Examples of interaction between the components of the geographic envelope. The geographic shell is a special complex shell of the Earth. Study of the chemical and geological composition

Advances in seismology have given humanity a more detailed knowledge of the Earth and the layers that make it up. Each layer has its own properties, composition and characteristics that affect the main processes taking place on the planet. The composition, structure and properties of the geographic shell are determined by its main components.

Ideas about the Earth at different times

Since ancient times, people have sought to understand the formation and composition of the Earth. The earliest speculations were purely non-scientific, in the form of myths or religious fables involving the gods. During the period of antiquity and the Middle Ages, several theories arose about the origin of the planet and its proper composition. The most ancient theories represented the earth as a flat sphere or cube. Already in the 6th century BC, Greek philosophers began to argue that the earth is actually round and contains minerals and metals. In the 16th century, it was suggested that the Earth consists of concentric spheres, and is hollow inside. At the beginning of the 19th century, mining and the industrial revolution contributed to the rapid development of geosciences. It was found that the rock formations were arranged in the order of their formation in time. Simultaneously, geologists and naturalists began to realize that the age of a fossil could be determined from a geological point of view.

Study of the chemical and geological composition

The structure and properties of the geographic shell differ from the rest of the layers in terms of chemical and geological composition, and there are also huge differences in temperature and pressure. The current scientific understanding of the internal structure of the Earth is based on inferences made using seismic monitoring along with measurements of the gravitational and magnetic fields. By the beginning of the 20th century, the development of radiometric dating, which is used to determine the age of minerals and rocks, made it possible to obtain more accurate data on the true one, which is approximately 4-4.5 billion years. Development of modern mining methods and precious metals, as well as the growing attention to the importance of minerals and their natural distribution also helped stimulate the development of modern geology, including the knowledge of which layers make up the geographic envelope of the earth.

The structure and properties of the geographical shell

The geosphere includes the hydrosphere, descending to about ten kilometers above sea level, the earth's crust and part of the atmosphere, extending up to 30 kilometers in height. The greatest distance of the shell varies within forty kilometers. This layer is affected by both terrestrial and space processes. Substances occur in 3 physical states, and can be composed of the smallest elementary particles, such as atoms, ions and molecules, as well as include many additional multi-component structures. The structure of the geographic shell, as a rule, is considered as a commonality of natural and social phenomena. The components of the geographical envelope are presented in the form of rocks in the earth's crust, air, water, soil and biogeocenoses.

Characteristic features of the geosphere

The structure and properties of the geographic shell imply the presence of an important number of characteristic features. These include: integrity, the circulation of matter, rhythm and constant development.

Integrity is determined by the results of the ongoing exchange of matter and energy, and the combination of all components connects them into one material whole, where the transformation of any of the links can lead to global changes in all the others.
The geographic envelope is characterized by the presence of a cyclic circulation of matter, for example, atmospheric circulation and oceanic surface currents. More complex processes are accompanied by a change in the aggregate composition of matter. In other cycles, there is a chemical transformation of matter or the so-called biological cycle.
Another feature of the shell is its rhythm, that is, the repetition of various processes and phenomena in time. It is caused mostly by the will of astronomical and geological forces. There are 24-hour rhythms (day and night), annual rhythms, rhythms that occur over a century (for example, 30-year cycles in which there are fluctuations in climate, glaciers, lake levels and river volumes). There are even rhythms that occur over centuries (for example, the alternation of a cool and humid climate phase with a hot and dry climate phase, occurring once every 1800-1900 years). Geological rhythms can last from 200 to 240 million years and so on.
The structure and properties of the geographic shell are directly related to the continuity of development.

Continuous development

There are some results and features of continuous development. First, there is a local division of continents, oceans and the seabed. This distinction is influenced by the spatial features of the geographical structure, including geographic and altitudinal zonality. Secondly, there is a polar asymmetry, which manifests itself in the presence of significant differences between the Northern and Southern hemispheres.

This is manifested, for example, in the distribution of continents and oceans, climatic zones, composition of flora and fauna, types and forms of reliefs and landscapes. Thirdly, development in the geosphere is inextricably linked with spatial and natural heterogeneity. This ultimately leads to the fact that in different regions at the same time different levels can be observed. evolutionary process. For example, the ancient ice age in various parts of the earth began and ended in different time. In certain natural areas, the climate becomes wetter, while in others the opposite is observed.

Lithosphere

The structure of the geographic shell includes such a component as the lithosphere. It is a solid, outer part of the earth, extending to a depth of about 100 kilometers. This layer includes the crust and the upper part of the mantle. The most durable and solid layer of the Earth is associated with such a concept as tectonic activity. The lithosphere is divided into 15 large North American, Caribbean, South American, Scottish, Antarctic, Eurasian, Arabian, African, Indian, Philippine, Australian, Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cocos and Nazca. The composition of the geographic envelope of the Earth in these areas is characterized by the presence various types rocks of the lithospheric crust and mantle. The lithospheric crust is characterized by continental gneiss and oceanic gabbro. Below this boundary, in the upper layers of the mantle, peridotite occurs, the rocks mainly consist of the minerals olivine and pyroxene.

Component Interaction

The geographical envelope includes four natural geospheres: lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Water evaporates from the seas and oceans, winds move air currents to land, where precipitation forms and falls, which returns to the oceans in various ways. The biological cycle of the plant kingdom consists in the transformation of inorganic matter into organic matter. After the death of living organisms organic matter return to the earth's crust, gradually transforming into inorganic.

The most important properties

Geographic Shell Properties:

The ability to accumulate and convert the energy of sunlight.
The presence of free energy necessary for a large number of diverse natural processes.
The unique ability to produce biodiversity and serve as a natural environment for life.
The properties of the geographic envelope include a huge variety of chemical elements.
Energy comes both from space and from the deep bowels of the earth.

The uniqueness of the geographic shell lies in the fact that organic life originated at the junction of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. It was here that the whole human society appeared and is still developing, using the necessary resources for its life activity. The geographic envelope covers the entire planet, therefore it is called a planetary complex, which includes rocks in the earth's crust, air and water, soil and a huge biological diversity.

Introduction

1. Geographical shell as a material system, its boundaries, structure and qualitative differences from other earthly shells

2. Circulation of matter and energy in the geographic envelope

3. The main regularities of the geographic shell: the unity and integrity of the system, the rhythm of phenomena, zonality, azonal

4. Differentiation of the geographic envelope. Geographical zones and natural areas

5. Altitudinal zonality of mountains in different geographical zones

6. Physical-geographical zoning as one of the most important problems of physical geography. System of taxonomic units in physical geography

The geographic envelope of the Earth (synonyms: natural-territorial complexes, geosystems, geographical landscapes, epigeosphere) is the sphere of interpenetration and interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. It has complex spatial differentiation. The vertical thickness of the geographic envelope is tens of kilometers. The integrity of the geographic envelope is determined by the continuous energy and mass exchange between the land and the atmosphere, the World Ocean and organisms. Natural processes in the geographic envelope are carried out due to the radiant energy of the Sun and the internal energy of the Earth. Within the geographic shell, humanity arose and is developing, drawing resources from the shell for its existence and influencing it.

The geographic shell was first defined by P. I. Brounov as early as 1910 as “the outer shell of the Earth”. This is the most complex part of our planet, where the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere come into contact and interpenetrate. Only here is possible the simultaneous and stable existence of matter in solid, liquid and gaseous states. In this shell, the absorption, transformation and accumulation of the radiant energy of the Sun takes place; it was only within its limits that the emergence and spread of life became possible, which, in turn, was a powerful factor in the further transformation and complication of the epigeosphere.

The geographical shell is characterized by integrity, due to the connections between its components, and uneven development in time and space.

The uneven development in time is expressed in the directed rhythmic (periodic - daily, monthly, seasonal, annual, etc.) and non-rhythmic (episodic) changes inherent in this shell. As a result of these processes, different ages of individual sections of the geographic envelope, the heredity of the course of natural processes, and the preservation of relict features in existing landscapes are formed. Knowledge of the basic patterns of development of the geographic envelope makes it possible in many cases to predict natural processes.

The doctrine of geographical systems (geosystems) is one of the main fundamental achievements geographical science. It is still being actively developed and discussed. Since this doctrine has not only a deep theoretical meaning as a key basis for the purposeful accumulation and systematization of factual material in order to obtain new knowledge. Its practical significance is also great, since it is precisely such systems approach to the consideration of the infrastructure of geographical objects lies at the heart of the geographical zoning of territories, without which it is impossible to identify and solve, either locally, or even globally, any problems related to one degree or another to the interaction of man, society and nature: neither environmental nor nature management, no optimization of the relationship between mankind and natural environment.

aim control work is the consideration of the geographic envelope from the perspective contemporary ideas. To achieve the goal of the work, a number of tasks should be identified and solved, the main of which will be:

1 consideration of the geographic envelope as a material system;

2 consideration of the main regularities of the geographic envelope;

3 determination of the reasons for the differentiation of the geographic envelope;

4 consideration of physical-geographical zoning and determination of the system of taxonomic units in physical geography.

The dynamics of the geographic envelope depends entirely on the energy of the earth's interior in the zone of the outer core and asthenosphere and on the energy of the Sun. Tidal interactions of the Earth-Moon system also play a certain role.

The projection of intraplanetary processes onto the earth's surface and their subsequent interaction with solar radiation is ultimately reflected in the formation of the main components of the geographic shell of the upper crust, relief, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Current state geographical shell is the result of its long evolution, which began with the emergence of the planet Earth.

Scientists identify three stages in the development of the geographic envelope: the first, the longest (about 3 billion years), was characterized by the existence of the simplest organisms; the second stage lasted about 600 million years and was marked by the appearance of higher forms of living organisms; the third stage is modern. It began about 40 thousand years ago. Its peculiarity is that people are increasingly beginning to influence the development of the geographic envelope, and, unfortunately, negatively (destruction of the ozone layer, etc.).

The geographical envelope is characterized complex composition and building. The main material components of the geographic envelope are the rocks that make up the earth's crust (with their shape - relief), air masses, water accumulations, soil cover and biocenoses; in the polar latitudes and high mountains, the role of ice accumulations is essential. The main energy components are gravitational energy, the internal heat of the planet, the radiant energy of the Sun and the energy of cosmic rays. Despite the limited set of components, their combinations can be very diverse; it also depends on the number of terms included in the combination and on their internal variations (since each component is also a very complex natural combination), and most importantly, on the nature of their interaction and relationships, i.e., on the geographical structure.

A.A. Grigoriev held the upper limit of the geographic envelope (GO) at an altitude of 20-26 km above sea level, in the stratosphere, below the layer of maximum ozone concentration. Ultraviolet radiation, detrimental to living things, is intercepted by the ozone screen.

Atmospheric ozone is formed mainly above 25 km. It enters the lower layers due to turbulent mixing of air and vertical movements of air masses. The density of O 3 is low near the earth's surface and in the troposphere. Its maximum is observed at altitudes of 20-26 km. The total ozone content X in a vertical column of air ranges from 1 to 6 mm, if it is brought to normal pressure (1013, 2 mbar) at t = 0 o C. The value of X is called the reduced thickness of the ozone layer or the total amount of ozone.

Below the boundary of the ozone screen, air movement is observed due to the interaction of the atmosphere with land and the ocean. The lower boundary of the geographic shell, according to Grigoriev, passes where tectonic forces cease to act, that is, at a depth of 100-120 km from the surface of the lithosphere, along the upper part of the subcrustal layer, which greatly affects the formation of the relief.

S.V. Kalesnik places an upper bound on the G.O. just like A.A. Grigoriev, at the level of the ozone screen, and the lower one - at the level of occurrence of the sources of ordinary earthquakes, that is, at a depth of not more than 40-45 km and not less than 15-20 km. This depth is the so-called zone of hypergenesis (Greek hyper - over, above, genesis - origin). This is a zone of sedimentary rocks that arise in the process of weathering, changes in igneous and metamorphic rocks of primary origin.

The views of D.L. Armand. D. L. Armand's geographic sphere includes the troposphere, hydrosphere and the entire earth's crust (the silicate sphere of geochemists), located under the oceans at a depth of 8-18 km and under high mountains at a depth of 49-77 km. In addition to the actual geographical sphere, D.L. Armand proposes to distinguish between the "Great Geographical Sphere", including in it the stratosphere, extending to a height of up to 80 km above the ocean, and the eclogite sphere or sima, that is, the entire thickness of the lithosphere, with a lower horizon of which (700 -1000 km) are associated with deep-focus earthquakes.

The geographic shell is the totality of all the shells of the Earth: the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. The total thickness of the geographic envelope is approximately 40 km (some sources say up to 100 km). It is in this shell of the Earth that everything is the necessary conditions for life.

In its development, the geographic shell has gone through three main stages:

1) inorganic - before the appearance of life on Earth, at this stage the lithosphere, the primary Ocean and the primary atmosphere were formed;

2) organic - the formation and development of the biosphere, which has transformed all the existing spheres of the Earth;

3) anthropogenic - modern stage the development of the geographical shell, when with the advent of human society, an active transformation of the geographical shell began and the emergence of a new sphere - the noosphere - the sphere of the mind.

The geographical envelope changed by human economic activity is called the geographic environment. In the near future, the geographic envelope and the geographic environment may become synonymous.
All shells of the Earth are in close relationship with each other. The main source of all processes in the geographic shell is the energy of the Sun, which is associated with two major processes that create the geographic shell - the water cycle and the development of life.

The geographical shell is called the largest natural complex, which is characterized by integrity (due to the circulation of substances and energy), stability, rhythm (daily, annual, long-term rhythms), hierarchy and zoning (natural and climatic zones, natural zones and altitudinal zonality).

End of work -

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The geographical envelope, its components, the relationship between them

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The composition of the geographical shell of our planet includes four components: the hydrosphere and biosphere completely, and the atmosphere and lithosphere - partially. At the same time, they do not function purely autonomously, but constantly interact. Parts of these systems are the components of the geographic envelope: soil, plants, water, minerals, animals, etc.

Natural complexes

All components that are parts of the geographic envelope are divided into certain complexes in the horizontal direction. These are territories that are homogeneous not only in terms of the modern composition of natural components, but also in terms of the historical component. They have the same composition of waters (both above and below ground), the geological part, and the biocenosis.

Rice. 1. Components of the geographic envelope.

Natural complexes are formed due to the interaction of their constituent parts in the same way as a geographic shell - due to the mutual influence of its components.

Natural complexes are not the same in size and today have already been significantly changed due to
due to the strong influence of the anthropogenic factor.

Relationship of geographic shell components

Thanks to the cycles of matter and energy, which are described in the textbook for grade 7, the individual components of the geographic shell are connected enough to form integrity. There are many different cycles (atmospheric, earth's crust, etc.), but the most important is water. Because of what is amazing substance, like water, is capable of passing into different states, it conforms with each other all the components of the natural shell and ensures their existence.

Figure 2. The water cycle.

The biological cycle is also important, when mineral substances become part of living organisms, then again returning to the mineral state. This is a iterative process.

The tropospheric circulation of air ensures the survival of the living components of the geographic envelope; the hydrosphere also participates in it.

The speed of its flow depends on the region: it occurs most quickly at the equator, slower in the polar regions.

Rice. 3. Air cycle.

Living and non-living components of the geographic envelope

Living Components- These are the components of the biosphere, that is, flora and fauna, as well as bacteria and fungi. They are involved in the biological cycle.

Water, air, minerals- these are non-living components that are included in the litho-, atmosphere and hydrospheres of the Earth.

What have we learned?

That the components that make up the geographical envelope of our planet can be living and non-living, but they are all part of the earthly spheres and, accordingly, certain cycles that ensure universal interaction. These components are combined into historically formed natural complexes that change under the influence of man. Such complexes exist due to the interaction of their parts.

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Components of the geographic envelope and their interaction.

Atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere - four shells the globe are in complex interaction, interpenetrate each other. Together they make up geographical envelope.

Life develops in the geographical shell, the activity of water, ice, wind manifests itself, soils, sedimentary rocks are formed.

The geographic envelope is an area of complex interpenetration, the interaction of cosmic and terrestrial forces. It continues to develop and become more complex as a result of the interaction of animate and inanimate nature.

The upper boundary of the geographic shell corresponds to the tropopause - the transitional layer between the troposphere and the stratosphere. Above the equator, this layer is located at an altitude of 16-18 km, and at the poles - 8-10 km. At these heights, the processes generated by the interaction of the geospheres fade and stop. There is practically no water vapor in the stratosphere, there is no vertical movement of air, and temperature changes are not associated with the influence of the earth's surface. Life is impossible here.

The lower boundary on land runs at a depth of 3-5 km, i.e., where the composition and properties of rocks change, there is no liquid water and living organisms.

The geographic shell of the Earth is an integral material system, qualitatively different from other geospheres of the Earth. Its integrity is determined by the continuous interaction of solid, liquid and gaseous, and with the emergence of life - and living substances. All components of the geographic envelope interact using solar energy coming to the Earth, and the energy of the internal forces of the Earth.

The interaction between the geospheres of the Earth within the geographic envelope occurs as a result of the circulation of substances (water, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and etc.).

All components of the geographic envelope are in complex relationships. A change in one component necessarily causes a change in others.

Rhythm of phenomena in the geographical shell. The geographic envelope of the Earth is constantly changing, the relationship between its individual components is becoming more complicated. These changes occur in time and space. In nature, there are rhythms of different duration. Short, diurnal and annual rhythms are especially important for living organisms. Their periods of rest and activity are consistent with these rhythms. circadian rhythm(change of day and night) is due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis; annual rhythm(change of seasons) - the revolution of the Earth around the Sun. The annual rhythm is manifested in the existence of periods of rest and vegetation in plants, in molting and migration of animals, in some cases - in hibernation, reproduction. The annual rhythm in the geographical envelope depends on the latitude of places: in equatorial latitudes it is less pronounced than in temperate or polar ones.

Daily rhythms proceed against the background of annual ones, annual ones - against the background of long-term ones. There are also age-old, long-term rhythms, such as climate change (cooling - warming, desiccation - moistening).

Changes in the geographical envelope also occur as a result of the movement of the continents, the advance and retreat of the seas, in the course of geological processes: during erosion and accumulation, the work of the sea, volcanism. On the whole, the geographical shell is developing progressively: from simple to complex, from lower to higher.

Zoning and sectoring of the geographic envelope.

The most important structural feature of the geographic envelope is its zoning. Zoning law was formulated by the great Russian natural scientist V.V. Dokuchaev, who wrote that the location of our planet relative to the Sun, its rotation and sphericity affect the climate, vegetation and animals, which are distributed over the earth's surface in the direction from north to south in a strictly defined order .

Zoning is better expressed in the vast plains. However, the boundaries of geographical zones rarely coincide with parallels. The fact is that the distribution of zones is influenced by many other natural factors (for example, relief). Significant differences can be observed within the zone. This is explained by the fact that zonal processes are superimposed on azonal ones, due to internal factors that are not subject to the laws of zoning (relief, distribution of land and water).

The largest zonal divisions of the geographic envelope - geographic zones, they are distinguished according to the radiation balance (arrival-expenditure of solar radiation) and the nature of the general circulation of the atmosphere. The following geographical zones exist on Earth: equatorial, subequatorial (northern and southern), tropical (northern and southern), subtropical (northern and southern), temperate (northern and southern), subpolar (subarctic and subantarctic), polar (arctic and antarctic) .

Geographical belts do not have a regular ring shape, they expand, narrow, bend under the influence of continents and oceans, sea currents, mountain systems.

On the continents and oceans, the geographical zones are qualitatively different. On the oceans, they are well expressed at depths up to 150 m, weakly - up to a depth of 2000 m.

Under the influence of the oceans on the continents within the geographical zones are formed longitudinal sectors(in temperate, subtropical and tropical belts), oceanic and continental.

On the plains within geographical zones, they distinguish natural areas(Fig. 45). In the continental sector of the temperate zone within the East European Plain, these are zones of forests, forest-steppes, steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts. Natural zones are called subdivisions of the earth's surface, characterized by similar soil-plant and climatic conditions. The main factor in the formation of soil and vegetation cover is the ratio of temperatures and moisture.

Rice. 45. The main biozones of the Earth

Vertical explanation. Vertically, natural components change at a different rate than horizontally. When climbing up in the mountains, the amount of precipitation and the light regime change. The same phenomena are expressed in a different way on the plain. The different exposure of the slopes is the reason for the uneven distribution of temperature, moisture, and soil and vegetation cover. The causes of latitudinal zonality and vertical zonality are different: zonality depends on the angle of incidence of the sun's rays and the ratio of heat and moisture; vertical zonality - from a decrease in temperature with height and degree of moisture.

Almost every mountainous country on Earth has its own peculiarities of vertical zonality. In many mountainous countries, the mountain tundra belt falls out and is replaced by a belt of mountain meadows.

Rice. 46. Vegetation change depending on the latitude and altitude of the area

The altitudinal zonality begins from the zone located at the foot of the mountain (Fig. 46). The most important factor in the distribution of belt heights is the degree of moisture.

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§ 40. Circulation of matter and energy in the biosphere§ 42. natural areas Russia