The preventive principle of health care, the essence of hygiene and its tasks, theoretical and methodological aspects of hygiene are outlined. The hygienic characteristics of atmospheric air, water, soil, radiation factor are given. The issues of rational nutrition, hygiene of populated areas and housing, hospitals, clinics, pharmacy organizations and pharmaceutical enterprises are considered. The requirements for planning, sanitary and technical improvement, interior decoration, equipment and maintenance of premises, occupational health, hygiene of children and adolescents are given. For students of institutions of secondary specialized education in the profile "Health".

* * *

The following excerpt from the book Hygiene and human ecology (Team of authors, 2015) provided by our book partner - the company LitRes.

Chapter 1 Environmental Hygiene

The regularities of the influence of atmospheric air, water and soil factors on the health of the population are studied by environmental health . It also develops measures to prevent the adverse effects of factors on health and protect the environment from pollution.

Most often, environmental factors affect a person together. As a result of interaction, some factors can strengthen or weaken the effect of others, add up or remain indifferent.

One of the most important environmental problems of today is its pollution, which is understood as the introduction of new, non-characteristic components, or the excess of their natural level. There are sources of pollution and environmental pollutants. TO pollution sources include industrial enterprises, transport, household facilities, agricultural enterprises, etc. pollutants are chemical, physical and biological.

Environmental pollution is a risk factor and has an adverse effect on health, which is expressed in the violation of the functions of organs and systems, the appearance of acute and chronic poisoning, the increase in morbidity, the development of long-term consequences, the delay in physical development, the deterioration of the demographic situation and the human environment as a whole.

Environmental protection from pollution is carried out in many areas and includes the implementation of legislative, technological, sanitary, planning and organizational measures.

Of particular importance are legislative measures, which include the development of hygienic standards, including the establishment of maximum allowable concentrations for chemical and maximum allowable doses and levels for physical and biological pollutants. At present, when resolving issues of protection, they are guided by the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus, the Law on Environmental Protection. Technological measures should be considered as the main ones, as they allow to drastically limit pollution. This is achieved through the development and creation of closed technological processes, waste-free technologies, etc. planning activities include zoning the territory of populated areas, landscaping, etc. Sanitary The measures provide for the treatment of emissions into the atmosphere, discharges into water bodies and waste to the soil using treatment devices. Organizational events consist in the implementation of emissions and discharges in different time days, shift work of technological equipment, etc.

1.1. Hygienic characteristics of atmospheric air

One of the most significant environmental factors is atmospheric air, without which a person can live only a few minutes. It is a mixture of gases that fill the atmosphere. TO physical factors atmospheric air include temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric pressure, movement, ionization, electric and magnetic fields, solar radiation. Chemical Factors represented by nitrogen, oxygen, carbon monoxide (IV) and other components. biological factors atmospheric air are microorganisms.

Atmospheric air is of great importance for humans. It is involved in respiration, excretion, heat transfer and other physiological processes. Atmospheric air also forms the air environment of residential and industrial premises, is a reservoir for the accumulation of harmful substances, a climate-forming factor, and a source of water and soil pollution.

Many components of the air are modeled and used as therapeutic. In particular, infrared and ultraviolet rays are used to treat inflammatory processes, low temperatures - in surgical practice, hyperbaric oxygenation - in the treatment of internal and nervous diseases. Atmospheric air is used as a hardening agent.

Abrupt changes in the properties and composition of air that go beyond the limits of human adaptive capabilities are risk factors that adversely affect the most important functions of the body and lead to various diseases.

The air that a person breathes must be transparent, without foreign odors, have a natural chemical composition, do not contain toxic chemicals, dust, radionuclides, pathogenic microorganisms and other pollutants.

Hygienic value of physical factors of atmospheric air

On the ground temperature ranges from -94 o C to +63 o C. The optimum temperature for a person is +20 o C (+15 ... +25 o C). At air temperatures above 35 ° C, heat transfer becomes more difficult, breathing and pulse become more frequent, blood pressure decreases, and coordination of movements deteriorates. Prolonged exposure to high temperatures can lead to heat stroke, which occurs with fever, headaches, vomiting, drop in blood pressure, rapid breathing, loss of consciousness.

Under the influence of low temperatures, the body's heat transfer increases, the skin temperature decreases, pain sensitivity weakens, adynamia and drowsiness appear. When hypothermia increases the number of colds, frostbite occurs.

Optimal for humans relative humidity 50% (40–60%). At humidity below 20%, thirst appears, mucous membranes dry up. High humidity leads to a violation of thermoregulation. The human body tolerates dry air more easily than damp air.

Optimal for humans Atmosphere pressure 760 ± 20 mmHg Art. (1013 ± 26.5 hPa). With a decrease in atmospheric pressure while climbing mountains, altitude sickness develops, which is based on the symptoms of hypoxia: rapid fatigue, headaches, tachycardia, changes in blood composition, etc.

An increase in atmospheric pressure during descent into underground caves, mines, under water causes noise and pain in the ears, decreased hearing acuity, decreased heart rate and respiration, decreased systolic and increased diastolic blood pressure. With a sharp increase in atmospheric pressure, rupture of the eardrums is possible.

air movement characterized by direction and speed. To identify patterns in the direction of movement, a wind rose is used, which is a graphical representation of the frequency of winds. To build a wind rose on the lines of the rhumbs, segments are plotted that correspond in length to the number of winds of a certain direction, expressed as a percentage of their total number. The wind rose is important when designing populated areas, choosing a site for the construction of hospitals, and locating industrial enterprises. When outdoors, the direction of the wind must be taken into account, as northerly winds are colder and southerly winds are warmer.

The optimal speed for a person is 2.5 (1–4) m/s. A strong wind sharply increases heat transfer from the surface of the body, worsens the neuropsychic state and general well-being, and makes it difficult to perform physical work. Weak wind or its absence reduces the heat transfer from the body.

As a result ionization light and heavy negative and positive ions are formed. Light ions exist independently or join neutral molecules of oxygen, ozone, nitrogen and its oxides.

Rural areas contain on average 4000 light ions per 1 cm3 of air, in industrial cities - from 40 to 400. Negative light ions have a tonic effect on the body, stimulate metabolism and the activity of the central nervous system. Positive ions reduce the tone of the body, cause drowsiness, increase blood pressure.

During a thunderstorm, tension electric field increases hundreds of thousands of times. The electric field affects the electrophysiological processes in the body and the well-being of a person.

quick change magnetic field (magnetic storm) occurs due to an increased influx of charged particles from the surface of the Sun during a period of increased activity. During magnetic storms the processes of inhibition in the central nervous system are intensified, the frequency of exacerbations of neuropsychiatric diseases increases, the state of health worsens and working capacity decreases.

Solar radiation represents an integral flow of electromagnetic and corpuscular radiations. In terms of hygiene, special attention is paid to the optical part of the solar spectrum, which includes infrared (2800-760 nm), visible (760-400 nm) and ultraviolet (400-280 nm) rays.

The hygienic value of the integral flux of solar radiation is to stimulate physiological processes, improve well-being, increase overall tone and performance. In addition, ultraviolet rays cause skin pigmentation, have a general stimulating, anti-rachitic and bactericidal effect, and infrared rays warm the tissues. Visible rays irritate the visual analyzer, participate in the formation of circadian rhythms and photoperiodism, stimulate physiological functions, affect emotions and the psyche. So, red-orange rays cause excitation, blue-violet rays cause inhibition, and yellow-green rays cause a feeling of peace.

At increased intensity, infrared rays lead to burns, cataracts, and suppression of the immune system. In severe cases, sunstroke is observed, which is accompanied by strong excitement, loss of consciousness, convulsions. Under the influence of intense ultraviolet rays, headache, fever, and in severe cases - burns, dermatitis, photophthalmia, malignant tumors are noted. With insufficient ultraviolet radiation (solar starvation), rickets can develop in children, and osteoporosis in adults. With reduced visible radiation, visual functions deteriorate, circadian rhythms are disturbed, and with increased visible radiation, there may be blindness.

Hygienic value of weather and climate

The physical factors of atmospheric air - solar radiation, atmospheric pressure, humidity, air movement - are meteorological and participate in the formation of weather. Weather is the state of the atmosphere in a given area at a particular moment. Moderate weather changes do not have a significant effect on the body, and sharp fluctuations can lead to an exacerbation of chronic diseases, the development of seasonal diseases and meteotropic reactions. With sharp fluctuations in the weather, cardiovascular diseases are usually exacerbated. Seasonal include colds, meteotropic reactions - deterioration of health, headaches and pain in the heart, tinnitus. Older people are more sensitive to weather changes.

Climate is the natural long-term weather regime for the area. According to the influence on a person, the climate is divided into sparing, annoying and training. The climate is mild and constant, annoying - cool and changeable, training - mountainous, continental. Belarus has a temperate climate, characterized by temperatures in January from -14 o C to -4 o C, in June from +14 o C to +22 o C, small daily temperature amplitudes, and low wind speed. The favorable effect of climate on the body is used in balneology (climatotherapy).

A person who has moved to a new climatic region adapts to new climatic conditions, i.e., acclimatizes. Acclimatization to a cold climate is accompanied by an increase in metabolism, an increase in heat production, a decrease in the content of vitamins C, B and D, and to a hot climate - a decrease in heart rate, blood pressure, temperature, and metabolism. In general, adaptation to a hot climate is more difficult than to a cold one.

In the process of acclimatization, the role of favorable working conditions, life, nutrition, clothing and footwear, personal hygiene, hardening and training is great.

The climate of a limited area or space is defined as microclimate. The indicators of indoor microclimate are temperature, relative humidity and air velocity.

To prevent the adverse effects of physical factors on a person, a rational drinking regime should be observed, clothing and hats appropriate for the season, hardening, training, and the use of specific and non-specific drugs. In order to prevent the harmful effects of intense solar radiation, it is necessary to protect the eyes, head and skin, and not to be exposed to prolonged exposure. In solar fasting, artificial sources of ultraviolet radiation are used.

Hygienic value of the chemical composition of air

Atmospheric air consists of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon monoxide (IV) and other gases (Table 1.1). Atmospheric air also contains 3–5 µg/m3 of ammonia and up to 4% moisture.

Oxygen takes part in breathing and energy metabolism processes. A decrease in the oxygen content in the air to 17% leads to an increase in heart rate and respiration, to 11% - to a decrease in working capacity, to 7-8% - to death. The central nervous system is especially sensitive to hypoxia.

Table 1.1. Composition of atmospheric air

For a person, the absolute content of oxygen in the inhaled air, i.e. its partial pressure, is important. Under normal conditions, the partial pressure of oxygen is 159 mm Hg. Art. As the altitude rises, the partial pressure decreases, and hypoxia develops in the body.

Inhalation of air with a high partial pressure of oxygen at 4 atm leads to damage to lung tissues, functional disorders of the central nervous system, the development of pneumonia and pulmonary edema. However, at an oxygen content of 40–60% and a pressure of 3 atm in the pressure chamber, normalization of the disturbed functions of the human body is noted.

carbon monoxide (IV ), or carbon dioxide, excites the respiratory center. A decrease in its content in the inhaled air causes respiratory arrest. An increase in carbon monoxide (IV) in the inhaled air up to 0.1% leads to discomfort, up to 3% leads to headache, shortness of breath, and decreased performance. When the content of carbon dioxide in the air is 4–5%, redness of the face, headache, tinnitus, increased blood pressure, palpitations, and agitation are noted. Increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide to 8 - 10% causes the formation of carbhemoglobin in the blood, rapid loss of consciousness and death.

Nitrogen dilutes oxygen when inhaling atmospheric air. With an increase in atmospheric pressure, nitrogen can have a narcotic effect, accompanied by dizziness, agitation, visual and auditory hallucinations. With rapid decompression, nitrogen causes a gas embolism, causing decompression sickness and organ infarcts.

Ozone at elevated concentrations, it causes irritation of the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract, dizziness, increased adrenaline levels, and pulmonary edema.

Ammonia, dust, smoke, bacteria, molds and yeasts, unicellular algae, spores and pollen of plants and other impurities of natural origin, the value of which is small due to small amounts and the ability of air to self-purify, may be present in the atmospheric air.

Atmospheric air pollution and its hygienic significance

Main pollution sources atmospheric air are industrial enterprises, transport, agricultural production and household facilities that emit pollutants into the atmosphere.

The most common chemical pollutants include oxides of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, physical - electromagnetic and ionizing radiation, noise, dust, biological - pathogenic microorganisms (tuberculosis bacteria, diphtheria, measles, influenza viruses, etc.).

Boilers and combined heat and power plants, when burning coal, oil, gas, pollute the atmospheric air with carbon and sulfur oxides, while road transport pollutes with carbon oxides and hydrocarbons. A large number of chemicals are emitted into the air by ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Agricultural facilities pollute the air with microorganisms and dust.

Atmospheric air is able to get rid of pollutants by self-purification, however, with severe pollution, self-purification processes in the air slow down.

In Belarus, total atmospheric emissions are approximately 3.3 million tons per year. The main pollutants are dust, oxides of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen. Strong air pollution with dust is noted in the cities of Orsha, nitrogen oxides - in Mogilev, ammonia - in Vitebsk, Novopolotsk, Polotsk, Grodno, hydrogen sulfide - in Mogilev, Polotsk, Novopolotsk, Mozyr. One of the most polluted is the atmospheric air of Novopolotsk.

Atmospheric air pollution can cause pathology, primarily from the respiratory system. So, sulfur oxide (IV) has a pronounced irritant effect, causes diseases of the upper respiratory tract. In high concentrations, it leads to the development of bronchitis, emphysema and death. Sulfur oxide is one of the components of toxic smog. Nitrogen oxides are characterized by an irritating effect on the respiratory organs. Large concentrations of them can lead to a narcotic effect and pulmonary edema. Nitrogen oxides are involved in the formation of photochemical smog. Inhalation of carbon monoxide (II) causes headaches, dizziness, weakness in the limbs, palpitations, sleep disturbance. In severe cases, poisoning ends in death.

Protection of atmospheric air from pollution

An important role in the protection of atmospheric air from pollution belongs to sanitary norms, rules and hygienic standards “Hygienic requirements for ensuring the quality of atmospheric air in settlements and places of recreation for the population”, approved by the Decree of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Belarus of June 30, 2009 No. 77. maximum allowable concentrations of pollutants in the atmospheric air and standards for approximately safe levels of exposure to pollutants in the atmospheric air of settlements and places of public recreation”, approved by the Decree of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Belarus of December 30, 2010 No. 186, with additions No. 38, No. 71 (Table 1.2).

Table 1.2. Maximum permissible concentrations of harmful substances in the atmospheric air of populated areas

At industrial enterprises, to limit emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere, closed technological cycles are created, harmful substances are replaced with less harmful ones, raw materials are cleaned of impurities, etc. Shift work of technological equipment is organized, harmful substances are emitted at different times of the day. Emissions to the atmosphere are preliminarily cleaned using filters, cyclones and other treatment facilities.

In settlements, the territory is zoned, landscaping of settlements is carried out, and sanitary protection zones of industrial enterprises are organized.

Control questions and tasks

1. What does environmental health study?

2. How do environmental factors affect a person?

3. What is the most important environmental problem today?

4. List the physical factors of atmospheric air.

5. Indicate the hygienic significance of the physical factors of atmospheric air.

6. Define weather, climate. What is their hygienic value?

7. How to prevent the adverse effects of physical factors on the human body?

8. List the chemical factors of atmospheric air.

9. What is the hygienic significance of the chemical composition of atmospheric air?

10. List the biological factors of atmospheric air.

11. Indicate the hygienic value of the biological components of atmospheric air.

12. Define environmental pollution.

13. Indicate the main sources of air pollution.

14. List the main air pollutants.

15. What is the hygienic value of air pollution?

16. Indicate the average daily MPC and maximum one-time MPC for oxides of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen.

17. List measures for the protection of atmospheric air from pollution.

18. What measures are taken to limit emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere at industrial enterprises and in settlements?

1.2. Hygienic characteristics of water and water supply

Water - the most common substance in the biosphere. The water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom and is dipole in structure. Water can be in liquid, solid and gaseous state. In human life, water is of great importance, in particular, in ensuring the normal course of physiological processes in the body (digestion, excretion, respiration, vision, thermoregulation). Water is a universal solvent, medium and participant in biochemical reactions, participates and contributes to the preservation of the colloidal state of blood plasma. Water is needed to maintain the cleanliness of the body, dwellings, public buildings, streets and squares, organizing heating and removing sewage, washing dishes, kitchen utensils, raw vegetables, berries and fruits, and cooking food. The water of mineral underground springs is widely used as a remedy for many diseases. Since ancient times, water has been used to harden the body.

However, water can also play a negative role, being one of the ways of transmission of pathogens of infectious diseases, a risk factor for excessive or insufficient salt composition.

In accordance with hygienic requirements, drinking water must be safe in epidemic and radiation terms, harmless in chemical composition, and have favorable organoleptic properties.

The need for water is determined by its quantity necessary to meet physiological, household, sanitary and industrial needs. In settlements that do not have internal water supply and sewerage and use water from standpipes, water consumption averages 30–60 dm 3 per day per person. In cities with water supply, sewerage, baths, centralized hot water supply, water consumption reaches 250–350 dm 3 per day per person.

Hygienic value of organoleptic properties of water

The properties of water that can be determined with the help of the senses are called organoleptic. The organoleptic properties of water include smell, taste, color, transparency, turbidity, temperature. Organoleptic properties can change under the influence of chemical and microbial contamination.

The importance of organoleptic properties lies in the fact that they determine appearance water, and may also indicate contamination. In addition, cloudy, opaque, colored in any color, warm, having an unpleasant smell and taste, water adversely affects the water-drinking regimen, inhibits the secretory activity of the stomach, and leads to refusal to drink water.

Hygienic value of the chemical composition of water

Problems with drinking water quality can be caused by natural factors (properties of aquifers) and anthropogenic influences (pollution due to human activities).

The most important chemical components of water are calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, chlorides, sulfates and sulfites, phosphates, carbonates and bicarbonates, iodine, iron, zinc, molybdenum, manganese, cobalt, fluorine, hydrogen, oxygen, etc.

The degree of mineral content can have a versatile effect on the human body. Depending on the amount of mineral salts, waters are distinguished insipid(up to 1 g / dm 3), brackish(1–2.5 g / dm 3) and salty(above 2.5 g / dm 3 minerals). High total mineralization of drinking water with constant use leads to indigestion, loss of appetite, disability, exacerbation of chronic diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. Salt water causes dehydration of the body, disrupts the acid-base balance, leads to a weakening of the heart and death.

Excess intake in the body with drinking water chlorides causes inhibition of gastric secretion, decreased diuresis, increased blood pressure, sulfates- violation of water-salt metabolism and dyspeptic phenomena.

Significant effect on the body calcium and magnesium salts, causing the natural hardness of water. In hard water, vegetables and meat are poorly boiled, tea is infused, soap is lathered. The hardness determines the scale deposits on the dishes. In individuals with sensitive thin skin, hard water leads to blockage of the sebaceous glands and causes painful dryness and irritation. With the systematic use of water with high hardness (above 10 mg·eq/l), a person increases the risk of developing urolithiasis. The optimal hardness of drinking water is 1.5–7 mg·eq/l.

The water may also contain chemical compounds that are toxic to the human body. Yes, an increased amount nitrates in drinking water can cause water-nitrate methemoglobinemia in children.

The quality of water is very dependent on what sources it comes from. Water from underground sources has high taste qualities due to the presence of certain salts, which are not found in surface water. However, water from underground sources often contains iron in increased quantities. High content gland is a natural property of the Belarusian underground water. Exceeding the hygienic standard of iron is typical for half of artesian wells in the territory of the Republic of Belarus, and in Polissya the share of such wells reaches 90–95%.

surface water less protected, therefore, must be subjected to more thorough cleaning compared to underground.

Areas where an excess or deficiency of trace elements in water, soil and plants is created are called biogeochemical provinces, and the diseases associated with them are called biogeochemical provinces. endemic. Endemic diseases caused by water include fluorosis, caries, "strontium" rickets, etc. Fluorosis develops with an excess intake of fluorine, caries - with a deficiency of fluorine in the body, "strontium" rickets - with an excess of strontium.

Prevention of endemic diseases includes the introduction of the necessary chemical elements into water and food, the creation of special mineral preparations (water fluoridation, the use of toothpastes with fluoride), water treatment in order to remove excess trace elements.

Hygienic value of the biological properties of water

The water contains a large number of free-living bacteria, unicellular algae, fungi and protozoa, as well as multicellular organisms. Pathogenic microorganisms live in natural water in small numbers, some of which quickly die, while others can remain viable for up to a year or more (for example, typhoid bacillus and vibrio cholerae). Causative agents of cholera, typhoid fever, viral hepatitis A, enterovirus infection, dysentery and other intestinal infections can be transmitted through water.

For humans, certain mollusks and crustaceans pose a certain danger, which are intermediate hosts of a wide tapeworm, feline and lung flukes and other helminths.

The presence of a large number of microorganisms can impair the organoleptic properties of water.

Hygienic characteristics of water supply sources

For their needs, a person mainly uses only fresh water from surface and underground sources.

surface sources, or surface waters divided into natural and artificial. Natural open sources include rivers, lakes and ponds, artificial - reservoirs.

Rivers are natural effluents from springs, swamps, lakes, glaciers. Their waters are characterized by a large amount of suspended matter, low transparency and high microbial contamination.

Lakes and ponds- these are land depressions of various sizes and shapes, replenished with water mainly due to precipitation and springs. They have little self-cleaning ability and can be significantly contaminated by chemical, physical and biological agents.

reservoirs- These are artificial reservoirs arranged on rivers blocked by dams. Under conditions of stagnant conditions, especially in summer, there is a “blooming” of reservoirs due to the development of blue-green algae.

Underground springs according to the conditions of occurrence, they are divided into groundwater and interstratal groundwater.

ground water accumulate over the first waterproof rock and do not have a waterproof layer on top. They are formed mainly due to the filtration of atmospheric precipitation or water from open reservoirs. However, if the layer of soil through which the water is filtered is not very thick, then groundwater can easily be polluted. These waters are colorless, transparent and have a good taste. Basically, groundwater is used for household and drinking water supply in rural areas with decentralized water supply (wells).

Interstratal waters enclosed between two impermeable rocks. They are fed in places where the waterproof roof is interrupted. Interstratal waters have good organoleptic properties, chemical and microbial composition. They are divided into non-pressure and pressure (artesian). Artesian waters move under pressure and can gush.

Because groundwater is better protected from pollution, it has great benefits for drinking water supply. When choosing sources of water supply from surface waters, preference should be given to rivers, and from underground - artesian waters.

Hygienic characteristics of water supply systems

Currently, two water supply systems are used in populated areas: decentralized, or local, and centralized. At decentralized system the consumer himself takes water directly from the water source. At centralized system water is supplied through pipes to residential buildings, institutions and enterprises.

Decentralized water supply in the republic is carried out from shaft wells reaching the first waterproof layer. Shaft wells should be located on an elevated, uncontaminated area at a distance of at least 50 m from possible sources of pollution. The well must have a cover, a sand and gravel filter, a clay castle, an asphalt or concrete pavement with drainage grooves, and a public bucket or water pump. It must be periodically cleaned and disinfected.

Centralized water supply is carried out by arranging a water supply system from underground or open water sources.

The underground water pipeline usually consists of a water intake structure, first lift pumps, a collection tank, second lift pumps, a water tower and a distribution network.

The water pipeline from open reservoirs includes a water intake structure, a pumping station of the first lift, a sump with coagulation, filters, a chlorination plant, a clean water reservoir, a pumping station of the second lift, water conduits, a water tower, and a distribution network.

From a hygienic point of view, it is optimal to install a water supply system from an underground source.

Water quality improvement

To improve the quality of water, purification, disinfection and special treatment methods are used. cleaning aimed at clarifying and discoloring water. It is carried out by mechanical (settling), chemical (coagulation) and physical (filtration) methods. The sequence of stages of water purification at waterworks is as follows: coagulation, settling, filtration.

Coagulation consists in adding a coagulant to the water - most often aluminum sulfate. During the coagulation process, hydroxides are formed, which adsorb pollutants and quickly precipitate in the form of flakes, freeing water from suspended particles.

settling is carried out in special settling tanks for 2–8 hours. A more complete release of water from suspended particles occurs in the process filtration on special fine-pore filters.

Water disinfection designed to kill micro-organisms. It is carried out by chemical and physical methods. Chemical methods are based on the addition of chemicals to water that cause the death of microorganisms. One of the most reliable and proven chemical methods is chlorination using chlorine gas, bleach and other preparations containing chlorine. Physical methods include boiling, ultraviolet irradiation, the use of ultrasound, etc.

Special Methods treatments include deodorization, softening, desalination, iron removal, decontamination, etc. Deodorization- this is the removal of foreign odors and tastes of water, softening- complete or partial release of water from calcium and magnesium cations. Under desalination refers to the removal of salts, iron removal- iron, decontamination- radioactive substances.

Hygienic standardization of water quality of water sources

Taking into account the initial water quality and the required degree of treatment, water sources are divided into three classes (STB 1756–2007 “Sources of centralized domestic drinking water supply. Hygienic, technical requirements and selection rules”) (Table 1.3).

In the water of the used water sources of all classes, the dry residue should not exceed 1000 mg / dm 3, chlorides - 350 mg / dm 3, sulfates - 500 mg / dm 3, total hardness - 7 mmol / dm 3. Water also should not contain pathogens of intestinal infections, toxic chemicals and radionuclides in concentrations exceeding special standards.

Table 1.3. Indicators of water quality of sources of centralized domestic drinking water supply

In the water of decentralized water supply sources, turbidity should not exceed 2 mg / dm 3, color - 30 o, smell and taste - 3 points, nitrates - 45 mg / dm 3, thermotolerant coliform bacteria should not be in 100 cm 3 (SanPiN and GN " Hygienic requirements for sources of non-centralized drinking water supply of the population”, approved by the Decree of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Belarus No. 105 dated August 2, 2010).

When examining water from decentralized sources, special attention should be paid to the presence of ammonia, nitrites, nitrates, and chlorides. The recommended content of nitrites is not more than 3.3 mg / dm 3, ammonia - no more than 2 mg / dm 3, chlorides - 350 mg / dm 3. Availability ammonia raises the suspicion of fresh faecal contamination of the water and possible contamination by microorganisms. Nitrites formed as a result of reduction of nitrates and nitrification of ammonia. In the latter case, they acquire great sanitary and indicative significance and indicate recent water pollution with organic substances of animal origin. Nitrates are found in swampy waters and can also form from ammonia and nitrite contaminants. The content of only nitrates in water can indicate long-term pollution, while the content of nitrates, ammonia and nitrites at the same time can indicate permanent and long-term water pollution. chlorides may indicate water pollution by household wastewater.

Hygienic standardization of tap water quality

The main regulatory document for water in centralized water supply is SanPiN 10-124 RB 99 “Drinking water. Hygienic requirements for water quality of centralized drinking water supply systems. Quality control".

Content chemical substances in drinking water is given in table. 1.4. Organoleptic indicators should not exceed 2 points in smell, 2 points in taste, 20 o in color, 1.5 mg / dm 3 turbidity (according to koalin). Radiation safety drinking water is noted with a total α-radioactivity of 0.2 Bq / dm 3 and with a total β-radioactivity - 1 Bq / dm 3.

Table 1.4. Drinking water standards for chemical indicators

Water pollution and its hygienic significance

To the main sources of water pollution include industrial enterprises, household and agricultural facilities that discharge wastewater with pollutants into water bodies.

The most common pollutants chemical nature are nitrogen-containing compounds (nitrates, nitrites, ammonia), surfactants, hydrocarbons, heavy metals, pesticides, physical - sand, floating impurities, biological - bacteria, viruses, protozoan cysts, helminth eggs.

Urban wastewater contains a large number of microorganisms, including pathogenic (bacteria, viruses, fungi, helminth eggs), organic (waste products, detergent residues, etc.) and mineral pollutants (sand, clay, acids and etc.).

Industrial wastewater, depending on its origin, may contain heavy metals, oil and oil products, hydrocarbons, acids, alkalis.

In agricultural Wastewater ah organic compounds, microorganisms are noted. Surface runoff is saturated with suspended solids, organic compounds, and may contain pesticides and fertilizers.

Reservoirs are able to get rid of pollutants in a natural way, i.e. self-cleaning by hydraulic, mechanical, physical, chemical and biological methods. However, in case of severe pollution by sewage, self-purification processes are suppressed.

Pollution of water with phenol, oil and oil products leads to a sharp deterioration in organoleptic properties, acids - to a decrease, and alkalis - to an increase in pH.

Human consumption of water contaminated with harmful chemicals can cause poisoning. Water pollution with polycyclic and aromatic amines, arsenic can lead to long-term carcinogenic effects.

In the Republic of Belarus, about 1129 million m 3 of wastewater is annually discharged into surface water bodies, including domestic wastewater - 69% and industrial water - 28%. Most rivers are moderately polluted with chemicals. Strong pollution of rivers is noted downstream after large cities. The Svisloch, Dnieper, Zapadnaya Dvina are the most polluted with chemicals, Pripyat and Dnieper with radionuclides. There are known facts of groundwater pollution on the territory of the Republic of Belarus by microorganisms, nitrates, pesticides.

Protection of water from pollution

Protection of surface waters from pollution is carried out in accordance with the requirements of SanPiN 2.1.2.12-33-2005 “Hygienic requirements for the protection of surface waters from pollution” No. 198 dated November 28, 2005. MPCs for harmful substances in water have been established (Table 1.5).

Table 1.5. Maximum Permissible Concentrations of Harmful Substances in the Water of Water Bodies of Household and Drinking and Cultural and Household Water Use

In order to protect water from pollution, industrial enterprises are introducing drainless production and recycling water supply. Before the discharge of wastewater into water bodies, a treatment plant is provided, discharges are carried out at different times of the day.

An important place in the protection of water from pollution belongs to the organization and operation of sanitary protection zones (SPZ) (Fig. 1.1). Sanitary protection zones sources of water supply and water pipelines of domestic and drinking water supply - a specially allocated territory and water area of ​​a water body in which special regimes of economic and other activities are established in order to protect the source and water supply facilities from pollution. The requirements for the size of the ZSO and their content are established in SanPiN 10-113 RB 99 "Zones for the sanitary protection of water supply sources and water supply systems for domestic and drinking purposes."

Rice. 1.1. Schemes of zones of sanitary protection of water supply from large and small rivers: but- for small reservoirs; b– for medium and large reservoirs

Typically, sanitary protection zones are organized as part of three belts. First belt (strict regime) includes the territory of the water intake, water-lifting devices, head structures, water supply channel. It is designed to protect the water intake site and water intake facilities from accidental or intentional pollution and damage. The first belt is fenced and guarded. The boundaries of the first water supply belt from an underground source are established within a radius of 30–50 m. The first water supply belt from an open flowing reservoir is installed upstream at a distance of 200 m, downstream - 100 m, along the bank adjacent to the water intake - 100 m from the water line summer-autumn low water.

Second And third belt (restrictions) include an area intended to prevent possible microbial and chemical contamination of water, respectively. The placement of various objects on this territory is controlled by the state sanitary supervision authorities. Construction, wastewater discharge, use of the reservoir for sports and other purposes are limited here.

Control questions and tasks

1. What is the importance of water for a person?

2. What are the hygienic requirements for water?

3. List the physical factors of water.

4. What is the hygienic significance of the physical factors of water.

5. Name the chemical components of water.

6. What is the hygienic significance of the chemical composition of water?

7. List the infectious diseases, in the transmission of which the water factor is of primary importance.

8. List the sources of water supply.

9. Give a hygienic description of the sources of water supply.

10. Name the water supply systems of populated areas.

11. Give a hygienic description of water supply systems.

12. How is water quality improved?

13. What is the essence of purification, disinfection and special treatment of water?

14. How is the hygienic standardization of water quality of water sources carried out?

15. How is the hygienic standardization of the quality of tap water carried out?

16. List the main sources and pollutants of water.

17. Indicate the hygienic value of water pollution.

18. What measures are taken at enterprises to protect water from pollution?

19. Indicate the zones of sanitary protection of water sources.

1.3. Hygienic characteristics of the soil and cleaning of populated areas

The soil is the upper fertile layer earth's crust, which is a complex of mineral and organic substances inhabited by living organisms. Its thickness varies from a few centimeters to 3 m or more. TO soil physical factors include porosity, air and moisture permeability, air and thermal conditions, water capacity. Soil organisms are biological agents.

Chemical composition soil is due to mineral and organic matter. The rocky part (particles larger than 3 mm), sand (particles 0.2–3 mm) and clay (particles 0.001–0.01 mm) are formed from mineral compounds. Depending on the ratio of sand and clay soils are divided into sandy, sandy loamy, clayey and loamy. The organic matter of the soil consists of a colloidal fraction of humus-humus with particles up to 0.0001 mm.

Abrupt changes in the properties and composition of the soil are a risk factor that adversely affect the most important functions of the human body and lead to various diseases.

The soil has a significant impact on the chemical and microbial composition of groundwater. Raw soils adversely affect heat exchange processes, residential and public buildings and structures. Dust content and bacterial pollution of atmospheric air largely depend on the state of the soil.

Hygienic value of soil physical factors

Soil porosity is characterized by the volume of pores contained in it, air and moisture permeability - by the depth of their penetration into the soil, air and thermal conditions - by the chemical composition and temperature of the soil, respectively, water capacity - the maximum number water absorbed by a unit volume of soil.

The hygienic significance of the physical properties of the soil lies primarily in the impact on living conditions. So, water from water-intensive moist soils can get into the foundations of residential buildings, public and industrial buildings and cause constant dampness of basements, the lower part of the walls and the destruction of the foundation. The temperature regime of the first floors of rooms and basements depends on the temperature of the soil. Soil temperature, the chemical composition of soil air and water capacity also determine the vital activity of soil organisms and self-purification processes.

From a hygienic point of view, the most favorable is the soil, which has a high air and water permeability, air and thermal conditions, since these properties contribute to the processes of self-cleaning, maintaining the foundations of buildings in good condition, and eliminating dampness in the basements and on the lower floors.

Hygienic value of the chemical composition of the soil

Of the minerals in the soil are silicon, aluminum, iron, potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, lead, copper, fluorine, iodine and other chemical elements that are mainly in an oxidized state. Soil humus contains organic compounds: proteins, carbohydrates, fats, as well as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur.

Due to the peculiarities of geological and soil-forming factors, in some areas (biogeochemical provinces) there is an insufficient or excess content in the soil of a number of chemical elements (iodine, cobalt, molybdenum, manganese, zinc, boron, selenium, etc.).

Insufficient or excessive content of mineral substances affects the chemical composition of water and plants and can lead to the development of endemic diseases in humans. Biogeochemical endemic diseases are most often characterized by metabolic disorders.

Among endemias, endemic goiter, which develops as a result of insufficient intake of iodine in the human body, is the most studied. Endemic diseases also include molybdenosis, due to the high content of molybdenum in the soil. Excessive content of selenium in the soil leads to disruption of the gastrointestinal tract and liver, insufficient - to hyposelenosis.

The prevention of endemic soil-related diseases follows the same principles as those related to water. In particular, with a lack of trace elements in the soil, it is recommended to add the missing elements to food (iodized salt), take medicines containing minerals. With an excess of trace elements, you should not consume foods enriched with them. It is recommended to take medicines and products that promote the rapid binding and removal of excess chemical elements from the body.

Biological components of the soil and their hygienic significance

Soil living organisms are represented mainly by microorganisms, the total number of which reaches 2 billion per 1 g. These include fungi, algae, bacteria, protozoa and viruses. Worms, larvae and pupae of arthropods, arachnids, insects, moles, and mice also live in the soil.

Microorganisms play a leading role in the processes of soil self-purification. Under the influence of bacteria in aerobic and anaerobic conditions, the processes of mineralization of organic pollutants proceed. Nitrofikatory bacteria oxidize ammonia to nitrites and nitrates, iron bacteria convert iron oxide salts into hydroxides.

From a hygienic point of view, the decomposition of organic substances with the participation of oxygen is more favorable, since it proceeds without the formation of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, methane and other harmful substances.

Soil pollution and its hygienic significance

Main pollution sources soils are industrial enterprises, public utilities, agricultural production and transport, dumping their waste with pollutants on the surface of the earth.

To the most common pollutants chemical nature includes pesticides, fertilizers, heavy metals, oil, hydrocarbons, acids, alkalis; biological - pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoan cysts, helminth eggs; physical - dust, radionuclides.

Pathogenic microorganisms enter the soil with physiological secretions of humans and animals, sewage, and corpses. Dust falls on the soil from the air, and radionuclides come from nuclear weapons tests and accidents at nuclear power plants.

Soil pollution leads to a change in its composition and properties and the formation of artificial biogeochemical provinces containing pesticides, fertilizers, heavy metals and other toxic substances.

Soil contamination with chemical and radioactive substances can lead to high levels of toxic substances and radionuclides in plant foods and medicinal plants. In the process of extraction, they can be released from plants simultaneously with active substances and have a negative impact not only on the biological activity of the drug, but also directly on the body of a sick person.

The soil is able to get rid of pollutants by self-purification, however, with severe pollution, these processes in the soil slow down.

On the territory of Belarus, light soils predominate, requiring liming and fertilizers. Soils are devastated by wet and dry deposition of 34–43 kg/ha/year of nitrogen and sulfur oxides.

Annually Belarus generates 1.685 million tons of toxic waste and more than 12 million m 3 of municipal solid waste. Waste processing enterprises utilize about 600 thousand m 3 of urban waste, and the rest are buried in landfills.

A pronounced adverse effect of chemical pollutants on the health of the population is observed in artificial biogeochemical provinces. In particular, heavy metals (mercury, lead, arsenic) accumulating in the soil can cause poisoning. Soil contamination with nitrates worsens the taste of food products and in some cases leads to the development soil nitrate methemoglobinemia.

Soil composition and human health are adversely affected by the uncontrolled use of pesticides that can accumulate in the soil and are resistant to degradation. Soil contamination with biological agents can lead to the development of intestinal infections(typhoid fever, dysentery), viral diseases(polio). Through the soil, a person usually becomes infected with spore bacteria of gas gangrene, tetanus, and anthrax.

Soil plays an important role in the distribution ascariasis And trichuriasis. For these helminths, the soil creates favorable conditions for the maturation of eggs to the invasive stage.

In soil heavily polluted with organic matter, pathogens can remain viable for a long time. In particular, dysentery bacteria survive in the soil for up to 100 days, poliomyelitis viruses for up to 150 days, roundworm eggs for up to a year, and anthrax spores for decades.

The degree of soil contamination can be judged by sanitary number, which is calculated as the ratio of humus nitrogen to total organic soil nitrogen. With self-purification of the soil and mineralization of organic substances, the amount of humus nitrogen increases and, consequently, the sanitary number increases, approaching unity.

Important indicators of soil pollution are also coli-titer, the presence of helminth eggs, the number of larvae and pupae of synanthropic flies, the multiplicity of exceeding the MPC for exogenous chemicals. According to the danger to human health, soils are divided into safe, relatively safe, dangerous, extremely dangerous, and according to the degree of pollution - into clean, slightly polluted, polluted and heavily polluted (Table 1.6).

Table 1.6. Soil health indicators

Note. B, C - safe, clean; OB, SZ - relatively safe, slightly polluted; O, Z - dangerous, polluted; ChO, NW - extremely dangerous, heavily polluted.

Soil protection from pollution

Of particular importance in the protection of soil from pollution belongs to the SanPiN "Hygienic requirements for the maintenance of territories of settlements and organizations" dated November 1, 2011. MPCs for harmful substances in the soil have been established (Table 1.7).

Table 1.7. Maximum permissible concentrations of chemicals in soil (from GN 2.1.7.12-1-2004 and GN No. 107 of 08/04/2010)

In accordance with the Decree of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Belarus No. 17/1 dated January 12, 2012, MPC for oil products in agricultural lands, lands of nature protection, recreational, historical and cultural purposes, lands of forest and water resources 50 mg / kg, lands of settlements , horticultural associations, dacha cooperatives - 100 mg / kg. MPCs for heavy metals have been established in the soils of various functional zones of populated areas (Table 1.8).

Table 1.8. Maximum allowable concentrations of mobile forms of chromium, zinc, cadmium, nickel, copper and total lead content in soils of various functional zones of populated areas

Effective measures to protect soil from pollution are the introduction of waste-free production, the improvement of technological processes.

In the settlements, cleaning from waste, which is understood as a complex of planned sanitary, sanitary and economic measures aimed at protecting the health of the population and creating favorable living conditions. It includes the collection, removal, neutralization and disposal of liquid and solid waste.

Cleaning of populated areas from liquid waste is carried out by export and floating, or sewer, systems. Export cleaning system includes the collection of liquid waste and their removal outside the settlement to the places of neutralization and disposal. Collection of liquid waste is carried out in isolated cesspools of toilets and garbage dumps. The removal of sewage from cesspools outside the settlements is carried out by special vehicles. Liquid waste is neutralized during the export system, most often by the soil method in the fields of sewage and plowing.

Sewer system consists of sewage receivers, a network of sewer pipes, manholes and treatment facilities. Allocate household, industrial and storm sewer systems. Sewer systems can exist separately or form a combined sewer.

Removal of liquid waste is carried out through underground sewer networks outside the settlement to the places of disinfection and disposal. From a hygienic point of view, the sewerage system has advantages over the export one, since it eliminates the possibility of pollution by waste from buildings, soil, air, water, and completely eliminates the contact of the population with sewage.

The treatment plant produces mechanical cleaning, freeing wastewater from mineral and organic pollutants. Liquid waste neutralization produced by artificial or natural biological means. With artificial methods of neutralization, biofilters, aerotanks are used, while natural methods are used for irrigation and filtration fields.

Purification of populated areas from solid waste includes their collection, removal and neutralization. Collection and disposal of household waste is carried out according to the planned-household and planned-apartment systems. With a planned yard system, garbage is collected in metal containers and regularly removed to disposal sites. During planned apartment cleaning, garbage from apartments is collected by residents in garbage trucks at a certain time and taken out.

Neutralization of solid waste is carried out by technical and soil methods. With the technical method of neutralization, garbage is usually burned. The soil method consists in composting garbage in piles in layers with the ground. Due to biothermal processes in the compost, the garbage is disinfected, turns into humus and is further used as a fertilizer. This method of neutralization is more advanced than the technical one.

A promising way to neutralize solid waste is waste disposal at waste processing plants.

Control questions and tasks

1. Define soil and indicate its meaning.

2. List the physical factors of the soil.

3. What is the hygienic significance of the physical factors of the soil?

4. List the chemical components of the soil.

5. Indicate the hygienic value of the chemical composition of the soil.

6. List the biological components of the soil.

7. Indicate the hygienic value of the biological components of the soil.

8. What are the endemic diseases associated with the soil?

9. How is the prevention of endemic diseases carried out?

10. List the main pollutants and sources of soil pollution.

11. What is the hygienic significance of soil pollution?

12. What infectious diseases are transmitted through the soil?

13. How are soils distinguished by the degree of pollution and danger to humans?

14. Specify MPC of pesticides in the soil.

15. Specify MPC of heavy metals in soil.

16. List the measures to protect the soil from pollution.

17. How is the cleaning of populated areas from solid waste?

18. How is solid waste disposed of?

19. How is the cleaning of populated areas from liquid waste?

20. How are liquid wastes neutralized?

LECTURE PLAN: 1. Basic definitions and concepts of environmental hygiene 2. Human impact on the environment (2nd law of hygiene) 3. Environmental impact on humans (5th law of hygiene) 4. Biological factors of the environment 5. Prevention of harmful effects of the environment per person. environmental protection

PURPOSE OF THE LECTURE: To get acquainted with the basic definitions and concepts of environmental hygiene, to gain an understanding of the impact of a person on the environment and the environment on a person, biological factors of the environment, the main directions for preventing the harmful effects of the environment on humans and protecting the environment

imgdescription" title="(!LANG:FZ 52 HABITAT - a set of objects, phenomena and environmental factors (natural and artificial)" src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/78442510_167372695.pdf-img/78442510_167372695.pdf-5.jpg" alt="FZ 52 HABITAT - a set of objects, phenomena and environmental factors (natural and artificial)"> ФЗ 52 СРЕДА ОБИТАНИЯ – совокупность объектов, явлений и факторов окружающей (природной и искусственной) среды, определяющая условия жизнедеятельности человека. !}

Federal Law 52 HARMFUL IMPACT OF THE ENVIRONMENT - the impact of environmental factors that pose a threat to human life or health or a threat to the life of future generations. FAVORABLE CONDITIONS FOR HUMAN LIFE - the state of the environment, in which there is no harmful effect of its factors on humans and there are opportunities to restore impaired functions of the human body. SANITARY AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL WELFARE OF THE POPULATION (SEBP) is the state of health of the population, the human environment, in which there is no dangerous effect on a person and there are favorable conditions for his life.

Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO definition)

Basic definitions BIOSPHERE is the area of ​​existence of living matter (V. I. Vernadsky), including the lower part of the atmosphere (aerobiosphere), the entire hydrosphere (hydrobiosphere), the land surface (terrabiosphere) and the upper part of the lithosphere (lithobiosphere). A geochemical factor on a planetary scale ECOLOGY is the science of the relationship between plant and animal organisms and the communities they form between themselves and the environment. There are general, marine, medical, applied, endoecology, human ecology, etc.

Basic definitions ENVIRONMENT - a set of components of the natural environment, natural and natural-anthropogenic objects, as well as anthropogenic objects ("On Environmental Protection" No. 7-FZ) NATURAL ENVIRONMENT - a set of components of the natural environment, natural and natural-anthropogenic objects ("On environmental protection” No. 7-FZ)

DEFINITIONS: Noosphere NOOSPHERE (Greek noos - mind + sphere) is a “thinking shell”, the sphere of mind, the highest stage of development of the biosphere, associated with the emergence and development of civilized humanity in it. This is the period when intelligent human activity becomes the main determinant of development on Earth. The concept of the noosphere was introduced by the French scientists Leroy and de Chardin in 1927. V. I. Vernadsky developed the idea of ​​the noosphere as a qualitatively new form organization arising from the interaction of nature and society. 10 laws of hygiene are closely related to the concept of the noosphere

Erisman F.F. about environmental factors: “As for the program of our upcoming conversations, I think to dwell on general living conditions, among which air is of paramount sanitary importance ...: soil is the same common factor. … The third common medium is water. ... After that, we will move on to considering the hygienic conditions of those means and devices with which a person is protected from the hostile influences of climate and weather - ... housing and clothing; ... here we will have to talk about the properties and sanitary significance of building materials and fabrics: about heating and ventilation of residential premises and public buildings, about their natural and artificial lighting, etc. ... ". "Fundamentals and Tasks of Modern Hygiene", 1887 Extracts)

ETIOLOGICAL FACTOR - a factor that causes a health disorder and determines its nature and individual features RISK FACTOR - a factor that increases the likelihood of various health disorders (i.e. a condition) MODIFYING FACTOR - environmental factors that cause structural and functional changes in the body

The main factors in the formation of public health (WHO): Lifestyle - 50% Environment - 20% Heredity - 20% Healthcare - 10%

imgdescription" title="(!LANG: The 2nd law of hygiene The law of the inevitable negative impact on the environment of human activities -" src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/78442510_167372695.pdf-img/78442510_167372695.pdf-16.jpg" alt="2nd law of hygiene The law of the inevitable negative impact on the environment of human activities -"> 2 -й закон гигиены Закон неизбежного отрицательного влияния на окружающую среду деятельности людей – независимо от своей воли и сознательности, в связи с физиологической, бытовой и производственной деятельностью люди отрицательно влияют на окружающую среду. !}

POLLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT - the entry into the environment of a substance and (or) energy, the properties, location or amount of which have a negative impact on the environment (No. FZ-7)

CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTIONS 1. by origin (2 classifications) 2. by the size of the territory 3. by the strength and nature of the impact 4. by duration 5. by sources 6. by environment

CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION: BY ORIGIN 1 NATURAL (DUE TO NATURAL CAUSES) § Dust storms § Volcanoes § Forest fires § Mudflows § Floods ANTHROPOGENIC (DUE TO HUMAN ACTIVITIES): § § § Industrial enterprises, transport, thermal power plants, agriculture, waste places. Gudinov

CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTIONS by origin 2 Chemical Physical is a change in the natural chemical properties of the environment or the entry into the environment of substances that are not characteristic of it, or in quantities exceeding the background (natural) most common pollution: oil, heavy metals, their salts, oxides are deviations from the norm of the physical properties of the environment emit electromagnetic, radioactive, light, thermal, noise types of pollution Biological Mechanical Informational bacteria, viruses, fungi, helminths, protozoa biological producers negative information on the natural and anthropogenic environment: disasters,

OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION by size of territory by strength and nature of impact by duration and by sources by environment global (background-biospheric) regional local point background impact (impact - impact, push) - usually an accident (oil spill) permanent temporary industrial transport agricultural household air pollution (atmospheric) water pollution (marine environment, fresh water) soil pollution

Disaster in the Gulf of Mexico: in April 2010, after an explosion and flooding, the Deepwater Horizon oil well was damaged and oil from it began to flow into the waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Explosion of oil platform Deepwater Horizon Oil slick in the bay

Catastrophe in Japan: March 2011 Earthquake and tsunami Explosions at a nuclear power plant in Fukushima Prefecture

DEMOGRAPHIC LOAD: Human impact on the environment (anthropogenic impact), including determined by population density per 1 sq. km. m. territory. Overpopulation causes air pollution, lack of drinking water, excess waste in the territory (megacities).

CHEMICAL POLLUTION: MIGRATION OF SUBSTANCES IN THE BIOSPHERE Harmful substances in the biosphere tend to migrate - move from one environment to another. Migration occurs due to the general laws of the circulation of substances in nature: substances move from an environment with a higher concentration to an environment with a lower concentration. On the one hand, these processes contribute to the self-purification of natural environments, on the other hand, under conditions of massive pollution, the ability of the environments to self-purify is limited and toxic and radioactive substances accumulate (deposit) in neighboring environments (air - soil - water - products). Hence the difficulty of finding the source and ways of pollution.

Migration of harmful substances in the environment Atmospheric air Water and soil

FOOD CHAINS: When a substance moves from one environment to another, this process is called migration. As a result of migration, toxic and radioactive substances accumulate in the food (biological, trophic,) chains of ecosystems. The number of links in the food chain can be different: -atmosphere - water - man -atmosphere - water of reservoirs - fish - man -atmosphere - soil - plants - domestic animals - Gudinov

ECOLOGICAL CRISIS It is noted now on the Earth everywhere, especially in large cities. It is connected, first of all, with technogenic pollution of the environment.

FEATURES OF THE MODERN ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS: 1. Global (planetary) scale of negative influences and changes 2. Intensity of severity 3. Variety of human impacts on the environment 4. Irreversibility

IRREVERSIBILITY OF CERTAIN CONSEQUENCES OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS § Extinction of animals and plants: one animal species disappears in the world every year, one plant species disappears every day: 226 species of vertebrates have disappeared since 1600, including 80 species in the last 60 years, 1000 are endangered disappearance. It is believed that by the year 2000, about 1 million plant species have been destroyed. § Huge areas of the contaminated territory of the planet: Omsk pollution area - 2000 sq. km, the plume of the Kuznetsk basin can be traced in Taimyr, on the coast of the Arctic Ocean. § Impact on the human genome and all living things

Status of ecologically unfavorable regions ZONE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EMERGENCY SITUATION - there are persistent negative changes in the environment that threaten the health of the population, ecological systems, and their gene pool. At the same time, any harmful activity should be stopped. ZONE OF ECOLOGICAL DISASTER - these are those areas of the territory where deep irreversible changes in the environment have occurred, resulting in a significant deterioration in health and an imbalance in the ecological system. The laws “On SEBS” and “On Environmental Protection” provide for liability for environmental crimes.

imgdescription" title="(!LANG: The 5th law of hygiene is the law of the inevitable negative impact of a polluted natural environment on" src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/78442510_167372695.pdf-img/78442510_167372695.pdf-33.jpg" alt="The 5th law of hygiene is the law of the inevitable negative impact of a polluted natural environment on"> 5 -й закон гигиены закон неизбежного отрицательного влияния загрязненной природной окружающей среды на здоровье населения. При контакте человека с окружающей средой, загрязненной физиологическими выделениями, бытовыми или техногенными загрязнителями в количествах, превышающих гигиенические нормативы, неизбежно наступает изменение уровня здоровья в сторону его ухудшения. !}

Ways of action of environmental factors on the body gastrointestinal tract skin respiratory organs The speed and effect of exposure depends on how the substance enters the body. The impact of some environmental factors is evolutionarily fixed - that is, a defense mechanism has been developed in the body. So, when a toxin enters through the gastrointestinal tract, it undergoes natural detoxification in the liver, and when the same substance acts through the lungs, there is no such protection.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON HEALTH BY THE DEGREE OF SEVERITY BY THE TIME OF OCCURENCE

CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON HEALTH ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF SEVERITY BY THE TIME OF OCCURENCE BY THE DEGREE OF INFLUENCE Unfavorable - weight loss, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, changes in enzyme activity, reversible dysfunction of organs and systems. Severe (dysfunction of the nervous system, development, behavior). Catastrophic - high mortality, congenital malformations.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON HEALTH BY SERIOUSNESS BY TIME OF APPEARANCE BY INFLUENCE DEGREE Directly occurring - the impact manifests itself immediately, allowing relatively quickly to take action Remote - appear much later, are found in generations

LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT ON HEALTH Transplacental - the factor affects through the placenta Teratogenic - the factor causes structural changes in the body of the fetus, congenital developmental thresholds Mutagenic - the factor acts at the level of the chromosomal apparatus of germ cells Carcinogenic - the factor causes the growth of tumors

CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON HEALTH BY THE DEGREE OF SEVERITY BY TIME OF OCCURRENCE BY THE DEGREE OF INFLUENCE

CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON HEALTH BY Severity BY TIME OF OCCURENCE BY DEGREE OF INFLUENCE health) ENVIRONMENTALLY DEPENDENT EFFECTS (non-specific damage to the body) Neurotoxic Hepatotoxic Nephrotoxic Reproductive Carcinogenic

imgdescription" title="(!LANG:The focus of hygienists is on those living organisms that in one way or another can interact with" src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/78442510_167372695.pdf-img/78442510_167372695.pdf-42.jpg" alt="The subject of attention of hygienists are those living organisms that in one way or another can interact with"> Предметом внимания гигиенистов являются те живые организмы, которые так или иначе могут взаимодействовать с человеком. Обычно имеется в виду патогенная роль биологического фактора – способность вызывать инфекционные и инвазионные заболевания, !} infectious diseases previously claimed millions of lives and occupied the first place in the structure of pathology, are still widespread despite all the achievements of civilization

Biological factors These are pathogenic pathogens of a bacterial (infectious) and non-bacterial nature: bacteria, viruses, fungi, helminths, protozoa. These are biological producers - the waste products of organisms. The influence of biological producers on the body is diverse: from toxins that determine human food poisoning (botulism) to essential substances formed as a result of the action of beneficial microflora (vitamins, enzymes, antibiotics).

Biological pollution § This is the introduction of uncharacteristic species of living organisms into ecosystems that worsen the conditions for the existence of natural biotic communities or negatively affect human health and economic activity § It occurs, as a rule, as a result of human activities § The main sources of biological pollution are waste from populated areas, hospitals, some industries, agriculture (livestock) § The main media for which biological pollution is characteristic are water, food, soil, indoor air, household items § Pathogenic microorganisms act on humans, as well as chemicals on the principle of "dose - time is the effect

Factors determining the spread of infectious and parasitic diseases: climate Natural and climatic conditions - geographical latitude terrain, amount of light, relief and type of the earth's surface (land, vegetation, snow), average annual air temperature, humidity - all this determines the habitat of the pathogen and carriers. So, in a warm climate, intestinal infections, many helminthiases are common, in the north - for example, opisthorchiasis (Ob-Irtysh basin). At present, the spread of tropical infections and invasions to the north has been noted. The population of the northern regions has no immunity against them. Physicians are not ready for this pathology.

Factors that determine the spread of infectious and parasitic diseases: social factors The living conditions of the population, especially the density and sanitary improvement of populated areas (availability of centralized water supply, sewerage, waste treatment), which affect the intensity of environmental pollution and the possibility of its self-cleaning, have a significant impact on the spread of infection. In the most densely populated and at the same time the least comfortable areas of the planet, epidemics have always occurred that claim millions of lives (India, water, cholera) to a large city), thereby creating additional conditions for the spread of infection over the longest distances. Gudinov

Sanitary and hygienic measures in the system of measures to prevent the adverse effects of biological factors: They are of paramount importance, since they act to reduce the level of infection as an etiological factor, either eliminating it or minimizing it. These measures are carried out both in respect of the entire population and the individual. In relation to the entire population - rational planning and improvement of populated areas, dwellings and other facilities; measures to prevent the ingress of biological agents and producers into the environment; measures of hygienic standardization supervisory measures in relation to the prevention of biological pollution in environmental objects. With regard to the individual - measures of hygienic education and the formation of a healthy lifestyle, personal hygiene, maintaining cleanliness of the body, clothing, housing, ventilation of premises, rules for cooking, as well as strengthening immunity (physical education, rational nutrition, prevention of overwork, solar starvation, medical examination etc.)

imgdescription" title="(!LANG:Prevention - state system measures to protect public health, ensure optimal living conditions." src="https://present5.com/presentation/1/78442510_167372695.pdf-img/78442510_167372695.pdf-49.jpg" alt="(!LANG:Prevention - the state system of measures to protect the health of the population, to ensure optimal environmental conditions."> Профилактика - государственная система мер по охране здоровья населения, обеспечению оптимальных условий среды обитания. Профилактика составляет основу гигиены как науки. !}

Levels of prevention (WHO) INITIAL (MAIN) PREVENTION - a set of measures aimed at eliminating environmental factors that lead to the development of diseases and affect the entire population. PRIMARY PREVENTION - a set of measures aimed at eliminating specific causal environmental factors leading to the development of diseases, and acting both on the entire population and on groups. SECONDARY PREVENTION - a set of measures aimed at a sick person to prevent the occurrence of the consequences of the disease. TERTIARY PREVENTION (REHABILITATION) - a set of measures aimed at a seriously ill person or a disabled person in order to eliminate the consequences of the disease.

SYSTEM OF MEASURES FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT Legislative measures, hygienic regulation Administrative, biological protection measures Technological and architectural planning Sanitary and technical Medical and sanitary and hygienic, hygienic education of the population

TECHNOLOGICAL MEASURES This is a change in the technological methods of production processes. Are of paramount importance in eliminating or minimizing hazards Improving combustion Changing fuels for vehicles Increasing the height of the exhaust pipe Development of other modes of transport Creating closed water systems Reusing wastewater, recycling wastewater valuable substances

ARCHITECTURAL AND PLANNING MEASURES rational planning of the city, industrial area and residential area relative to each other, taking into account the wind rose equipment of the "green wave" (traffic lights), underground passages and efficient transport interchanges compliance with the sanitary protection zones of enterprises and other sources of air pollution, including garages cooperatives watering, landscaping the city, enterprises (gas stations) construction of the metro, ring roads and high-speed autobahns

Sanitary and technical measures are physical, chemical, mechanical and biological methods of purification and disinfection of wastewater, industrial emissions and other waste

Hygienic knowledge based on life observations originated in ancient times. The first hygienic treatises that have come down to us (“On a healthy lifestyle”, “On water, air and places”) belong to the great physician of Ancient Greece, Hippocrates (460-377 BC). The first city water pipes, hospitals were built in Ancient Rome.

Until now, not only known, but also of a certain scientific interest, "Treatise on hygiene (elimination of any damage to the human body by correcting various errors in the regime)", written by the great Arab-Muslim scholar, born in Central Asia Avicenna Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037). The treatise outlines important issues of hygiene, suggests ways and means of treating and preventing diseases caused by sleep disturbance, nutrition, etc.

However, hygienic science developed not only on the basis of empirical observations, but also, of course, taking into account new experimental data. Here it is necessary to recall the hygienic guidelines written by the Frenchman M. Levy (1844) and the English medical scientist E. Parks. Max Pettenkofer (1818-1901) organized the first hygienic department at the medical faculty of the University of Munich in 1865. He not only investigated environmental factors (water, air, soil, food), but also created the first school of hygienists.

From Ancient (Kiev, Novgorod) Russia, empirical knowledge about hygiene also comes to us. Suffice it to recall the well-known treatise on the life of the Russian family - "Domostroy", which outlines the basics of proper food storage, pays attention to cleanliness and tidiness.

Peter I did a lot to protect the health of the population and prevent the spread of diseases in Russia, by issuing a number of decrees on the sanitary condition of cities, on the mandatory notification of cases of infectious diseases, etc.

Many Russian doctors pointed out the special importance of preventive measures in preventing high morbidity: N. I. Pirogov, S. P. Botkin, N. G. Zakharyin, M. Ya. Mudrov.

N. I. Pirogov wrote: “I believe in hygiene. This is where the true progress of our science lies. The future belongs to preventive medicine.” In an act speech delivered in 1873, another well-known Russian clinician, Professor G. N. Zakharyin, said: “The more mature the practical doctor, the more he understands the power of hygiene and the relative weakness of treatment, therapy ... The most successful therapy is possible only with hygiene condition. Only hygiene can victoriously argue with the ailments of the masses. We consider hygiene one of the most important, if not the most important subject of the practitioner's activity.

In Russia, hygiene as a course of forensic science (forensic medicine) begins to be taught at the Medical and Surgical Academy (St. Petersburg) right from its opening, that is, from 1798. At first, the course is called “Medical Police”, and since 1835 “Medical Police and hygiene." An independent department of hygiene at the academy and the first in Russia was opened in 1871 under the guidance of Privatdozent Alexei Petrovich Dobroslavin (1842-1889). A.P. Dobroslavin organized an experimental laboratory at the department, created the first Russian school of hygienists, he wrote the first Russian textbooks on hygiene.

The Moscow School of Hygienists was founded by Fedor Fedorovich Erisman (1842-1915). In 1881, F. F. Erisman was elected Privatdozent of the Hygiene Department of the Medical Faculty of Moscow University. He worked a lot in the field of hygiene of children and adolescents (Erisman's universal desk is still known), social hygiene, laid the foundation for studying the influence of environmental factors on the health of the younger generation, and proved that physical development can act as an indicator of the sanitary well-being of the child population.

IN Soviet period for the development of domestic hygiene, such scientists as professors Grigory Vitalyevich Khlopin, Fedor Grigoryevich Krotkov, Alexei Nikolaevich Sysin, Alexei Alekseevich Minkh, Gennady Ivanovich Sidorenko and many others have done a lot.

The philological origin of hygiene is associated in Greek mythology with the goddess of health (Hygieinos), the daughter of Aesculapius. Hygiene - the goddess of health - a symbol of health.

Hygiene- medical, preventive discipline. It studies the patterns of influence of environmental factors on the body in order to prevent diseases and improve the environment itself. Environmental factors are also studied by other disciplines. The peculiarity of hygiene is that it studies the influence of environmental factors on human health.

The task of hygiene as a science is to weaken the effect of negative factors and strengthen the effect of positive factors by carrying out hygienic measures. In particular, it has now been established that fluorine in the composition of drinking water has a certain effect on the development and formation of teeth.

For example, concentrations of fluorine in water less than 0.7 mg/l and especially at the level of 0.5 mg/l lead to the development of caries. The water of the Volga, widely used for water consumption in the cities of the Volga region, contains fluorine at the level of 0.2 mg/l. This level of fluoride in drinking water leads to massive development of caries. 80%, and in some places - 90% of the population of the Volga cities suffer from caries. Along with such a well-known negative factor of fluorine deficiency in drinking water, its excessive concentration (above 1.5 mg/l) leads to the development of fluorosis. Fluorosis is a disease, the development of which is associated with the action of fluorine on the body as a protoplasmic poison. In particular, a high concentration of fluoride leads to changes in the formation and development of teeth. Along with the skeletal form, there is the so-called dental form of fluorosis. The optimal level of fluorine, which ensures the prevention of caries and excludes its toxic effect, is in the range from 0.7 to 1.5 mg/l. Such a range of doses of fluorine in drinking water is established taking into account regional characteristics and some other aspects. Thus, a distinctive feature of hygiene is the rationing of factors, which we have considered using the example of fluorine.

The subjects of hygiene are the environment and health. What are they?

The environment is a set of elements of a physical, chemical, biological, psychological, economic, cultural and ethnic nature that make up a single, continuously changing ecological system (ecosystem).

The definition of health most adequate to modern conditions is given by the experts of the World Health Organization. Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

Over the past 20th century the main funds invested in health care were mainly used to solve problems that had already arisen, and not to prevent their occurrence. The emphasis was on cure, or at any rate on the reduction of ill health, on therapeutic help, rather than on the promotion of health and the prevention of disease. There should be a reorientation of priorities. More attention should be paid to the preventive direction of the development of medicine.

It is well known that hygiene arose from the needs of clinical medicine. First of all, representatives of clinical medicine spoke out for the development of hygiene, such prominent scientists as M. Ya. Mudrov, N. G. Zakharyin, N. I. Pirogov, S. P. Botkin. Zakharyin's statement is well-known: "The more mature the practitioner, the more he understands the power of hygiene and the relative weakness of treatment - therapy." The very success of therapy is possible only if hygiene is observed. The task of hygiene is to make the development of man the most perfect, life - strong, and death - the most remote.

Knowledge of hygiene is necessary in the practice of doctors of various profiles: medical, pediatric and dental.

It is well known that the development of various pathologies is influenced by environmental factors. If these factors are not taken into account, the effectiveness of the treatment is reduced. For example, in the field of pathology of diseases of the oral cavity, the influence of a professional factor is known.

Working with certain chemicals can enhance the development of the pathological process in the oral cavity, caries, and other diseases. The development of caries is significantly influenced by such a factor as the nature of nutrition (alimentary). It is well known that caries is more likely to develop in those who consume large quantity refined carbohydrates. Currently, a significant number of diseases are known in medicine that have an environmental factor in their genesis. The course of a number of diseases is influenced by housing conditions, the consumption of water of one or another mineral composition. Working conditions contribute to the development of certain diseases, can aggravate the course of cardiovascular pathology, have a negative impact on the development of pathology of the respiratory system. I must say that there are diseases that are caused by the impact on the body of a professional factor. These diseases are called occupational diseases.

The doctor needs knowledge of the impact of one or another factor on the body: the alimentary factor, the nature of the water, its composition, quality. When carrying out this or that treatment using pharmacological preparations, the nature of nutrition should be taken into account, since it can weaken or enhance the effect of the drug (just like drinking water can enhance the effect or, conversely, weaken the effectiveness of the ongoing drug treatment).

The development of hygiene goes in two directions. On the one hand, the process of its so-called differentiation is noted. The differentiation process is associated with the separation from general hygiene of its independent branches, such as social hygiene, communal hygiene, food hygiene, occupational hygiene, hygiene of children and adolescents, radiation hygiene, military hygiene, hygiene and toxicology of polymeric materials, space hygiene, aviation hygiene. On the other hand, the development of hygiene is also moving along the path of integration. Hygiene develops in close contact with clinical areas of medicine, therapy, pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology and other branches.

At present, such a course has emerged from hygiene as valeology- a science that studies the patterns of formation of a high level of health. Much attention has always been paid to the patterns of the formation of the pathological process, but insufficient attention has been paid to problems associated with the conditions, factors and patterns that determine the conditions for the formation of a high level of health.

Hygiene methodology

The methodology of hygiene is its section, part of hygiene, dealing with the use of its methodological techniques to study the patterns of interaction between the body and the environment. Hygiene methodology is associated with the development of hygienic standards, guidelines, sanitary norms and rules. In hygiene, there are so-called specific classical hygiene methods. These include the method of sanitary inspection, the method of sanitary description and the method of sanitary observation. In hygiene, various methods are widely used related to the assessment of factors acting on a person. Such methods are physical, chemical, which assess the physical and chemical state of the environment. In hygiene, toxicological methods are widely used, aimed at assessing the nature of the toxic effect on the body of certain chemicals. Physiological methods are widely used, not without reason hygiene is called applied physiology.

Biochemical, genetic, clinical and epidemiological research methods are widely used to assess the impact of factors on certain body systems. To generalize the results obtained, we widely use statistical methods with the use of modern technologies.

Methods for studying the influence of environmental factors in natural conditions. This direction is called natural experiment. What is associated with the study of the state of health of certain groups of the population living under the influence of various environmental factors. Under natural conditions, it is possible to study the influence of working conditions on the health of workers. They also study the influence of factors educational process on the growing body of the child. Clinical and hygienic studies are being carried out to develop the maximum permissible concentrations of harmful chemicals in the working area. Thus, clinical and hygienic studies and laboratory experiment complement each other and constitute a single approach to hygienic studies of the environment and human health.

Environment and health

The subject of hygiene is the environment and health. Extremely complex processes take place in the environment (ecosystem), biosphere. Some of these processes are associated with the action of factors aimed at ensuring the constancy of the quality of the environment (water, soil, atmospheric air). These are stabilizing factors. Other factors (and they can be of a natural nature or associated with human activities, the so-called anthropogenic factors) lead to a violation of the natural balance, harmony in nature. These are destabilizing factors.

In ecology, there is the concept of anthropogenic exchange. Anthropogenic exchange has input natural resource s, at the output - industrial and domestic waste. Ecological anthropogenic exchange is extremely imperfect. It has an open, open character and is devoid of the cycle of life that is inherent in the biosphere as a whole. To characterize anthropogenic exchange, there is an indicator - its efficiency, showing the amount of natural resources used for the benefit of man. The value of efficiency today is 2%, i.e. 98% is an unused natural resource, and, moreover, this is the part of the resources that acts as waste - environmental pollutants. Among these pollutants, there are substances that have a pronounced destabilizing effect, the so-called destabilizing factors. These include halogen-containing components, rare and heavy metals, substances with an ionizing effect, and other factors. In general, these factors by the nature of the action can be classified as physical or chemical. Chemical compounds are a serious danger. The action of individual chemicals can lead to the development of destabilizing, destructive processes, which lead to an increasing effect. This process is out of human control. It exceeds the effect of natural stabilizing factors, as a result of which the development of spontaneously uncontrollable, growing destabilizing phenomena is noted. Substances and factors that have such an effect are called superecotoxicants. Chemicals assigned to this class are rare and heavy metals, ionizing radiation, halogen-containing components. All of them have a special effect on the human body, expressed in damage to cell membranes, in the development of disturbances in the enzyme systems of the body, disturbances in homeostasis, leading to destructive phenomena in the human body. Ecotoxicants are characterized by high stability in the environment and stability. They can accumulate in environmental objects. The stability and ability of chemicals to accumulate in the environment ensure their migration, which is extremely dangerous for humans and their environment.

There is a close interaction between the human body and the environment. The problem of the unity of the organism and the environment is the most important problem. It must be said that a certain form of balance develops between the environment and the organism. This balance of the environment and the body is formed as a result of the most important mechanisms of the physiological response of the body to the effects of various factors and is carried out through the work of the central nervous system. This form of balance is the so-called dynamic stereotype, i.e., if the factor acts constantly, is of a repetitive nature, the body develops stereotyped reactions. The emergence of new factors leads to the destruction of this balance. The so-called excessive factors pose a particularly serious danger in this respect. They lead to a violation of the dynamic stereotype. Changes in the dynamic stereotype are associated with a significant violation of the functions of the body: neuropsychic, stressful condition, extreme factor.

The task of hygiene is to find ways and methods of forming a new stereotype. This can be achieved by appropriate changes in the external environment, as well as by improving the mechanisms of adaptation of the organism. The diagram, developed by Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Professor Yu. L. Lisitsin, according to experts from the World Health Organization, presents the factors that determine the level of somatic health of a person. The determining factor of somatic (general) health, according to experts from the World Health Organization, is style, or, as we say, lifestyle. It determines the somatic state of human health by 53%. 17% of a person's somatic health is determined by the quality of the environment, 20% is due to hereditary factors, and only 10% of somatic health is determined by the level and availability of medical care to the population. Thus, 70% of the level of human health depends on those moments that are directly related to hygiene. This is a healthy lifestyle of a person, the quality of the environment.

The environment has an impact on the main indicators of the health of the population (life expectancy, birth rates, levels of physical development, morbidity and mortality). Moreover, there are a number of diseases that are pronounced in nature, depending on environmental conditions. These are environmentally driven diseases. These include, in particular, a disease called "chronic fatigue syndrome". This disease is based on a membrane-damaging effect and the effect of chemical pollutants and ionizing radiation on enzyme systems. The adverse effect of chemicals leads to a sharp decrease in immunobiological parameters. Mass surveys of large cities show a sharp change in the immune homeostasis of residents. A change in immunity indicators by 50% is noted among residents of Moscow. A situation arises that indicates the so-called secondary nonspecific immunodeficiency associated with the impact on the body of a number of adverse factors, including chemicals.

Assessment of the level of health of the population living in various environmental conditions, currently makes us talk about the existence of environmentally caused foci of diseases. These diseases are associated with pollution of the urban environment with rare and heavy metals, to which the children's body is primarily sensitive. Therefore, the study of the impact of urban environmental factors on the body of the population, especially children, is an urgent task of hygienic science.

Hygiene is preventive medicine. What is meant by prevention? There are concepts of primary and secondary prevention. Let's start with the concept of the so-called secondary prevention. Secondary prevention is understood as a set of measures aimed at localizing and weakening the pathological process through active medical examination, anti-relapse therapy, spa treatment and therapeutic nutrition, i.e. secondary prevention is the activity that is carried out by practitioners. Hygiene is primary prevention. The basis of primary prevention is the elimination of the causes and factors leading to the occurrence of pathological processes, and diseases in general, by improving the natural, industrial, and household environment; formation of a healthy lifestyle aimed at increasing the body's resistance and strengthening health. Prevention should be understood not only as the prevention of diseases and the implementation of recreational activities aimed at protecting the health of the population, but the entire set of state, public and medical measures aimed at creating the most favorable living conditions for a person that fully meets his physiological needs.

Hygiene is a preventive discipline, and the basis of preventive measures is hygienic regulation.

Hygienic regulation

What is meant by hygienic standards? A hygienic standard is a strict range of parameters of environmental factors that is optimal and harmless for maintaining normal life and health of a person, the human population and future generations. Sanitary rules, norms, hygienic standards are normative acts that establish criteria for the safety and harmlessness of environmental factors for a person in his life. Sanitary rules are obligatory for observance by all state bodies and public associations, enterprises and other economic entities, organizations, institutions, regardless of their subordination and form of ownership, officials and citizens.

Hygienic standards for chemicals are set in the form of maximum allowable concentrations (MACs). For physical factors, they are set in the form of permissible exposure levels (MPL).

For chemicals, MPCs are set in the atmospheric air of populated areas in the form of maximum one-time and average daily maximum allowable concentrations. MPCs for harmful chemicals in the water of reservoirs and drinking water are established. MPCs are set for the content of harmful chemicals in the soil. In foodstuffs, hazardous chemicals are regulated in the form of acceptable residues (RTA). For chemicals, the maximum allowable amounts in water are set in milligrams per 1 dm 3, or 1 liter, for air - in milligrams per 1 m 3 of air, food products - in milligrams per 1 kg of product mass. MPCs characterize safe levels of exposure to harmful chemicals in certain environmental objects.

The remote controls for the impact of physical factors are also set. In particular, there is an idea of ​​the optimal and permissible parameters of the microclimate, i.e., temperature, humidity, air velocity, etc. The optimal permissible amounts of nutrients are established, and their rationing takes place taking into account physiological needs. There are so-called physiological norms of need for proteins, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins. When establishing MPCs for harmful chemicals in the environment, certain principles of hygienic regulation are observed, which include:

1) the principle of stages;

2) the principle of threshold.

The phasing in rationing is that the work on rationing is carried out in a strictly defined sequence associated with the implementation of the corresponding stage of research. For chemicals, the first stage of these studies is the analytical stage. The analytical stage includes an assessment of the physicochemical properties: data on the structure of the chemical, its parameters - melting point, boiling point, solubility in water, other solvents. For analytical research it is necessary to have specific methods of determination. The second mandatory stage of hygienic research in establishing MPC is toxicometry, i.e., the determination of the main parameters of toxicity. Toximetry includes conducting studies to determine the parameters of acute toxicity (acute toxicometry or, more simply, acute experiments). This is followed by a subacute experiment and a chronic sanitary-toxicological experiment.

The main and main task of the acute experiment is to determine the average lethal concentrations and doses of LD 50 or CL 50 . Setting up acute experiments allows us to assess the degree of danger of chemicals, the nature of the direction of action, the vulnerability of certain systems and functions of the body. Acute experiments allow the most reasonable approach to setting up subacute and chronic sanitary-toxicological experiments. The staged normalization also makes it possible, in some cases, to reduce the amount of research carried out using the so-called principle of normalization by analogy, i.e., the study of the indicators of the toxic substance being assessed by physical and chemical properties makes it possible to find out the presence of so-called analogous substances and carry out normalization using the principle of similarity. This approach is called normalization by analogy. For substances with similar properties, i.e., the regulation of which is carried out by analogy, it is mandatory to establish the parameters of acute toxicity. The presence of acute toxicity parameters also makes it possible to reduce the amount of research and save a significant amount of material resources, as well as the time spent on the experiment.

An important stage of toxicometric studies is the subacute sanitary-toxicological experiment. A subacute experiment makes it possible to reveal the presence of cumulative properties from the standpoint of a qualitative and quantitative assessment of this stage of action. In the subacute experiment, the most vulnerable systems of the body are also identified, which allows an objective approach to the formulation of the main stage of toxicometry, associated with the determination of toxic parameters in a chronic experiment. The subacute experiment tests a large array of toxicology tests that assess the effects of a chemical on the cardiovascular system, nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, excretory systems, and other bodily functions and systems.

The most important principle of hygienic regulation is the study of the threshold nature of the action of the normalized factor. According to the threshold level of exposure in a chronic experiment, the lowest concentration that causes changes in the body of a laboratory animal is determined. Based on the results of a chronic sanitary-toxicological experiment, MPCs are established for substances, primarily those with a pronounced toxic effect.

When rationing harmful chemicals in aquatic environment obligatory stages of the study are the study of the effect of a substance on the organoleptic properties of water and the sanitary regime of water bodies, i.e., to establish the MPC of chemicals in water bodies, additional stages of research are introduced. At all these stages of studying the effects of harmful chemicals, exposure thresholds, threshold doses and concentrations are necessarily established. The limiting sign of harmfulness is determined by threshold concentrations, i.e., the lowest concentration is established in which the effect of a harmful chemical is primarily manifested either on the organoleptic properties of water, or on the sanitary regime of a reservoir, or when assessing toxic properties. When establishing the MPC of harmful chemicals in the water of reservoirs, a limiting sign is identified, either organoleptic, or according to the sanitary regime, or toxicological. According to the limiting sign of harmfulness, taking into account the lowest threshold concentration, MPC is set. Thus, the defining principles of rationing are the principles of threshold and phasing.

The established principles of rationing of chemicals and levels of exposure to physical factors form the basis of the current sanitary legislation.

MPCs allow, on the one hand, to control the content of harmful chemicals in the environment, on the other hand, to create a so-called system for monitoring the content of harmful chemicals, that is, to monitor them in the environment. MPCs are also used in the design of industrial enterprises; MPCs are laid down in projects for the construction of industrial and other enterprises.

The structure of the sanitary service

Activities of the Sanitary and Epidemiological Service in Russian Federation determined by the Law of the Russian Federation "On the sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population".

Occurring in 2004-2005 changes in the country also affected the structure of the sanitary service. The Ministry of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation transformed the Centers for State Sanitary and Epidemiological Surveillance (TSGSEN) into territorial departments of the Federal Service for Surveillance in the Field of Consumer Rights Protection and Human Welfare (TU) and federal public health institutions "Centers for Hygiene and Epidemiology" (FGU).

Main tasks Territorial Administration of Rospotrebnadzor (TU) are:

1) state supervision and control over the fulfillment of the requirements of the legislation of the Russian Federation in the field of ensuring the sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population in the field of consumer protection;

2) prevention of harmful effects of environmental factors on humans;

3) prevention of infectious and mass non-infectious diseases (poisoning) of the population.

Functions Territorial administration:

1) state supervision and control over the fulfillment of the requirements of the Russian Federation in ensuring the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population in the field of consumer protection;

2) sanitary and epidemiological supervision during the development, construction, reconstruction, liquidation of urban planning, industrial construction; for the production, sale of products, for the operation of water supply systems, medical institutions;

3) organization and conduct of social and hygienic monitoring;

4) issuance of a sanitary-epidemiological conclusion on programs, methods, modes of education, training;

5) carrying out anti-epidemic measures, attesting the decreed contingent and exercising their control;

6) control of laboratory research and testing;

7) conducting sanitary and quarantine control.

The main task of federal state health care institutions is to conduct sanitary and epidemiological examinations, investigations, examinations, studies, tests, toxicological, hygienic and other examinations.

Chief State Sanitary Doctor - Head of the Territorial Institution and Head of the Federal public institution health care on a regional scale is appointed and dismissed by the Minister of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation on the proposal of the head of the Federal Service (Chief State Sanitary Doctor of the Russian Federation).

Financing of expenses for the maintenance of territorial health care institutions is carried out at the expense of the federal budget.

Sanitary supervision in Russia is carried out in the form of two forms. In the form of preventive sanitary supervision and current sanitary supervision.

Preventive sanitary supervision provides for the development of measures related to the introduction of health-improving, preventive measures at the stage of developing projects for industrial and civil facilities, the construction of communal facilities, the development of new technologies, the introduction of new food and industrial products, children's toys. Of particular note is the active rather than contemplative role of the sanitary service in all of the above activities. In other words, prevention, preventive sanitary supervision should always go ahead of a person, and not follow him. This is the most important role of preventive sanitary supervision. Preventive sanitary supervision on the example of the construction of certain objects ends at the stage of its acceptance. It begins with the approval of the project, control over the progress of construction and acceptance. The most important point in the implementation of preventive sanitary supervision of objects under construction is the control over the progress of hidden work. After the acceptance of the object, the current sanitary supervision begins.

Current sanitary supervision covers almost all areas of activity of certain institutions, facilities on the territory of a particular settlement, district, region and in general throughout Russia. Sanitary and epidemiological supervision bodies exercise control over the activities of industrial enterprises, communal facilities, kindergartens, schools, medical and preventive and other institutions. The Sanitary and Epidemiological Service is endowed with great rights to supervise the activities of certain institutions and organizations. The sanitary service monitors the implementation of sanitary rules by certain institutions, enterprises and objects. Sanitary rules are mandatory for all state and public organizations and other economic organizations, regardless of their subordination and form of ownership, as well as officials and citizens. The Sanitary Service exercises control aimed at preventing sanitary offenses. Sanitary offenses are unlawful, guilty intentional or negligent actions or omissions that infringe on the rights of citizens and the interests of society, associated with non-compliance with the sanitary legislation of the Russian Federation, including various sanitary rules and norms. Hygienic standards, developed sanitary norms and rules ensure the effective implementation of preventive and current sanitary and epidemiological supervision, effective implementation of measures to improve the environment and improve public health.

Lesson #1

Topic of the lesson: The subject of human hygiene and ecology. Fundamentals of general ecology.

Question: The subject of human hygiene and ecology.

The subject "Human Hygiene and Ecology" is a complex discipline that combines the knowledge of three sciences: hygiene, ecology and human ecology. These sciences are closely related.

Hygiene included in the complex medical sciences. The main goal of hygiene is the prevention of diseases, therefore, a healthy person is at the center of the study of hygiene. The term "hygiene" comes from the Greek word for "healthy". Hygiene is the basis of preventive medicine.

Hygiene- it is a science that studies the impact of the human environment and production activities on people's health and develops optimal, evidence-based requirements for the living and working conditions of the population.

Ecology- is the science of the relationship between organisms and the environment, the circulation of substances and energy flows that make possible life on the ground.

Thus, both hygiene and ecology study the influence of environmental factors on the body. Hygiene operates with hygienic concepts and terms and is based on knowledge of environmental laws. As independent sciences, hygiene and ecology appeared in the second half of the 19th century.

Currently, the science of ecology is divided into two main sections: general and particular.

General ecology studies general patterns relationships of organisms and their communities with the environment in natural conditions.

Private ecology studies narrower issues and is divided into subsections: soil ecology. hydrospheres, applied, social, human ecology. Most actively developing human ecology.

human ecology studies the general laws of the relationship between nature and society, considers the interaction of man with the environment.

In contrast to human ecology, hygiene considers the places where a person lives directly - a dwelling, an enterprise, a settlement, etc.

Hygiene tasks:

1. Develop disease prevention measures in large teams united by common working conditions.

2. Investigate the impact of all conditions of human existence on health in order to develop evidence-based measures to eliminate or reduce the influence of negative factors and enhance positive environmental factors.

3. Changing the environment in accordance with human needs (improving working conditions, nutrition, home improvement, etc.).

4. Substantiation of environmental hygienic standards.

Question 2: Methods of hygienic research .

1. Sanitary inspection method- this is a survey and description of the object of the external environment (enterprise, dwelling, canteen, school, etc.) with the preparation of an act on the compliance of the premises with its purpose.

2. Method of laboratory researches - physical, chemical and biological studies in order to obtain objective data for the assessment and characterization of environmental factors.

3. Experimental method - study of the influence of environmental factors on the human body in artificially created conditions.

4. Method of physiological observations - study of the functional state of organs and systems of the human body in various conditions. Based on the results obtained, the necessary preventive measures are substantiated and developed.

5. Method of clinical observations - is used to assess the health status of the population under the influence of negative environmental factors. To assess the state of health, tests are used: biochemical, immunological and others.

6. Sanitary and statistical method - used in assessing morbidity levels, physical development of children and adolescents, demographic indicators of the natural movement of the population.

7. Epidemiological method- includes the study of changes in the health of the population under the influence of internal and external factors and the analysis of medical accounting and reporting documents during single-stage or long-term observations, followed by the calculation of health indicators.

The essence of the science of hygiene, its differences from other sciences

Definition 1

Hygiene is a science that studies the influence of factors of the natural and anthropogenic environment on the state of human health and society. The goal of science is to reduce their negative impact on the body, with the help of preventive measures.

Hygiene, although in many ways reminiscent of medicine, has a number of important distinguishing features. Whereas the sick person is at the center of the study of medicine, hygiene puts the healthy person at the center of the study. In medicine, assistance is provided individually, while hygiene develops preventive measures in various groups (at work, at school, in production).

Throughout life, each person is exposed to many environmental factors. They can be both positive and necessary for a person, and negative, negatively affecting the health and condition of a person. All of them can be divided into four groups:

• chemical factors. These are chemical compounds that are part of the air, water and soil. They enter the body through plants, and their deficiency or excess can provoke disease.
• physical factors. This includes temperature, humidity, air velocity, atmospheric pressure, solar radiation, noise, vibration, and so on.
• biological factors. These are living organisms such as bacteria, fungi or protozoa that are the cause of many diseases.
• psychogenic factors. This category includes word, speech, writing. These phenomena cause emotions in a person, and this, in turn, has a strong effect on the body.

Ready-made works on a similar topic

• Course work Hygiene and ecology 410 rub.
• abstract Hygiene and ecology 240 rub.
• Test Hygiene and ecology 190 rub.

All of the above factors are closely related to the nature of a person's work activity and to the characteristics of his natural and man-made environment.

Hygiene tasks

The tasks of hygiene include the substantiation of hygienic standards for environmental factors. The hygienic standard is the minimum or maximum value of a quantitative indicator characterizing the biological factor of the environment, which is acceptable for the normal functioning of the organism.

This includes the establishment of maximum permissible concentrations of harmful impurities (MPC) in water, in the atmosphere, in soil, and so on.

The science of hygiene also includes a number of independent areas:

• Communal hygiene;
• Hygiene of nutrition, labor, children, adolescents, etc.
• Gerohygiene (a science that studies the effect of environmental factors on the aging process of the body).
• Personal hygiene and so on.

Methods of Science

Depending on what tasks the researchers face, a wide variety of methods of this science are used, among which the following can be distinguished:

• The method of sanitary inspection is used to study the environment. It consists in examining and describing objects in the environment, for example, an industrial plant, a canteen, a water source.
• The method of laboratory research is used in assessing the characteristics of environmental factors to obtain objective data.
• The monitoring method is used for continuous monitoring of certain environmental parameters and for their automatic registration.
• The clinical method is used during medical examinations, it can be used to find out how the body reacts to changing environmental factors. For example, visual impairment in poor lighting conditions or lung disease that develops in dusty rooms.
• Method of laboratory experiment. In this case, in the laboratory, they reproduce various environmental conditions and monitor how the body reacts to changes - negatively or positively. All data is carefully processed, and animals or volunteers act as experimental subjects.
• statistics method. It covers the health indicators of the entire population and allows you to find out the positive or negative impact of the environment on the body.

Remark 1

Do not confuse the concepts of hygiene and sanitation, these two sciences are different from each other. Hygiene is the science of the influence of life and work on human health. Hygiene involves the development of rules and regulations aimed at preventing various diseases. Sanitation is the practical implementation of hygienic standards and rules.

Health education is currently a very important area in public education. Dissemination of knowledge about the causes of most diseases and measures to prevent them helps not only to improve the environmental and hygienic education of the citizens of the country, but also to prevent most epidemics and epizootics.

IN this case significant role of medical workers. It is the representatives of the medical field that are the main source of reliable knowledge about diseases and remedies for them. Educational thematic conversations with the population and information bulletins are elements of the work to prevent mass diseases among the population.

Hygiene and ecology

Recently, hygiene is closely related to human ecology, sciences have both much in common and many differences. However, hygienic science is not possible without the knowledge that ecology provides.

It is worth noting that ecology and hygiene still have fundamental differences. The fact is that hygiene, through sanitation, is aimed at weakening the influence of negative factors on a person and his environment. While the science of ecology, through a branch - the science of nature protection, seeks to protect the natural environment from negative influences, including anthropogenic impact.

Both sciences must act together, this is dictated by the fact that it is impossible to decide environmental problems only with the help of legal instruments of the environmental order and at the same time do not take into account the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population. And vice versa, it is impossible to ensure the well-being of the population in a dangerous environmental situation.