin-walled and relatively narrower than in adults. The soft and arachnoid membranes of the brain of newborns are exceptionally thin, the subdural and subarachnoid spaces are reduced. The cisterns located at the base of the brain, on the other hand, are relatively large. The cerebral aqueduct (Sylvian aqueduct) is wider than in adults. As the nervous system develops, the chemical composition brain. The amount of water decreases, the content of proteins, nucleic acids, lipoproteins increases. The ventricles of the brain. 1 - left lateral ventricle with frontal, occipital and temporal horns; 2 - interventricular opening; 3 - third ventricle; 4 - Sylvian plumbing; 5 - fourth ventricle, side pocket

The second stage (from 3 to 7-8 years). It is characterized by the activation of interhippocampal commissural (commissures - nerve fibers that interact between the hemispheres) systems. This area of ​​the brain provides the interhemispheric organization of memorization processes. At this segment of ontogenesis, interhemispheric asymmetries are fixed, the predominant function of the hemispheres is formed in speech, individual lateral profile (combination of the dominant hemisphere and the leading hand, leg, eye, ear), and functional activity. Violation of the formation of this level of the brain can lead to pseudo-left-handedness.

The second functional block receives, processes and stores information. It is located in the outer sections of the new cerebral cortex and occupies its posterior sections, including the visual (occipital), auditory (temporal) and general sensitive (parietal) cortex zones. These areas of the brain receive visual, auditory, vestibular (general sensitive) and kinesthetic information. This also includes the central zones of gustatory and olfactory reception.

For the maturation of the functions of the left hemisphere, the normal course of ontogenesis of the right hemisphere is necessary. For example, it is known that phonemic hearing (semantic discrimination of speech sounds) is a function of the left hemisphere. But, before becoming a link of sound discrimination, it must be formed and automated as a tonal sound discrimination in the right hemisphere with the help of the child's comprehensive interaction with the outside world. Deficiency or unformedness of this link in the ontogeny of phonemic hearing can lead to delays in speech development.

The development of the limbic system allows the child to make social connections. Between the ages of 15 months and 4 years, primitive emotions are generated in the hypothalamus and amygdala: rage, fear, aggression. As the neural networks develop, connections are formed with the cortical (cortical) parts of the temporal lobes responsible for thinking, more complex emotions appear with a social component: anger, sadness, joy, grief. With the further development of nerve networks, connections with the anterior parts of the brain are formed and such subtle feelings as love, altruism, empathy, and happiness develop.

The third stage (from 7 to 12-15 years old) Interhemispheric interaction is developing. After the maturation of the hypothalamic-diencephalic structures of the brain (stem), the maturation of the right hemisphere begins, and then the left. The maturation of the corpus callosum, as already noted, is completed only by the age of 12-15. Normal maturation of the brain occurs from the bottom up, from the right hemisphere to the left, from the posterior parts of the brain to the anterior. Intensive growth of the frontal lobe begins no earlier than 8 years and ends by 12-15 years. In ontogeny, the frontal lobe is laid first, and ends its development last. The development of Broca's center in the frontal lobe makes it possible to process information through internal speech, which is much faster than with verbalization.

The specialization of the cerebral hemispheres in each child occurs at a different speed. On average, the figurative hemisphere experiences a jump in the growth of dendrites at 4-7 years, the logical hemisphere - at 9-12 years. The more actively both hemispheres and all lobes of the brain are used, the more dendritic connections are formed in the corpus callosum and myelinated. A fully formed corpus callosum transmits 4 billion signals per second through 200 million nerve fibers, mostly myelinated and connecting the two hemispheres. Integration and quick access to information stimulate the development of operational thinking and formal logic. In girls and women, there are more nerve fibers in the corpus callosum than in boys and men, which provides them with higher compensatory mechanisms.

Myelination in different areas of the cortex also proceeds unevenly: in primary fields it ends in the first half of life, in secondary and tertiary fields it continues up to 10-12 years. Flexing's classical studies showed that the myelination of the motor and sensory roots of the optic tract is completed in the first year after birth, the reticular formation - at 18 years old, and the associative pathways - at 25 years old. This means that those neural pathways that play the most important role in the early stages of ontogenesis are formed first. The process of myelination is closely correlated with the growth of cognitive and motor abilities in the preschool years.

By the time the child enters school (at the age of 7), his right hemisphere is developed, and the left hemisphere is updated only by the age of 9. In this regard, the education of younger students should take place naturally for them in the right hemisphere way - through creativity, images, positive emotions, movement, space, rhythm, sensory sensations. Unfortunately, at school it is customary to sit still, not to move, to learn letters and numbers linearly, to read and write on a plane, that is, in the left hemisphere way. That is why training very soon turns into coaching and training a child, which inevitably leads to a decrease in motivation, stress and neuroses. At the age of 7, only “external” speech is well developed in a child, so he literally thinks out loud. He needs to read and think aloud until "inner" speech is developed. The translation of thoughts into written speech is an even more complex process when many areas of the neocortex are involved: sensitive, main auditory, the center of auditory associations, the main visual, motor area of ​​speech and the cognitive center. Integrated thought patterns are transmitted to the vocalization area and the basal ganglion of the limbic system, which makes it possible to build words in oral and written speech.

Age Stages of development of the brain region Functions From conception to 15 months Stem structures Basic survival needs - food, shelter, protection, safety. Sensory development of the vestibular apparatus, hearing, tactile sensations, smell, taste, vision 15 months - 4.5 g Limbichs system Development of the emotional and speech sphere, imagination, memory, mastery of gross motor skills 4.5-7 years Right (figurative) hemisphere Processing in the brain of a holistic picture based on images, movement, rhythm, emotions, intuition, external speech, integrated thinking 7-9 years Left (logical) hemisphere Detailed and linear processing of information, improvement of speech, reading and writing, counting, drawing, dancing skills , perception of music, motor skills of hands 8 years Frontal lobe Improvement of fine motor skills, development of inner speech, control of social behavior. Development and coordination of eye movements: tracking and focusing 9-12 years old Corpus callosum and myelination Complex processing of information by the whole brain 12-16 years old Hormonal surge Formation of knowledge about oneself, one's body. Understanding the significance of life, the emergence of public interests 16-21 years A holistic system of intellect and body Planning the future, analyzing new ideas and opportunities 21 years and beyond Intensive leap in the development of the nervous network of the frontal lobes Development of systems thinking, understanding of causal relationships top level, improvement of emotions (altruism, love, empathy) and fine motor skills

The cranial nerves include: 1. Olfactory nerves (I) 2. Optic nerve (II) 3. Oculomotor nerve (III) 4. Trochlear nerve (IV) 5. Trigeminal nerve (V) 6. Abducens nerve (VI) 7. Facial nerve (VII) 8. Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) 9. Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) 10. Vagus nerve (X) 11. Accessory nerve (XI) 12. Hypoglossal nerve (XII) Each cranial nerve goes to a specific foramen at the base of the skull , through which it leaves its cavity.

Spinal cord (dorsal view): 1 - spinal ganglion; 2 - segments and spinal nerves of the cervical spinal cord; 3 - cervical thickening; 4 - segments and spinal nerves of the thoracic spinal cord; 5 - lumbar thickening; 6 - segments and spinal nerves of the lumbar; 7 - segments and spinal nerves of the sacral region; 8 - terminal thread; 9 - coccygeal nerve The cervical thickening corresponds to the exit of the spinal nerves heading to the upper limbs, the lumbar thickening corresponds to the exit of the nerves following to the lower limbs.

There are 31 segments in the spinal cord, each corresponding to one of the vertebrae. In the cervical region - 8 segments, in the thoracic region - 12, in the lumbar and sacral - 5 each, in the coccygeal region - 1. The area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe brain with two pairs of roots extending from it is called a segment.

Shells of the spinal cord (cervical): 1 - spinal cord, covered with a soft shell; 2 - arachnoid shell; 3 - dura mater; 4 - venous plexus; 5 - vertebral artery; 6 - cervical vertebra; 7 - front spine; 8 - mixed spinal nerve; 9 - spinal node; 10 - posterior root The soft, or vascular, membrane contains ramifications of blood vessels, which then penetrate into the spinal cord. It has two layers: inner, fused with the spinal cord, and outer. The arachnoid is a thin connective tissue plate). Between the arachnoid and pia mater is the subarachnoid (lymphatic) space filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The dura mater is a long, spacious sac that surrounds the spinal cord.

The dura mater is connected to the arachnoid in the region of the intervertebral foramina on the spinal nodes, as well as at the attachment sites of the dentate ligament. The dentate ligament and the contents of the epidural, subdural, and lymphatic spaces protect the spinal cord from injury. Longitudinal grooves run along the surface of the spinal cord. These two grooves divide the spinal cord into right and left halves. On the sides of the spinal cord, two rows of anterior and posterior roots depart. The membranes of the spinal cord in a transverse section: 1 - dentate ligament; 2 - arachnoid shell; 3 - posterior subarachnoid septum; 4 - subarachnoid space between the arachnoid and soft shells; 5 - vertebra in cut; 6 - periosteum; 7 - dura mater; 8 - subdural space; 9 - epidural space

A transverse section of the spinal cord shows gray matter that lies inward from the white matter and resembles the shape of an H or a butterfly with outstretched wings. Gray matter runs the entire length of the spinal cord around the central canal. White matter makes up the conduction apparatus of the spinal cord. White matter connects the spinal cord with the overlying parts of the central nervous system. White matter lies on the periphery of the spinal cord. Scheme of a transverse section of the spinal cord: 1 - oval bundle of the posterior cord; 2 - back spine; 3 - Roland's substance; 4 - rear horn; 5 - front horn; 6 - front spine; 7 - tectospinal path; 8 - ventral corticospinal path; 9 - ventral vestibulospinal path; 10 - olivospinal path; 11 - ventral spinal tract; 12 - lateral vestibulospinal tract; 13 - spinothalamic tract and tectospinal tract; 14 - rubrospinal tract; 15 - lateral corticospinal path; 16 - dorsal spinocerebellar path; 17 - the path of Burdakh; 18 - Gaulle way

The spinal nerves are paired (31 pairs), metamerically located nerve trunks: 1. Cervical nerves (CI-CVII), 8 pairs 2. Thoracic nerves (Th. I-Th. XII), 12 pairs 3. Lumbar nerves (LI- LV), 5 pairs 4. Sacral nerves (SI-Sv), 5 pairs 5. Coccygeal nerve (Co. I-Co II), 1 pair, rarely two. The spinal nerve is mixed and is formed by the fusion of its two roots: the posterior root (sensory) and the anterior root (motor).

Basic functions of the spinal cord The first function is reflex. The spinal cord carries out motor reflexes of skeletal muscles independently. Examples of some motor reflexes of the spinal cord are: 1) elbow reflex - tapping on the tendon of the biceps muscle of the shoulder causes flexion in the elbow joint due to nerve impulses that are transmitted through 5-6 cervical segments; 2) knee reflex - tapping on the tendon of the quadriceps femoris causes extension in the knee joint due to nerve impulses that are transmitted through the 2nd-4th lumbar segments. The spinal cord is involved in many complex coordinated movements - walking, running, labor and sports activities, etc. The spinal cord carries out vegetative reflexes of changes in the functions of internal organs - the cardiovascular, digestive, excretory and other systems. Thanks to reflexes from proprioreceptors in the spinal cord, motor and autonomic reflexes are coordinated. Through the spinal cord, reflexes are also carried out from internal organs to skeletal muscles, from internal organs to receptors and other organs of the skin, from an internal organ to another internal organ.

The second function: conductive is carried out due to the ascending and descending paths of the white matter. Along the ascending paths, excitation from the muscles and internal organs is transmitted to the brain, along the descending paths - from the brain to the organs.

The spinal cord is more developed than the brain at birth. Cervical and lumbar thickening of the spinal cord in newborns is not determined and begins to contour after 3 years of age. The rate of increase in the mass and size of the spinal cord is slower than that of the brain. Doubling the mass of the spinal cord occurs by 10 months, and tripling - by 3-5 years. The length of the spinal cord doubles by the age of 7-10, and it increases somewhat more slowly than the length of the spine, so the lower end of the spinal cord moves upward with age.

The structure of the autonomic nervous system Part of the peripheral nervous system is involved in the conduction of sensitive impulses and sends commands to the skeletal muscles - the somatic nervous system. Another group of neurons controls the activity of internal organs - the autonomic nervous system. The vegetative reflex arc consists of three links - sensitive, central and executive.

The structure of the autonomic nervous system The autonomic nervous system is divided into sympathetic, parasympathetic and metasympathetic divisions. The central part is formed by the bodies of neurons lying in the spinal cord and brain. These clusters of nerve cells are called autonomic nuclei (sympathetic and parasympathetic).