Early Roman history

The rise of the Roman state

The city of Rome was around the settlements at the ford over the river Tiber, at the crossroads of trade routes. According to archaeological evidence, Rome was founded as a village, probably in the 9th century BC. e. two Central Italic tribes, Latins and Sabines (Sabines), on the hills of the Palatine, Capitoline and Quirinal. The Etruscans, who previously settled north of Rome in Etruria, by the end of the 7th century BC. e. established political control over the region.

Legend of Romulus and Remus

She-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus

Ancient Roman god of war Mars and Rhea Silvia Rubens P.P.

Four years later, at the behest of their grandfather, Romulus and Remus went to the Tiber to look for a place to found a new colony Alba Longa. According to legend, Remus chose the lowlands between the Palatine and Capitoline Hills, but Romulus insisted on founding a city on the Palatine Hill. Turning to the signs did not help, a quarrel broke out, during which Romulus killed his brother. Repenting for the murder of Remus, Romulus founded the city, to which he gave his name (lat. Roma), and became its king. The date of foundation of the city is April 21, 753 BC. e. when the first furrow was drawn around the Palatine Hill with a plow. According to medieval legend, the city of Siena was founded by the son of Rem - Seny.

Latins and Etruscans

From the middle of the II millennium BC. e. in the lower reaches of the Tiber settled Latin-Sikul tribes, a branch of the Italics, who came to the Apennine Peninsula from the Danube regions at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The Latins settled on the Palatine and Velia hills, the neighboring hills were occupied by the Sabines. After the unification of several Latin and Sabine settlements in the middle of the VIII century. BC e. on the Capitoline Hill was built a common fortress for all - Rome.

The Etruscans were ancient tribes that inhabited in the first millennium BC. e. northwest of the Apennine Peninsula (area - ancient Etruria, modern Tuscany) between the Arno and Tiber rivers and created a developed civilization that preceded the Roman one and had a great influence on it. Roman culture inherited many customs and traditions from the Etruscan culture. Around the 2nd century BC. e., due to assimilation by Rome, the Etruscan civilization ceased to exist.

Beginning of Rome

In order to increase the population of Rome in the early stages of its development, Romulus granted the aliens rights, freedoms and citizenship on a par with the first settlers, for whom he assigned the lands of the Capitoline Hill. Thanks to this, runaway slaves, exiles and just adventurers from other cities and countries began to flock to the city.

Rome also lacked a female population - neighboring peoples rightly considered it shameful for themselves to enter into family alliances with a crowd of vagabonds, as they called the Romans at that time. Then Romulus came up with a solemn holiday - Consualia, with games, wrestling and all sorts of gymnastic and cavalry exercises. Many neighbors of the Romans came to the feast, including the Sabines (Sabines). At the moment when the spectators and, in particular, the spectators were carried away by the course of the game, according to a conventional sign, a large crowd of Romans with swords and spears in their hands attacked the unarmed guests. In the confusion and stampede, the Romans captured the women, Romulus himself took the Sabine Hersilia as his wife. The wedding with the ritual of bride kidnapping has since become a Roman custom.

royal period

seven kings

Tradition invariably speaks of seven Roman kings, always calling them by the same names and in the same order: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ankh Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus (Ancient), Servius Tullius, and Lucius Tarquinius the Proud.

Romulus

After the abduction of Sabinian women by the Romans, war broke out between Rome and the Sabines. Led by their king, Tatius, they set out for Rome. However, the abducted women managed to reconcile both warring parties, as they had already taken root in Rome. Then the Romans and the Sabines made peace and lived under the rule of Romulus and Tatius. However, six years after the joint rule, Tatsiy was killed by offended citizens of the colony of Cameria, where he made a campaign. Romulus became king of the united nations. He is credited with the creation of the Senate, which at that time consisted of 100 "fathers", the strengthening of the Palatine and the formation of the Roman community (the division of the Romans into patricians and plebeians).

Numa Pompilius

Servius Tullius

Republican Rome

Early Roman Republic (509-265 BC)

Struggle between plebeians and patricians

The early history of Rome is marked by the domination of the tribal aristocracy, the patricians, except for whom no one could sit in the Senate. They obeyed the plebeians, who were possibly the descendants of the defeated people. However, it is possible that, by origin, the patricians were simply wealthy landowners who organized themselves into clans and appropriated the privileges of the highest caste. The power of the elected king was limited by the Senate and the assembly of clans, which granted the king after the election imperium(supreme power). The plebeians were not allowed to bear arms, their marriages were not recognized as legal - these measures were designed to leave them without protection, without the support of the family and tribal organization. Since Rome was the northernmost outpost of the Latin tribes, adjacent to the Etruscan civilization, the Roman aristocratic education resembled the Spartan one with a special emphasis on patriotism, discipline, courage and military skill.

The overthrow of the monarchy did not lead to major changes in the political structure of Rome. The place of the king for life was taken by two consuls elected for one year from among the patricians (“going ahead”). They led the meetings of the senate and the people's assembly, controlled the implementation of the decisions made by these bodies, distributed citizens into centuries, monitored the collection of taxes, exercised judicial power, and commanded troops during the war. At the end of their term, they reported to the senate and could be prosecuted. The quaestors were assistants to the consuls for judicial affairs, and later the management of the treasury was transferred to them. The People's Assembly was the highest state body, it approved laws, declared war, made peace, elected all officials (magistrates). The role of the Senate increased: not a single law could enter into force without its approval; he controlled the activities of the magistrates, resolved foreign policy issues, and supervised finances and religious life.

The main content of the history of early republican Rome was the struggle of the plebeians for equality with the patricians, who monopolized the right to sit in the Senate, to occupy higher magistracies and receive land from the "public field". The plebeians demanded the abolition of debt bondage and the limitation of debt interest. The growth of the military role of the plebeians (by the beginning of the 5th century BC they already made up the bulk of the Roman army) allowed them to exert effective pressure on the patrician senate. In 494 BC e. after another refusal of the Senate to satisfy their demands, they left Rome for the Sacred Mountain (the first secession), and the patricians had to make concessions: a new magistracy was established - people's tribunes, elected exclusively from the plebeians (originally two) and possessing sacred immunity; they had the right to interfere in the activities of the other magistrates (intercession), to impose a ban on any of their decisions (veto) and to bring them to justice. In 457 BC e. the number of people's tribunes increased to ten. In 452 BC e. the plebeians forced the senate to create a commission of ten members (decemvirs) with consular power to write down laws, primarily for the sake of fixing (that is, limiting) the powers of the patrician magistrates. In 443 BC e. the consuls lost the right to distribute citizens by centuries, which was transferred to new magistrates - two censors, elected from among the patricians every five years by centuriate comitia for a period of 18 months. In 421 BC e. the plebeians received the right to hold the office of quaestor, although they realized it only in 409 BC. e. It was restored on the condition that one of them would definitely be a plebeian, but the senate achieved the transfer of judicial power from the consuls to the praetors, elected from the patricians. In 337 BC e. the office of praetor became available to the plebeians. In 300 BC e. under the law of the Ogulniev brothers, the plebeians gained access to the priestly colleges of pontiffs and augurs.

Thus, all the magistracies were open to the plebeians. Their struggle with the patricians ended in 287 BC. e. The victory of the plebeians led to a change in the social structure of Roman society: having achieved political equality, they ceased to be an estate different from the patrician estate; noble plebeian families, together with the old patrician families, constituted a new elite - the nobility. This contributed to the weakening of the internal political struggle in Rome and the consolidation of Roman society, which allowed him to mobilize all his forces for active foreign policy expansion.

Roman conquest of Italy

After the transformation of Rome into a republic, the territorial expansion of the Romans began. Initially, their main opponents in the north were the Etruscans, in the northeast the Sabines, in the east the Aequi and in the southeast the Volsci.

In 509-506 BC. e. Rome repelled the onset of the Etruscans, who came out in support of the deposed Tarquinius the Proud, and in 499-493 BC. e. defeated the Arician Federation of Latin Cities (First Latin War), concluding an alliance with it on the terms of non-interference in each other's internal affairs, mutual military assistance and equality in the division of booty. This allowed the Romans to start a series of wars with the Sabines, Volscians, Aequas and powerful South Etruscan settlements.

The strengthening of the foreign policy positions of the Romans in Central Italy was interrupted by the invasion of the Gauls, who in 390 BC. e. defeated the Roman army at the river Allia, captured and burned Rome; The Romans took refuge in the Capitol. Although the Gauls soon left the city, the influence of the Romans in Latium was greatly weakened; the alliance with the Latins actually broke up, the Volsci, Etruscans and Equs resumed the war against Rome. However, the Romans managed to repel the onslaught of neighboring tribes. After a new Gallic invasion of Latium in 360 BC. e. the Roman-Latin alliance was revived (358 BC). By the middle of the IV century. BC e. Rome already had complete control over Latium and Southern Etruria and continued to expand into other areas of Italy. In 343 BC e. the inhabitants of the Campanian city of Capua, having suffered a defeat from the Samnites, passed into Roman citizenship, which caused the First Samnite War (343-341 BC), which ended with the victory of the Romans and the subjugation of the Western Campaign. The growth of the power of Rome led to an aggravation of its relations with the Latins, which provoked the Second Latin War (340-338 BC), as a result of which the Latin Union was dissolved, part of the lands of the Latins was confiscated, and a separate agreement was concluded with each community. The inhabitants of a number of Latin cities received Roman citizenship; the rest were equalized with the Romans only in property, but not in political rights. During the Second (327-304 BC) and Third (298-290 BC) Samnite Wars, the Romans defeated the Samnite Federation and defeated its allies - the Etruscans and Gauls. Those were forced to enter into an unequal alliance with Rome and cede part of their territory to him. Rome strengthened its influence in Lucania and Etruria, established control over Picenum and Umbria, and took possession of Senonian Gaul, becoming the hegemon of all of Central Italy. The penetration of Rome into southern Italy led in 280 BC. e. to war with Tarentum, the most powerful of the states of Magna Graecia, and his ally, the Epirus king Pyrrhus. In 276-275 BC. e. the Romans defeated Pyrrhus, which allowed them to 270 BC. e. subjugate Lucania, Bruttius and all of Greater Greece. The conquest of Italy by Rome up to the borders with Gaul was completed in 265 BC. e. the capture of Volsinia in southern Etruria. The communities of Southern and Central Italy entered the Italian Union, headed by Rome.

Late Roman Republic (264-27 BC)

Rome becomes a world power

The expansion of Rome into other territories of the Mediterranean made it inevitable that the Roman Republic clashed with Carthage, the leading power in the Mediterranean. As a result three wars between the two powers, Rome destroyed the Carthaginian state and included its territory in the republic. This allowed him to continue his expansion to other areas of the Mediterranean. After the conquests of the III-I centuries. BC e. Rome became a world power, and the Mediterranean became an inland Roman lake.

First Punic War

The official reason for the war for the Romans was the siege and capture of the Spanish city of Sagunta (an ally of Rome) by the Carthaginian commander Hannibal. Rome then declared war on Carthage. At first, the Carthaginian army, led by Hannibal, prevailed over the Roman troops. The most significant of the victories of the Carthaginians is the battle of Cannae, after which Macedonia entered the war on the side of Carthage. However, the Romans were soon able to seize the initiative and went on the offensive. The last battle of the war was the Battle of Zama, after which Carthage sued for peace. Under the terms of the peace, Carthage paid 10,000 talents of indemnity, could not maintain more than 10 warships and conduct hostilities without the permission of the Senate, and gave Spain to the Romans.

As a result of the war, Carthage lost all its possessions outside of Africa. Rome became the strongest state in the West.

Third Macedonian War

In 171-168 BC. e. the Romans defeated the coalition of Macedonia, Epirus, Illyria and the Aetolian Union (Third Macedonian War) and destroyed the Kingdom of Macedonia, creating in its place four independent districts that paid tribute to them; Illyria was also divided into three districts dependent on Rome; The Aetolian Union ceased to exist.

As a result of the next victory of Rome in the Third Macedonian War, he no longer needed the support of his former allies - Pergamon, Rhodes and the Achaean Union. The Romans took away from Rhodes his possessions in Asia Minor and dealt a blow to his trading power, declaring neighboring Delos a free port. Rome became the hegemon of the Eastern Mediterranean.

Third Punic War

During the Third Punic War (149-146 BC), Carthage was taken by the Roman army and destroyed to the ground. As a result, the Carthaginian state ceased to exist.

Gracchi brothers

In 133 BC e. tribune of the people Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus put forward a draft land reform, which was supposed to limit the limit of ownership age publicus(public land) 500 yugers - 125 ha. It was also allowed to increase the land allotment by 250 yugers for each son, but not more than for two sons. The rest of the land was confiscated and divided among landless citizens in plots of 30 yugers without the right to sell. After a stubborn struggle, the law was passed and a commission was set up to redistribute the land. However, Tiberius was soon killed. A few years later, his younger brother Guy, who proposed a series of bills, became the people's tribune. Soon, however, he was forced to commit suicide during the riots that began.

End of II and beginning of I century BC. e.

An important issue at the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. the problem of the rights of the Italics became - during the conquest of Italy by Rome, the conquered communities received various rights, which, as a rule, were limited in comparison with the Roman ones. At the same time, the Italians served in the Roman army and were often used as cannon fodder. The inability to obtain rights equal to the rights of Roman citizens pushed the Italics to the Allied War.

Sulla's dictatorship

Meeting of the Roman Senate (Cicero attacks Catiline)

Gaius Julius Caesar

Gaius Julius Caesar

Octavian August and Mark Antony

After the death of Caesar, Octavian received control of Cisalpine and most of Transalpine Gaul. Mark Antony, who saw himself as Caesar's only successor, began to openly compete with him for future power over Rome. However, the dismissive attitude towards Octavian, numerous intrigues, an attempt to take Cisalpine Gaul from the previous procurator Brutus and the recruitment of troops for the war aroused hostility towards Antony among the people.

Imperial Rome

Article The Roman Empire contains generalizing material of the imperial period of Rome

Early Roman Empire. Principate (27/30 BC - 235 AD)

The reign of Augustus (31 BC - 14 AD)

The basis of Octavian's authority was the tribunate and the highest military authority. In 29 BC. e. he received the honorific nickname "August" ("Exalted") and was proclaimed princeps (first person) of the senate; hence the name of the new political system - principate. In 28 BC. e. the Romans defeated the tribe mezes and organized the province of Moesia. Meanwhile, in Thrace, a fierce struggle unfolded between supporters and opponents of the Roman orientation, which for several years finally postponed the conquest of Thrace by the Romans. In 24 BC e. the senate freed Augustus from any restrictions imposed by law in 13 BC. e. his decisions were equated with Senate resolutions. In 12 BC e. he became a great pontiff, and in 2 BC. e. was awarded the title of "Father of the Fatherland". Having received in 29 BC. e. censorship powers, Augustus expelled the republicans and supporters of Antony from the Senate and reduced its composition. august realized military reform, completing the century-long process of creating a Roman professional army. Now the soldiers served 20-25 years, receiving a regular salary and constantly being in a military camp without the right to start a family. Upon retirement, they were given a monetary reward and a plot of land. the principle of voluntary employment of citizens in the legions and provincials in auxiliary formations, guards units were created to protect Italy, Rome and the emperor - the guards (praetorians). For the first time in Roman history, special police units were organized - cohorts of vigils (guardians) and city cohorts.

Julio-Claudian dynasty

Tiberius

Tiberius Claudius Nero (14 - 37 AD) was the second Roman emperor, adopted son and successor of Octavian Augustus, founder of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. He became famous as a successful military leader, and his reputation as an arrogant and promiscuous person is most likely unfounded.

Together with his younger brother Drusus, Tiberius was able to expand the borders of the Roman Empire along the Danube and into Germany (16-7 BC, 4-9 AD).

In order to save public funds, the emperor reduced cash distributions and the number of spectacles. Tiberius continued to fight against the abuses of the provincial governors, completely eliminated the farming system and switched to direct tax collection.

Caligula

Caligula

Caligula (Full name Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) (37 - 41 AD) - the third Roman emperor, great-nephew of Tiberius. Caligula tried to establish an unlimited monarchy, introduced a magnificent court ceremonial and demanded that his subjects call him "lord" and "god", the imperial cult was planted everywhere. He pursued a policy of open humiliation of the Senate and terror against the aristocracy and equestrianism. The support of Caligula was the Praetorians and the army, as well as the urban plebs, to attract the sympathy of which he spent huge amounts of money on distributions, spectacles and construction. The depleted treasury was replenished by confiscating the property of convicts. Caligula's regime caused general discontent, and in January 41 he was killed as a result of a conspiracy of the Praetorian elite.

Claudius I

Claudius (41 - 54 AD) is the fourth emperor, uncle of the emperor Caligula. After the murder of his nephew, he was found by a soldier of the Praetorian Guard, brought to the camp and, against his will, proclaimed emperor. Having established himself in power, he executed the organizers of the murder of Caligula, repealed many odious laws, and granted amnesty to those illegally convicted. Since childhood, he had poor health and was considered weak-minded, although some historians argue that he was a very wise and atypical moral politician for that time, therefore he was not understood by his contemporaries and was nicknamed weak-minded. In the reign of Claudius, the policy of Romanization and the gradual granting of civil rights to the conquered population continued, a new water supply system was built, the port of Portus, and Lake Fuscin was drained.

Nero

Nero (54 - 68 AD) was the fifth Roman emperor, the last of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. The Roman emperor Nero became famous and made his contribution to history as an ambiguous and complex person who, on the one hand, is famous for his cruelty, paranoia, fear of conspiracies and attempts on himself, and on the other hand, is known as a lover of fine arts, poetry, feasts and sports games.

The reign of Nero is characterized by extreme cruelty. So, his wife Octavia was killed, who could not give him an heir, hundreds of patricians and citizens of the Roman Empire, who were suspected of conspiracies or disapproval of his policies, were destroyed. The imbalance and complex mental state of Nero is confirmed by the fire that he set in Rome. To get an unforgettable experience and the emotional surge that he needed as a poet and theater actor, Nero set fire to the city and watched the fire from the hill, sharing his impressions with the patricians and courtiers around him. The cruelty of the emperor was confirmed by the investigation into the causes of the fire. They put forward the idea of ​​communion

Romulus and Remus(lat. Romulus and Remus) are the legendary founding brothers of Rome. According to legend, they were the children of the Vestal Rhea Sylvia and the god Mars. According to Titus Livius, Romulus was the first king of ancient Rome (753 - 716 BC).

Birth and childhood

The mother of Romulus and Remus, Rhea Sylvia, was the daughter of the legitimate king of Alba Longa Numitor, deposed from the throne by his younger brother Amulius. Amulius did not want the children of Numitor to interfere with his ambitious plans: Numitor's son disappeared during a hunt, and Rhea Sylvia was forced to become a vestal, which doomed her to 30 years of celibacy. In the fourth year of service, Mars appeared to her in the sacred grove, from whom Rhea Sylvia gave birth to two brothers. Enraged, Amulius took her into custody, and ordered the babies to be put in a basket and thrown into the Tiber River. However, the basket washed up on the shore at the foot of the Palatine Hill, where they were fed by a she-wolf, and the cares of their mother were replaced by a woodpecker and a lapwing. Subsequently, all these animals became sacred to Rome. Then the brothers were picked up by the royal shepherd Faustulus. His wife, Akka Larentia, who had not yet consoled herself after the death of her child, took the twins into her care. When Romulus and Remus grew up, they returned to Alba Longa, where they learned the secret of their origin. They killed Amulius and restored their grandfather Numitor to the throne.

Founding of Rome

Four years later, at the behest of their grandfather, Romulus and Remus went to the Tiber to look for a place to found a new colony of Alba Longa. According to legend, Remus chose the lowlands between the Palatine and Capitoline Hills, but Romulus insisted on founding a city on the Palatine Hill. Turning to the signs did not help, a quarrel broke out, during which Romulus killed his brother.

Repenting for the murder of Remus, Romulus founded the city, which he gave his name (lat. Roma) and became its king. The date of foundation of the city is April 21, 753 BC. e., when the first furrow was drawn around the Palatine Hill with a plow. According to medieval legend, the city of Siena was founded by the son of Rem - Seny.

At first, the main concern of Romulus was to increase the population of the city. To this end, he granted the newcomers rights, freedoms and citizenship on a par with the first settlers. For them, he assigned the lands of Capitol Hill. Thanks to this, runaway slaves, exiles and just adventurers from other cities and countries began to flock to the city.

In Rome, there was not enough female population - the neighboring peoples rightly considered it shameful for themselves to enter into family alliances with a crowd of vagabonds, as they called the Romans at that time. Therefore, Romulus came up with a trick - he arranged a solemn holiday - Consualia, with games, wrestling and all sorts of gymnastic and cavalry exercises. Many neighbors of the Romans came to the feast, including the Sabines (Sabines). At the moment when the spectators and, in particular, the spectators were carried away by the course of the game, according to a conventional sign, a large crowd of Romans with swords and spears in their hands attacked the unarmed guests. In the confusion and stampede, the Romans captured the women - as many as they could. Romulus himself took the Sabine Hersilia as his wife. The wedding with the ritual of bride kidnapping has since become a Roman custom.

According to Plutarch, an attempt to calculate the dates of the birth of Romulus and Remus and the founding of Rome by astrological methods was undertaken by the astrologer Tarutius at the request of his friend Varro. He decided that the brothers were conceived on the day solar eclipse June 24, 772 BC e. at the 3rd hour after sunrise and were born on March 26, 771 BC. e., and Rome was founded on October 4, 754 BC. e.

Romulus - king of ancient Rome

The abduction of the Sabine women could not have a positive effect on the reputation of Rome - the neighbors rebelled against him. The army of Romulus managed to repulse the attack and take the cities of Tsenin and Crustrum. military glory Romulus attracted new settlers to the city - the Etruscans. They settled the Esquiline Hill. By that time, the Sabines, having recovered from their bereavement, under the leadership of their king Tatius, went on a campaign against Rome and, despite the heroism of the defenders of the city, almost managed to take it. But in the midst of the battle, the Sabines appeared on the battlefield: holding babies in their arms, they conjured, on the one hand, their fathers and brothers, on the other, their husbands to stop the bloodshed. The Sabines and the Romans made peace. They decided to call themselves quirites (spearmen) and live together under the rule of Tatius and Romulus. The Sabines populated the Capitoline Hill and the neighboring Quirinal Hill.

For six years Tatius and Romulus ruled together. During this time, they made several successful campaigns, including the Albanian colony of Cameria, but in the city of Lavinius Tatsiy was killed by offended citizens. Romulus became king of the united nations.

Romulus is credited with the creation of the Senate, which at that time consisted of 100 "fathers". He also installed insignia supreme power, established the position of lictors, divided the people into 30 curiae, according to the names of Sabine women, established three tribes: Ramny(Latins), Titia(Sabines) and Lucers(Etruscans). He is also credited with dividing the Romans into patricians and plebeians.

The device of the Roman state by Romulus

Dividing the whole people into 3 parts, Romulus placed the most prominent of the people over each of the parts as a leader. Then, again dividing each of the three parts into 10, he appointed leaders over them, equal among themselves and the most brave. He called the larger parts tribes, and the smaller ones curiae. Those who stood at the head of the tribes were called tribunes, those who stood at the head of the curiae were called curions. Romulus divided the Curia into decades, headed by a decurion. Romulus divided the land of Rome into 30 equal cleres (plots by lot) and appointed a cleric to each curia.

Romulus separated the noble by birth and famous for valor and wealth in those days, people who already had children, from the obscure, poor and unfortunate. He called people of unenviable fate plebeians, and people of a better life - "fathers" (their descendants began to be called patricians). The "fathers" were entrusted with the leadership of Rome. Citizens who did not take part in public affairs were called villagers.

When Romulus separated the best from the worst, he took up legislation and determined what each of them should do: patricians - to be priests, to manage and judge, to deal with state affairs with him; Romulus decided to free the plebeians from all this. He appointed them occupations in agriculture, cattle breeding and profitable crafts. Romulus saw fit to entrust the plebeians to the patricians, each of them giving the choice of which of the people he wished to become patron. Romulus called the protection of the poor and the lower patronage, thus establishing philanthropic and civic ties between them.

Then Romulus established senators, with whom he intended to govern the state, recruiting 100 people from the patricians. He appointed one who was to lead the state when he himself led the army beyond its borders. He ordered each of the three tribes to choose three people who were the most intelligent due to their age and the most famous by origin. After these nine, he ordered from each curia to appoint the three most worthy of the patricians. Then, adding to the first nine nominated by the tribes another 90, whom the curiae had previously elected, and appointing a leader from among them, whom he himself had appointed, Romulus increased the number of senators to 100.

Disappearance of Romulus

Roman mythology describes the death of Romulus as a supernatural disappearance. However, it looks like he was just killed. Plutarch, in his Comparative Lives, speaks of the ascension of Romulus with a grain of salt:

For thirty-seven years Romulus ruled the Rome he founded. On the fifth of July, on that day, which is now called the Capratine nonas, Romulus offered a sacrifice outside the city, in the Goat's swamp, for the whole people in the presence of the Senate and most of the citizens. Suddenly a great change took place in the air: a cloud descended to the earth, accompanied by a whirlwind and a storm. The rest of the people fled in fear and scattered in different directions, while Romulus disappeared. He was not found alive or dead. A strong suspicion fell on the patricians. The people said that they had long been weary of royal power and, wanting to take control of the state into their own hands, they killed the king, since for some time he began to deal with them more severely and despotic. The patricians tried to dispel this kind of suspicion by ranking Romulus among the gods and saying that he "did not die, but was awarded a better share." Proculus, a person who was respected, swore that he saw how Romulus ascended in full armor to heaven, and heard his voice, ordering him to be called Quirinus.

Plutarch. Comparative biographies. Lycurgus and Numa Pompilius

A similar story is given in his "History from the foundation of the City" by Titus Livius.

It is generally accepted that Romulus ascended to heaven on July 5, 717 BC. e. The exact date of birth of Romulus and Remus is known only approximately: about 771 BC. e. After his death, Romulus was identified with the Sabine god Quirinus, who was considered the peaceful hypostasis of Mars.

After Romulus, Numa Pompilius became king of Rome.

Analogies in the mythologies of other peoples

The fate of Remus and Romulus has many analogies in the mythologies of other peoples. So the ancient Greek Perseus and the Hebrew Moses were immediately after birth thrown into the sea and the Nile, respectively. The theme of twins is also often found in the mythology of the Mediterranean: compare at least with the Greek legends of Castor and Pollux or Amphion and Zeph. Cases of child rearing by wild animals are often described in mythology, religion and modern fiction. Finally, the legend of the ascension of Romulus is very reminiscent of the Christian legend of the resurrection of Jesus Christ. In both cases, we are dealing with a “king” who ascended to heaven.

A Brief History of Ancient Rome

The Roman Empire is the last of the great empires that ever existed on earth. She came to replace the empire of Alexander the Great and stood for about 1500 years.

As a result of endless conquests, the Roman Empire grew to such gigantic proportions that it was no longer able to control the peoples it conquered. The barbarian tribes gradually got out of the control of Rome and fell upon the empire that captivated them. Great Rome perished under the rubble of its own greatness.

Legend of Rome

The history of Rome begins with a legend.

It says that the king of the ancient Latin city of Alba Longa was overthrown by his brother, and his wife was turned into a vestal. In a sacred grove, the god Mars came to her, after which she gave birth to the twins Romulus and Remus.

Unwanted children were put in a basket and thrown into the waters of the Tiber. Fortunately, they were washed ashore at the foot of the Palatine Hill, where the twins were rescued by a she-wolf, who gave them her milk to drink, and a woodpecker and a lapwing looked after them.

When the brothers grew up, they founded a city on the site of their salvation, which began to bear the name of Romulus - Rome(lat. Poma). The official countdown of its origin the city dates from 21 April 753 BC

The real history of Rome

The real history of Rome is more prosaic.

In the century BC small settlements arose along the banks of the Tiber River. They were founded by Italian tribes Latins and Sabines who were themselves descendants of an even more ancient civilization Etruscans.

AT 753 BC these settlements built a joint fortress city, which was called Rome . The city was founded on seven hills, because the area between them was quite swampy. From this moment, the history of Rome begins its countdown.

The history of Rome can be conditionally divided into several periods:

• Royal
• Republican
• The Roman Empire

Royal period: VIII century BC

Documentary evidence of this period has not been preserved, so the data is based on oral traditions. They say that in order to increase the population, Romulus allowed a wide variety of newcomers to enter the country, as a result of which a stream of fugitive slaves, vagabonds and adventurers poured into the country, so that the original population of Rome consisted mainly of robbers and adventurers.

For the first few centuries, Rome was ruled by seven kings, the first of which was Romulus himself, the founder of Rome. Interestingly, these kings did not receive power by inheritance, as would be customary in medieval monarchies, but were elected by the Senate for life. The king wore a purple toga - a symbol of royal power.

early republic

AT 509 BC The last seventh king of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was overthrown by Lucius Junius Brutus. Instead of the king, the popular assembly elected two consuls- Brutus and Collatinus, who began to rule Rome. The consuls presided over the meetings of the senate, tried court cases, commanded the army and were elected for a term of office. 1 year. So Rome became a republic.

The commercial and political rival of Rome - the North African Carthage was defeated in the Third Punic War, after which Rome became the master in the region of the Western Mediterranean.

At that time, the country was gradually divided into patricians and plebeians. Patricians - tribal Roman aristocracy, people from indigenous Roman families. Plebeians are the descendants of conquered peoples who joined the Roman nation. The plebeians were deprived of the right to bear arms, their marriages were considered illegal, their rights were curtailed and trampled in every way to emphasize that they were not true Romans.

This resulted in the 494 BC there was a massive riot of plebeians, during which they went to the Sacred Mountain in protest, refusing to serve in the army. In the end, the patricians had to make concessions, and as a result, there were public stands, elected from the plebeians.

Middle Republic

As the empire expands through the capture of new territories, the influx of tribute from the conquered peoples increases. Thanks to this, the generals and governors became the richest people in Rome and turn into prominent political figures - senators.

With each new victory of Rome, the influx of new slaves into the empire increased. The slave trade becomes the most profitable occupation and brings huge incomes. The largest sales market is Rome itself, which needed more and more free laborers.

Most of the slaves ended up on the farms of rich Romans and had to cultivate and fertilize their fields, as well as work in mines and quarries. In better conditions were those who were lucky enough to get into the house of the senators as domestic servants.

Rise of Spartacus

Humiliating living conditions, hard work and constant insults from the owners led to the fact that in 73 BC A slave uprising broke out under the leadership of the gladiator Spartacus.

The fugitive slaves made up a rather large detachment, the number of which reached 120 thousand people, and Spartacus formed a real army of former slaves. The rebellious slaves intended to cross over to Sicily, but the pirates they hired betrayed them and did not come after them.

Meanwhile, Rome equipped its army under the command of Mark Crassus after the rebellious slaves. His troops surrounded the detachment of Spartacus and after a bloody battle, the slaves were defeated, and Spartak himself died. 6,000 slaves were taken prisoner and crucified along the infamous appian way, leading to Rome.

Late republic

In II century BC The brothers-tribunes of the Gracchi decide to implement a land reform in order to limit the number of land allotments of the Roman nobility and distribute surplus land to the landless population. The reform was adopted, but as a result of the conspiracy, both brothers were killed.

First triumvirate

AT 59 BC Gaius Julius Caesar was elected consul. Together with the two most famous commanders of Rome - Gnaeus Pompey and Mark Crassus, Caesar formed a political alliance, which was called triumvirate.

This triple alliance of the most prominent politicians of Rome was created in order to crush the resistance of the senate and pass the laws needed by the alliance.

AT 53 BC Marcus Crassus leads a war against the Parthians that ends in a catastrophic defeat for his army and Crassus himself dies.

At this time, in Rome, Caesar's daughter, Julia, who was married to Pompey, dies after giving birth to her daughter, who also dies a few days later. Thus, the family ties between Caesar and Pompey collapse, and between them begins a real struggle for power, which results in a civil war.

The armies of Caesar and Pompey converge in 48 BC in Greece, where Caesar's troops defeat Pompey's legionnaires, after which Pompey tries to hide in Egypt, but was treacherously killed.

From Roman Republic to Roman Empire

By defeating Pompey, Caesar becomes the most famous man in Rome. The Senate declares it dictator , which was considered not an insult, but, on the contrary, the highest title of power.

Caesar carried out several global reforms to enhance the prestige of Rome, the most important event of which is the change in the calendar. Under his leadership, a police force was formed, and a new land reform was also planned.

Caesar's plans included the construction of a grandiose temple in honor of the god Mars, the construction of a giant theater and the creation of a library similar to the Alexandrian one. On his instructions, the restoration of Carthage and Corinth began, and it was also planned to build a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth.

He intended to defeat the Parthians and Dacians in order to take revenge for the defeat at Carrhae and the death of Crassus.

However, his own success prevented all these plans from coming true. Senators begin to fear that Caesar's power will reach such proportions that he will no longer need the Senate, and he will simply dissolve it.

Until this happens, a group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius plot against Caesar and kill him. Caesar's last words were the famous phrase "And you, Brutus!"

After the assassination of the dictator, his closest assistant Mark Antony unites with Caesar's nephew - Gaius Octavian Furin, then his friend Mark Aemilius Lepidus joins them.

They combine their legions into one army, which defeats the troops of Brutus and Cassius in 42 BC After that, both conspirators have no choice but to commit suicide. The rest of the soldiers and officers who participated in the assassination of Caesar were pardoned and invited to join the victorious army.

Second triumvirate

Union of Octavius, Antony and Lepidus is named second triumvirate. Lepidus assumes command of Spain and Africa, which automatically excludes him from the number of contenders for the Roman throne. Octavius ​​takes control of the western Roman colonies, and Antony the eastern ones.

But the Egyptian queen Cleopatra intervened in the plans VI I, which enchanted Antony. Their united army enters the fight for Rome, but it is defeated by the legions of Octavius ​​in 31 BC at Cape Actium, after which a couple in love commits suicide.

Octavius ​​becomes the only contender for the throne. AT 27 BC The Senate grants him unlimited powers and proclaims Octavian Augustus. He ascends the throne of Rome with the title of first emperor.

The Roman Empire

First of all, Emperor Octavian Augustus begins to carry out military reform. He leaves only those 28 legions that helped him come to power. Rest 60 legions are demobilized and retired. So Octavian created 150- thousand army.

The term of service in the army was originally 16 years, then it was extended to 20 years. The legions were prudently located far apart so that their commanders would not have the opportunity to unite and plot against the throne. All Roman provinces were divided into senatorial and imperial.

The Senate gradually lost its political role and formally supported all the decisions of the emperor. Such a symbiosis of the monarchy with elements of the republic was called " principate».

Oddly enough, Augustus was a very talented emperor. He carried out a huge work on the reorganization of his entire gigantic empire, thanks to which Rome rose to a new level of its development and prosperity. Continuing the work of Caesar, Augustus gained general popularity among the people by the improvement and ennoblement of the country.

Urban planning and architecture

Roman cities were built very thoughtfully and wisely. Each city was designed at the intersection of two roads, around which the central square, the market and all other city objects were built.

Interestingly, a water pipe was built in Rome, supplying the city with clean water. The city had fountains, canals, sewerage and the famous Roman baths with hot and cold pools. So Rome was the most developed and comfortable city I century BC

Also an important achievement of Rome were the magnificent roads that connected the capital of the empire with all the outlying provinces and provided the army, mail and trade with an incredibly high speed of movement for those times.

Naturally, this improvement of the roads was a very laborious undertaking and was provided by the labor of slaves, who first dug deep trenches, and then covered them with gravel and small stones. Thanks to this technology, Roman roads were very durable and could stand for several centuries. The proverb “All roads lead to Rome” has survived to this day, since Roman roads cut through the entire gigantic empire from end to end.

It is believed that in one year, Augustus was able to restore 82 temple. The most grandiose building of the empire was the Temple of the Capitol, erected on one of the seven hills of Rome.

Culture of ancient Rome

The love of the Romans for entertainment was reflected in the proverb of "bread and circuses."

The most popular among the Romans were gladiator fights and chariot races. These spectacles have become a kind of alternative to the Greek Olympic Games.

Empire expansion

August was not a brilliant commander, and he had the sense to admit it. Therefore, in military affairs, he used the help and support of his faithful friend and colleague Agrippa, who just had a military talent.

The most significant victory of Augustus, supported by Agrippa, was the conquest of Egypt in 30 BC The second achievement was the return of prisoners and battle banners that the Parthians captured in the battle of Karrha in 53 BC

During the reign of Augustus, the empire expanded to the Danube, which became its eastern border after the tribes living in the Alps were conquered and the colonization of the Balkan Peninsula was completed.

Tiberius

Augustus and his wife Livia had no children of their own. Therefore, Augustus declared his stepson Tiberius the heir, who ascended the throne after his death in 14 AD

Tiberius, unlike Augustus, was extremely stingy and sharply reduced the funding for the improvement of the empire at the expense of the treasury. However, in the event of cataclysms, Tiberius did not spare money and the consequences of fires and floods were eliminated from the treasury without delay.

Caligula

After the death of Tiberius in 37 AD the throne went to the son of his nephew - Caligula. The young man was very popular among the people, and great hopes were pinned on his reign. In honor of his ascension to the throne, Caligula announced a large amnesty.

But after some time, a strange illness turned him from a merciful and generous person into a crazy maniac. One of his wild antics was the order to introduce his beloved horse into the Senate. The name of Caligula has become a symbol of debauchery and uncontrollable arrogance. Through 5 years of his half-mad rule, 41 d. the insane Caligula was killed by an officer of his personal guard.

Claudius

After Caligula, the throne passed to his uncle Claudius, who came to the throne at the age of 50 years. His reign was marked by the prosperity of the empire and the absence of unrest in the provinces. The main military achievement of Claudius was the conquest of the south of England.

Nero

Claudius' heir was his stepson Nero, distinguished by pathological aggression and lust. AT 64 d. the inadequate emperor burned half of Rome in order to enjoy the spectacle of the burning city and, under his impression, compose a song, since he imagined himself to be a talented singer.

Nero laid all the blame for the fire on the Christians living in the capital. The mass executions of believers with their cruelty overshadowed even the suppression of the Spartacus uprising. As a result, the insane maniac tyrant Nero annoyed the Romans with his insane antics, and even his personal guard, the praetorian garrison (from the word "praetoria" - the personal residence of the emperor), rebelled against him. Fleeing from the chase, Nero threw himself on his sword with the words "What an artist is dying!" With the death of Nero, the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.

Flavian dynasty

The whole next year after the overthrow of Nero passed in the struggle for the Roman throne, which resulted in a civil war. In the end, the commander Vespasian came to power, putting an end to civil strife.

From Vespasian, the throne passed to his son Titus, which was the first time that his son became the heir to the emperor. Titus did not rule for long, and the throne passed to his younger brother Domitian, against whom a conspiracy was drawn up, and he was killed.

Antonina

After the death of Domitian, the senate elected Nerva emperor, who lasted only two years on the throne. After him, the outstanding commander Ulpia Trajan took the throne, who pushed the boundaries of the Roman Empire as far as possible, trying to push the barbarian tribes of nomads as far as possible from Rome.

Thanks to the next three emperors - Hadrian, Anthony Pius and Marcus Aurelius II century became the "golden age" of the Roman Empire. However, the next emperor - Commodus, the son and heir of Marcus Aurelius, turned out to be vicious and vain. AT 192 In the year he was strangled as a result of a conspiracy, and the empire again fell into the abyss of civil strife.

Sever dynasty

AT 193 year, the Sever family comes to the throne. The second emperor of this kind, named Karkall, is interesting in that under him, the population of all the conquered Roman provinces was granted Roman citizenship.

Beginning with 235 The empire enters a period of power crisis. Fight for the imperial throne 29 applicants, and only one of them died of natural causes.

And only with the coming to power of Diocletian in 284 the empire found peace and balance. Under Diocletian to replace principate y - the coexistence of the monarchy and the republic, comes dominant- unlimited imperial power.

To rid the empire of civil strife and protect the throne from a disastrous power struggle, Diocletian introduces tetrarchy- the division of the empire into four parts, each of which had to be ruled by its own tetrarch. However, the idea did not justify itself: after Diocletian retired, the young tetrarchs again quarreled among themselves in an attempt to capture all four tetrarchies.

In the struggle for power, Constantine, one of the tetrarchs, emerged victorious, the rest either died in battle or were killed as a result of a conspiracy.

Konstantin I and the end of the empire

AT 324 year, Constantine becomes the sole ruler of the whole great empire. He is famous for the fact that under him Christianity is transformed from a persecuted sect into a state religion.

Rome, from the capital of a giant empire, becomes at first just the center of one of the four tetrarchies, and then completely loses its great status, as Constantine transfers the capital from Rome to a small town Byzantium , later renamed to Constantinople in honor of Constantine.

At the same time, the territory of Rome by that time had already grown so much in size as a result of endless conquests that it became very difficult to manage it. There is a split of the empire into Western and Eastern, which later became known as Byzantium with the capital Constantinople.

The invasion of the barbarians gradually undermined the political and economic system of the once invincible state. Theodosius I was the last formal ruler of the still formally entire Roman Empire, but he stayed with them for only one year.

AT 395 power passed to his sons. AT 480 Julius Nepos, the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, died.

The Western Roman Empire again broke up into separate independent states, which the once powerful Rome turned into its colonies.

Such was the end of the great Roman Empire, which ruled the world about 1500 years.

Tribes from North Asia began to settle in Italy between 2000 and 1000 BC. One of the tribes who spoke a language called Latin settled along the banks of the Tiber River, over time this settlement became the city of Rome.

The Romans had several kings, but they caused discontent among the people. The people decided to establish a republic, at the head of which was a leader, elected for a certain time. If the leader did not suit the Romans, after a set period they chose another.

Rome was a republic for about 500 years, during which the Roman army conquered many new lands. However, in 27 BC, after the Roman conquest of Egypt and the death of Antony and Cleopatra , the dictator again became the head of the state. It was Augustus, the first Roman emperor. By the beginning of his reign, the population of the Roman Empire was 60 million people.

Initially, the Roman army consisted of ordinary citizens, but at the height of the empire's power, well-trained professionals served as soldiers. The army was divided into legions, each of which had about 6,000 foot soldiers, or legionnaires. The legion consisted of ten cohorts, a cohort of six centuries of 100 men each. Each legion had its own cavalry of 700 horsemen.

Foot Roman soldiers were called legionnaires. The legionary wore an iron helmet and armor over a woolen tunic and leather skirt. He had to carry a sword, a dagger, a shield, a spear and all his supplies.

The army often traveled more than 30 km a day. Nothing could resist him. If there was a deep river in front of the army, the soldiers built a floating bridge by tying wooden rafts together.

Britain was one of the Roman colonies. Queen Boudica and her Iceni tribe rebelled against Roman rule and recaptured many British cities captured by the Romans, but were eventually defeated.

Rule in Rome

When Rome became a republic, its people were convinced that no one should have too much power. Therefore, the Romans elected officials, called masters, who carried out the government. The most powerful masters were the two consuls, elected for a term of one year; they were to rule in harmony with each other. After the completion of this term, most of the masters became members of the senate.

Julius Caesar was a brilliant military leader and absolute ruler of Rome. He subjugated many lands, ruled over the lands of Southern and Northern Gaul (now it is France). Returning in 46 BC. in Rome as a triumphant, he began to rule as a dictator (a ruler with absolute power). However, some senators envied Caesar and wanted to return the Senate to its former power. In 44 BC several senators stabbed Julius Caesar right in the Senate in Rome.

After Caesar's death, a struggle for power unfolded between two prominent Romans. One was the consul Mark Antony, beloved of Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. The second was Caesar's great-nephew Octavian. In 31 BC Octavian declared war on Antony and Cleopatra and defeated them at the Battle of Actium. In 27, Octavian became the first Roman emperor and took the name Augustus.

Emperors ruled Rome for over 400 years. They were not kings, but they had absolute power. The imperial "crown" was a laurel crown, a symbol military victory.

The first emperor, Augustus, reigned from 27 BC. to 14 AD He returned peace to the empire, but before his death he appointed a successor to himself. Since that time, the Romans could no longer choose their leaders.

During its heyday, the Roman Empire included France, Spain, Germany, and most of the former Greek Empire. Julius Caesar conquered Gaul, the main part of Spain and the land in Eastern Europe and North Africa. Under the Roman emperors, new territorial acquisitions followed: Britain, the western part of North Africa and lands in the Middle East.

urban life

Roman house arrangement

Conquering new lands and expanding the empire, the ancient Romans instilled their way of life in the conquered peoples. Many signs of their former presence can be seen today.

The Romans borrowed a lot from the ancient Greeks, but their civilization was significantly different. They were excellent engineers and builders and preferred to feel at home everywhere.

The first houses of the Romans were built of brick or stone, but they also used materials such as concrete. Later buildings were built of concrete and faced with brick or stone.

The streets in the cities were straight and intersected at right angles. Many cities were built for Roman citizens who moved to conquered lands. The settlers brought with them the seeds of plants in order to grow familiar crops. Today, some fruits and vegetables of Italian origin are considered native in the lands where they were once brought by the Romans.

Peasants from the countryside delivered their products to the cities and sold them in the markets. The main market place, as well as the place where the authorities were located, was the forum. The Romans minted coins, and people bought the things they needed with money, rather than exchanging natural goods.

Ancient Roman city in France. The local way of life and the architecture of the houses were Roman.

The main information about Roman houses and cities is given to us by the ruins of two ancient cities, Pompeii and Herculaneum, destroyed in 79 AD. eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Pompeii was buried under red-hot ash, and Herculaneum was overwhelmed by mud flows of volcanic origin. Thousands of people died. In both cities, archaeologists have unearthed entire streets with houses and shops.

A few hours before the eruption of Vesuvius, people in Herculaneum were busy with everyday worries.

Wealthy Romans lived in large villas with several rooms. In the center of the villa was arranged "atrium", the main hall, over which there was no roof, so that enough light could get inside. When it rained, the water from the hole in the roof collected in a pool called the impluvium. All rooms in the villa were located around the atrium.

The rich, who had city houses, bathed in luxury. Their inhabitants ate their food lying on couches in front of a low table, where the servants served food. Women and guests of honor could sit in armchairs, but everyone else was content with chairs. The houses had bedrooms, living rooms and libraries. The inhabitants could walk in the courtyard and pray at the altar dedicated to the patron god of the hearth.

The dwellings of the poor were completely different. Some people lived in apartments above shops, others in houses divided into separate rooms or apartments.

Roman builders

Roads and aqueducts. Roman baths

The Romans were great builders and engineers. They built 85,000 km of roads throughout the empire and many aqueducts to supply the cities with water. Some aqueducts were huge stone structures built over valleys.

Roman roads were planned by surveyors accompanying the army on a campaign. The roads were made as straight as possible, and they followed the shortest path. When they decided to build a road, the soldiers, along with the slaves, dug a wide trench. Then the roadbed was built, laying layer after layer of stones, sand and concrete in the trench.

Construction of an aqueduct and a road in ancient Rome.

Roman baths

Wealthy Romans had baths and central heating in their homes. The heating system was located under the floor of the house, from where hot air entered the premises through channels in the walls.

Most cities had public baths where anyone could come. In addition to hygienic needs, baths served as a place of meetings and conversations. Bathers successively moved from one room to another. In the main room, the "caldaria", a slave rubbed oil into the visitor's body. The bather first basked in a bath of warm water, and then entered the next room, the “sudatorium” (from the Latin word “sudor”, meaning “sweat”), where there was a pool of very hot water, and steam filled the air. The bather washed away oil and dirt from himself with the help of a device called "strigil". The bather then entered the "tepidarium" where he cooled off slightly before entering the "frigidarium" and plunging into a pool of cold water.

In between washing steps, people sat down to chat with friends. Many were engaged in strength physical exercises in the gym, "spheristery".

The ruins of some baths have been preserved, for example, in the "Great Baths" in the English resort town of Wat, water still flows through the canals laid by the Romans.

Men went to the bathhouse after work. Women could use the baths only at certain times.

Water for baths and other needs came through aqueducts. The word "aqueduct" comes from the Latin words "water" and "pull". An aqueduct is a conduit for supplying cities with clean river or lake water, usually carried out at ground level or in a pipe underground. The aqueducts thrown through the valleys were arched. On the territory of the former Roman Empire, about 200 aqueducts have survived to this day.

This is what the Pont du Gard Roman aqueduct in Nimes (France) looks like today, built almost 2000 years ago. The Romans looked for a river or lake that lay above the city, and then built an inclined aqueduct so that the water itself could flow to the city.

sports

Chariot racing. gladiators. Emperor

In a year, the Romans had about 120 national holidays. During these days, the Romans visited theaters, went to chariot races or to gladiator fights.

Chariot races and gladiator fights were held in the so-called city "circuses" in large oval arenas.

Chariot racing was a very dangerous sport. The charioteers drove their teams around the arena at top speed. The rules allowed ramming other chariots and colliding with each other, so it was not uncommon for chariots to overturn. Although the charioteers wore protective clothing, they often died. However, the crowd loved the chariot races. This sight attracted thousands of people who screamed with delight as the chariots raced around.

The circus arena was oval with a stone barrier in the middle. The audience sat or stood in the stands. 4 chariots competed at the same time, and the public bet on which chariot would come first. The chariots had to run around the arena 7 times.

After death, the emperors of ancient Rome were worshiped as gods. The Christians refused it. Around 250 AD thousands of Christians were thrown into prison or given to the lions in the circus ring.

In fear for their lives, Christians met secretly in the catacombs (underground graves) to pray together.

In 313 AD Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity.

gladiators

Gladiators were slaves or criminals who were trained to fight to the death in front of a crowd. They were armed with shields and swords or nets and tridents.

The emperor himself often attended gladiator fights. If the gladiator was wounded and asked for mercy, it depended on the emperor whether he would live or die. If a fighter fought selflessly, he was left alive. Otherwise, the emperor gave the winner a sign to finish off the vanquished.

Emperors

Some Roman emperors were good rulers, like the first emperor Augustus. The long years of his reign brought peace to the people. Other emperors were distinguished by cruelty. Tiberius strengthened the Roman Empire, but turned into a hated tyrant. Under his successor, Caligula, fear still reigned. Probably Caligula was crazy; one day he appointed his horse as consul and built a palace for him!

One of the most cruel emperors was Nero. In 64 AD part of Rome was destroyed by fire. Nero blamed Christians for the arson and executed many. It is possible that he himself was the arsonist.

It is said that Nero, who was distinguished by vanity and considered himself a great musician, played music on the lyre, watching a huge fire.

Notes:

Alexander the Great

The Great Campaign of Alexander. Science in the Hellenistic Age

Alexander the Great was born in Macedonia, a mountainous region near the northern borders of Greece. His father Philip became king of Macedon in 359 BC. and united all of Greece. When in 336 BC. he died, Alexander became the new king. He was then 20 years old.

Alexander's teacher was the Greek writer and philosopher Aristotle, who instilled in the young man a love of art and poetry. But Alexander was still a brave and brilliant warrior, and he wanted to create a mighty empire.

Alexander the Great was a fearless leader and sought to conquer new lands. Going on his great campaign, he had an army in which there were 30,000 foot soldiers and 5,000 horsemen.

Alexander took his first battle with Persia, an old enemy of Greece. In 334 BC he went on a military campaign to Asia, where he defeated the army of the Persian king Darius III. After that, Alexander decided to subjugate the entire Persian Empire to the Greeks.

First, he stormed the Phoenician city of Tyre, and then conquered Egypt. Continuing his conquests, he took possession of the three palaces of the Persian kings in Babylon, Susa and Persepolis. It took Alexander the Great 3 years to conquer the eastern part of the Persian Empire, after which in 326 BC. he went to North India.

By this time, Alexander's army had already been on the campaign for 11 years. He wanted to conquer all of India, but the army was tired and wanted to return home. Alexander agreed, but did not have time to return to Greece. At the age of only 32, he died in Babylon of a fever in 323 BC.

The conquest campaign of Alexander the Great passed through the Middle East, Egypt, Asia and ended in Northern India.

For Alexander, India was on the edge of the known world, and he wanted to continue the campaign, but the army began to grumble. His favorite horse named Bucephalus (or Bukefal), who carried Alexander all this time, fell in a battle with the Indian king Por in 326 BC.

When Alexander conquered any country, he founded a Greek colony in it in order to prevent possible rebellions. These colonies, among which were 16 cities with the name of Alexandria, were ruled by his soldiers. However, Alexander died without leaving behind plans for managing such a huge empire. As a result, the empire was divided into three parts - Macedonia, Persia and Egypt, and at the head of each of them was a Greek commander. The period between the death of Alexander and the fall of the Greek Empire to the Romans in 30 B.C. known as the Hellenistic era.

The Hellenistic era is known for its scientific achievements, and the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the main center of knowledge. Many poets and scientists came to Alexandria. There, the mathematicians Pythagoras and Euclid developed their laws of geometry, while others studied medicine and the movement of stars.

In the II century AD. in Alexandria (Egypt) lived Claudius Ptolemy, who studied astronomy.

He mistakenly believed that the Earth is the center of the universe, and the Sun and other planets revolve around it.

Without a single ruler, Alexander's empire was gradually taken over by the Romans. Egypt lasted longer than the rest of the empire, but in 30 BC. the Roman emperor Augustus captured it too. Queen Cleopatra of Alexandria committed suicide along with her Roman lover Mark Antony.

To cultural heritage Ancient Greece, its philosophical thought and art were again turned to Europe in the 15th century, during the Renaissance, or Renaissance, and since then it has continued to influence our culture.

The rock city of Petra in Jordan was inhabited by a people who called themselves the Nabataeans. The Nabataeans were heavily influenced by Hellenic architecture.

The Roman Empire is the most extensive political and social structure of Western civilization. In 285 AD the empire became too large to be governed from a government in Rome, and so the emperor Diocletian (284-305 AD) divided Rome into a western and eastern empire.

The Roman Empire was formed when Augustus Caesar (27 BC-14 AD) became the first emperor of Rome and ceased to exist when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown by the German king Odoacer (476 AD). .e.).

In the east, the Roman Empire continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD. The influence of the Roman Empire on Western civilization was profound and has a significant impact on all aspects of Western culture.

After the battle of Atium in 31 BC. e. Gaius Octavian Turin, nephew and heir of Julius Caesar, became the first emperor of Rome and received the name Augustus Caesar. Although Julius Caesar is often considered the first emperor of Rome, this is not true, he never held the title of "Emperor". Julius Caesar had the title "Dictator" because Caesar had the highest military and political power. In doing so, the Senate willingly bestowed the title of emperor on Augustus because he had destroyed Rome's enemies and brought much-needed stability.

Julius-Claudian dynasty

Augustus ruled the empire from 31 BC until his death. As he himself said: "I found Rome a city of clay, and left it a city of marble." Augustus reformed the laws, initiated vast building projects (mostly directed by his loyal general Agrippa, who built the first Pantheon), and secured the status of the greatest political and cultural empire in history.

The Roman Peace (Pax Romana), also known as the Pax Augusta, which he concluded lasted over 200 years and was a time of peace and prosperity.

After the death of Augustus, power was transferred to his heir Tiberius, who continued the policy of the past emperor, but did not have sufficient strength of character and wisdom. The same character traits will apply to the following emperors: Caligula, Claudius and Nero. These first five rulers of the empire were called the Julio-Claudian dynasty (the name of the dynasty comes from the combination of the two surnames Julius and Claudius).

Although Caligula became infamous for his depravity and insanity, his early reign was quite successful. Caligula's successor, Claudius, was able to expand Rome's power and territory in Britain. Caligula and Claudius were soon killed (Caligula by his Praetorian Guard, and Claudius, apparently by his wife). Nero's suicide ended the Julio-Claudian dynasty and ushered in a period of social unrest known as the "Year of the Four Emperors".

"Four Emperors"

These four rulers were Galba, Otto, Vitellius and Vespasian. After the suicide of Nero in 68 AD. Galba took over the reign (69 AD) and almost instantly found himself unsuitable as a ruler due to his irresponsibility. He was killed by the Praetorian Guard.

Otto quickly succeeded Galb on the very day of his death, and according to ancient records, he should have been a good emperor. However, General Vitellius initiated a civil war that ended in Otto's suicide and Vitellius' ascension to the throne.

Ruler Vitellius was no better than Galba, he took advantage of his position, led a luxurious life and had fun. In this regard, the legions nominated General Vespasian as emperor and went to Rome. Vitellius was killed by Vespasian's men. Vespasian took power exactly one year after Galba ascended the throne.

Flavian dynasty

Vespasian founded the Flavian dynasty. This dynasty was characterized by large-scale construction projects, economic prosperity and the territorial expansion of the empire's borders. Vespasian ruled from 69 to 79 AD, during this period of time he initiated the construction of the Flavian amphitheater (the famous Roman Colosseum). The construction of the Colosseum was already completed by the son Titus (ruled in the period 79-81 AD).

At the very beginning of the reign of Titus, the volcano Vesuvius erupted (79 AD), which buried the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under ash and lava. The ancient sources are unanimous in their opinion that Titus showed great will and leadership in dealing with this catastrophe, as well as with the great fire of Rome in 80 AD. But unfortunately Titus died of a fever in 81 AD. and was succeeded by his brother Domitian, who ruled from 81-96 CE.

Domitian expanded and fortified the frontiers of Rome, repaired the damage to the city caused by the great fire, continued the building projects begun by his brother, and improved the empire's economy. However, his autocratic methods and policies made him unpopular with the Roman Senate and he was assassinated in 96 CE.

Five Good Emperors of Rome

Domitian's successor was his adviser Nerva, who founded the Nervan-Antonin dynasty. This dynasty ruled Rome in the period 96-192 AD. This time was marked by an increase in wealth, and became known as the "Five Good Emperors of Rome". Between 96 and 180 AD. e. five like-minded emperors skillfully ruled Rome and were able to take the empire to a new level. The names of the five emperors, in order of their reign: Nerva (96-98), Trajan (98-117), Hadrian (117-138), Antoninus Pius (138-161), and Marcus Aurelius (161-180).

Under their leadership, the Roman Empire grew stronger, more stable, and expanded in size and scope. Also worth mentioning are Lucius Verus and Commodus, the last rulers of the Nervan-Antonin dynasty. Verus was co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until he died in 169 AD. but he, according to historians, was an ineffective manager. Commodus, the son and successor of Aurelius, became one of the most infamous emperors who ever ruled Rome. He was strangled to death by his wrestling partner in a bathtub in 192 CE. Thus ended the Nervan-Antonin dynasty and the prefect Pertinax came to power (who, most likely, was the initiator of the assassination of Commodus).

Severan Dynasty, Year of the Five Emperors

Pertinax only ruled for three months before he was assassinated. It was followed by four more emperors, this period is known as the "Year of the Five Emperors". The completion of which was the coming to power of Septimus Severus.

Severus ruled Rome from 193-211 AD, founded the Severan dynasty, defeated the Parthians and expanded the empire. His campaigns in Africa and Britain were large and costly, which contributed in part to Rome's future financial problems. Severus was replaced by his sons Caracalla and Geta, subsequently Caracalla killed his brother.

Caracalla ruled until 217 AD, he was killed by his bodyguard. It was during the reign of Caracalla that almost all the people of the empire received citizenship. It was believed that the purpose of granting citizenship to all residents was an attempt to increase tax revenues, there were more people who were taxed by the central government.

The Dynasty of the North was continued by Julia Maesa (Empress) who ruled until the assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 AD, which in turn plunged the empire into chaos, a period known as the Crisis of the Third Age (continued from 235-284).

The collapse of the Roman Empire into eastern and western

This period is also known as the Imperial Crisis. It was characterized by constant civil war as various warlords fought for control of the empire. The crisis further contributed to widespread social unrest, economic instability (in particular during this period there was a devaluation of the Roman currency) and, finally, the dissolution of the empire, which was divided into three separate regions.

The empire was reunited under the rule of Aurelian (270-275 AD), subsequently his policy was developed and improved by Diocletian, who founded the Tetrarchy (four power) to maintain order throughout the empire.

Despite this, the empire was so vast that Diocletian had to split it in half in 285 CE to promote more efficient administration. He created the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire).

Since the main cause of the Imperial Crisis was the lack of clarity in the policies of the empire, Diocletian decreed that successors should be chosen and approved by the emperor in advance.

His two successors were Generals Maxentius and Constantine. Diocletian voluntarily stepped down from power in 305 AD, and the tetrarchy became rival regions of the empire for dominance. After the death of Diocletian in 311 AD. Maxentius and Constantine plunged the empire into civil war again.

Constantine and Christianity

In 312, Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Battle of Milvus Bridge and became the sole emperor of the Western and Eastern empires (reigned in the period 306-337 AD).

Believing that Jesus Christ was helping to win the victory, Constantine passed a number of laws, such as the Milanese (317 AD), which provided for religious tolerance and tolerance for faith, in particular Christianity.

Constantine demanded a special relationship with God, Jesus Christ. At the First Council of Nicaea (325 CE), Constantine insisted on accepting the divinity of Jesus and collecting all Christian manuscripts to form the book known today as the Bible.

Constantine stabilized the empire and currency, reformed the army, and founded a city on the site of a former Byzantine city called "New Rome", which would become known as Constantinople (now Istanbul).

Constantine became known as Constantine the Great because of his religious, cultural achievements and political reforms, massive building projects, and his talent as a military commander in chief. After his death, the sons inherited the empire and, rather quickly, came into conflict with each other, which threatened to destroy everything that Constantine had done.

His three sons, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans divided the Roman Empire among themselves, but soon came to the struggle for power. During these conflicts, Constantine II and Constans were killed. Constantius II died later, naming his cousin Julian as his successor and heir. Emperor Julian reigned for only two years (AD 361-363) and tried to restore Rome to its former glory through a series of reforms aimed at improving governance.

As a Neoplatonic philosopher, Julian rejected Christianity and blamed Constantine's faith and adherence to Christianity as the reason for the decline of the empire. Having officially proclaimed a policy of religious tolerance, Julian systematically removed Christians from influential government positions, forbade the teaching, spreading of religion and military service for believing Christians. His death, during a military campaign against the Persians, ended the dynasty of Constantine. Julian was the last pagan emperor of Rome and became known as "Julian the Apostate" for his opposition to Christianity.

This was followed by the brief reign of Jovian, who proclaimed Christianity as the dominant faith of the empire and repealed various decrees of Julian, after which he transferred the throne to Theodosius I. Theodosius I (379-395 AD) restored Constantine's religious reforms. Pagan worship was banned throughout the empire, pagan temples were converted into Christian churches.

It was at this time that the famous Plato's Academy was closed by the decree of Theodosius. Many of the reforms were unpopular with both the Roman aristocracy and ordinary people adhering to the traditional values ​​of pagan practice.

The unity of social duties and religious beliefs that paganism provided was destroyed by the institution of religion, which removed the gods from the earth and human society and proclaimed only one God who ruled from heaven.

Fall of the Roman Empire

In the period 376-382 AD. Rome fought off the invasion of the Goths, this period is known as the Gothic Wars. At the Battle of Adrianople, on August 9, 378 AD, the Roman emperor Valens was defeated, historians have accepted this event as a key event contributing to the decline of the Western Roman Empire.

Various theories have been put forward as to the reasons for the fall of the empire, but even today there is no consensus as to what these factors were. Edward Gibbon, in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, famously argued that Christianity played a key role in the new religion undermining the public mores of the empire, which had been shaped by paganism.

The theory that Christianity was the root cause of the fall of the empire was discussed long before Gibbon, however, there was another opinion that paganism and pagan practices led to the fall of Rome in the first place.

Other factors are also recalled, ranging from the corruption of the ruling elite to the immensity of the empire, as well as the growing power of the Germanic tribes and their constant attacks on Rome. The Roman military was no longer able to effectively defend the borders, just as once the government could not fully collect taxes in the provinces. Also, the arrival of the Visigoths to the empire in the third century AD. and their rebellions have been cited as a contributing factor to the decline.

The Western Roman Empire officially ended on September 4, 476 AD, when Emperor Romulus Augustus was overthrown by the German king Odoacus. The Eastern Roman Empire transformed into the Byzantine Empire and lasted until 1453 AD.

Legacy of the Roman Empire

The inventions and innovations that were created by the Roman Empire profoundly changed the lives of ancient people and continue to exist in the culture of the whole world. The skills of building roads and buildings, indoor plumbing, aqueducts, and even quick-drying cement were invented or perfected by the Romans. The calendar used in the West comes from the one created by Julius Caesar, and the names of the days of the week (in Romance languages) and the months of the year also come from Rome.

Housing complexes (known as "insula"), public toilets, locks and keys, newspapers, even socks, were developed by the Romans, as were shoes, the postal system (improved and adopted from the Persians), cosmetics, the magnifying glass, and the genre of satire in literature.

During the existence of the empire, significant discoveries were made in the field of medicine, law, religion, government and warfare, the Romans were able to borrow and improve those inventions or concepts that they found among the populations of the regions they conquered. It's safe to say that the Roman Empire left an indelible legacy that continues to influence the way people live even today.