The process of growth of cities and urban population is called. Growth of cities and urban population. Urbanization as a classic global process
1. The process of increasing the share of the urban population, increasing the role of cities and spreading the urban lifestyle is:
A) urbanization
B) migration
B) emancipation
D) adaptation
2. Natural population growth is:
A) the ratio of births to deaths
B) the difference between birth and death rates
C) the difference between the number of people who entered and those who left the country
D) the ratio of those who entered the country to the number of births per year
3. The movement of the population across the territory is:
A) urbanization
B) migration
B) recreation
D) emancipation
4. The Slavic language group of peoples includes:
A) Buryats
B) Russians
B) Altaians
5. In the Asian part of Russia live:
A) Karelians
B) Chuvash
D) Buryats
6. The peoples of the North Caucasus include:
A) Bashkirs
B) Chechens
B) Karelians
D) Udmurts
7. Which of the following peoples belongs to the Indo-European language family:
A) Buryats
B) Russians
B) Kalmyks
D) Tatars
8. The smallest people are:
A) Tatars
B) Russians
D) Chuvash
A) 7 thousand people
B) 3 thousand people
C) 12 thousand people
D) 30 thousand people
10. The largest urban agglomeration in Russia is:
A) Moscow
B) Samara
B) Nizhny Novgorod
D) Novosibirsk
11. Indicate the natural zone within which the largest rural settlements are located:
A) tundra
D) desert
12. Indicate the region through which the Main Settlement Strip passes:
A) European North
B) Central Russia
B) North Far East
D) North of Eastern Siberia
13. Select the subject of the Russian Federation with the highest proportion of the urban population:
A) Kalmykia
B) Moscow region
C) Magadan region
D) Murmansk region
14. The lowest population density in the region:
A) Rostov
B) Vladimirskaya
B) Magadan
D) Moscow
15. Select the region in which there is a migration increase in the population:
A) Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)
B) Moscow region
C) Magadan region
D) Khabarovsk Territory
16.Select the region in which there is a migration outflow of the population:
A) Moscow region
C) Magadan region
17. The current demographic situation in Russia is characterized by:
A) high natural growth
B) low natural increase
B) zero natural increase
D) negative natural increase
18. In which of the republics of the Russian Federation is there a high natural increase:
A) Karelia
B) Yakutia
B) Dagestan
19. Religion, which occupies a leading place in the number of believers in Russia:
B) orthodoxy
B) Buddhism
D) shamanism
20. A significant part of believers profess Islam in:
A) Karelia
B) Kalmykia
D) Yakutia
Answers:
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A B B B D B B C C A C B B C B C D C B B
One of the most characteristic features of the development modern society is the rapid growth of cities and the continuous rate of increase in the number of their inhabitants, that is, there is urbanization, which entails significant social transformations in the life of mankind.
Urbanization (from the Latin "urbanus" - urban) is a historical process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, which covers the socio-professional, demographic structure of the population, its lifestyle, culture, production location, population resettlement, etc.
At the beginning of the 19th century, about 30 million people (3% of the world's population) lived in the cities of the world; by 1900 - almost 225 million (about 14%); by 1950 - mail 730 million (about 30%); by 1980 - 1 billion 820 million (more than 41%), by 2010 - more than 2 billion (more than 43%).
Nowadays, most of the world's citizens are born city dwellers. The share of the urban population in Europe is almost 70%, in Asia - about 40%, in Africa - 20%, in North America - 75%, in Latin America - 65%, in Australia and Oceania - 76%. The proportion of the urban population is especially high in developed countries. A country is considered almost completely urbanized if 4/5 of its population lives in cities.
An example is the United Kingdom, where for decades there has been a relative stability of the urban and rural population. At the same time, in Africa and Asia, the processes of urbanization are currently particularly dynamic, which is associated with the rapid development of the states of these continents. In developing countries, the process of urbanization is characterized not only by pace, but also by heterogeneity - the rapid growth of the most big cities occurs with a moderate increase in averages. We will dwell on the urbanization of developing countries, as well as its impact on the environment, later.
The prerequisites for urbanization are the growth of industry in cities, the development of cultural and political functions of the population. With the expansion of large cities, natural landscapes turn into urban asphalt-concrete areas, which are characterized by dense development of the territory with various buildings and structures inherent in the city, a change in the type of rivers and other water bodies located on its territory, the construction of new production and industrial facilities, the construction of new transport nodes, highways, etc.
Urbanization has a huge impact on the development of various socio-economic formations and states, because the main achievements of civilization are associated with cities. However, transformations can be either positive or negative.
Urbanization, on the one hand, improves the living conditions of the population, on the other hand, leads to the displacement of natural systems by artificial ones, pollution environment, increasing the chemical, physical and psychological, man-made load on the human body.
Cities change almost all components of the natural environment - the atmosphere, vegetation, soil, relief, hydrographic network, groundwater, soil, and even climate. The process of urbanization, due to the development of social production and the nature social relations, itself exerts an increasingly diversified influence on the development of another sphere of society's activity - ecological.
The relationship between urbanization and the state of the natural environment is due to a number of factors in a complex system of socio-economic development and interaction between society and nature. Understanding the general and specific features of the state of the natural environment in cities is important for developing the necessary measures to address global problems population and environment. Large centers of urbanization have become the focus of most of the global problems of mankind. They have the greatest impact on the environment.
The emergence and development of large cities-megalopolises leads to the reconstruction of large areas of the planet. At the same time, air and water basins, green areas suffer, transport links are disrupted, which leads to discomfort in all respects. Many cities are expanding so that they can no longer accommodate on land and begin to "slide into the sea." It is impossible not to mention the city-islands, urban structures on the water area or in its immediate vicinity. For example, in the United United Arab Emirates, or, to go far - the construction of a multi-storey building in Laspi Bay.
The process of population concentration in cities is inevitable and essentially positive. But the structure of the city, which must develop, its industrial, “city-forming” factor, which includes the construction and further operation of large industrial enterprises, comes into conflict with the historical purpose of the city and its role in increasing standard of living population.
Modern large cities, especially megalopolises, expand spontaneously, include residential facilities, numerous scientific and public institutions, industrial enterprises and transport facilities, grow, expand, merge with each other, crowding and destroying wildlife. Modern large cities are in most cases a mass of concrete, asphalt, burning, poisonous emissions.
The city is the highest form of space organization for human society. The economic and social advantages of urban forms of settlement are undeniable. They have a significant potential for economic development, their residents have more opportunities for education, choice of profession, familiarization with cultural values. However, large-scale construction, concentration and intensification of industrial activities have a huge impact on the environment. In cities, almost all components of the natural environment change: the atmosphere, relief, hydrographic network and water regime territories, soil, vegetation, soils, groundwater, climate and even geological structure. Moreover, such actions can lead both to an increase in the possibilities of satisfying the biological and social needs of a modern person, and to their decrease, that is, to an improvement or worsening of his living conditions. Gravitational, thermal, electrical, magnetic and other physical fields of the Earth change in cities. There is less solar radiation, especially ultraviolet rays, but more precipitation, more cloudy and foggy days and a slightly higher average annual temperature.
The randomness of urban development, the huge crowding of the population both in the central and peripheral parts of cities, and the limitations of integrated urban planning and legislative regulation have a very unfavorable effect. There are very frequent cases of close proximity of built-up and densely populated residential areas and industrial enterprises with outdated technology and without treatment facilities. This further worsens the state of the environment.
In cities, people are more likely to develop various diseases, including infectious ones. A city dweller moves away from nature, in the city the population density is very high, the air is polluted, there are many different noises. In cities, 500-1500 kg of dust, soot and other substances fall per day per 1 km 2 of the area, while far from cities, in rural areas, they are only 5-15 kg per day.
During the work of industrial enterprises, a lot of energy is expended for lighting streets, heating apartments, buildings, institutions and other vital facilities. Energy is mainly generated at thermal power plants, so cities are warmer in winter than rural areas, but burning coal, oil and gas pollutes the atmosphere with emissions of various harmful substances, thereby changing the ratio of gases in the atmosphere.
The city requires a huge amount of water. Some small part of it goes to direct consumption by residents, the rest - after being used in factories, in public utilities - turns into polluted wastewater. These waters contain impurities of heavy metals, oil, various organic compounds and other substances. Naturally, if measures are not taken to treat wastewater, they will pollute clean natural waters and eventually lead them into an unusable state.
The city throws thousands and thousands of tons of garbage into the environment every day. If they are simply piled outside the city, they will require more and more areas, and the harmful substances concentrated in them, especially poisonous ones, will pollute and poison natural waters, and through them the soil and other components of the natural environment.
A very important ecological function is performed by urban vegetation, in particular trees. Their role in air purification is very great. They create a microclimate in the city, providing comfortable conditions for the human environment.
However, it is difficult to maintain ecological balance in cities. Here, all elements of the natural ecosystem change. In the urban environment, metabolism and energy flows are largely controlled by man, his activity is entirely devoted to maintaining dynamic balance in urban ecosystems.
In large cities, both positive and negative sides of scientific and technological progress and industrialization were intertwined. A new ecological environment is being created with a high concentration of anthropogenic factors, that is, the results of human activity, leading to a change in the habitat, the environment. The most famous of them, such as air pollution, high noise levels, electromagnetic radiation, are a direct product of urbanization.
Human health largely depends on the quality of both the natural and anthropogenic environment. In the conditions of a large city, the influence of the natural component on a person is weakened, and the effect of anthropogenic factors is sharply increased. Cities, in which a large number of people, vehicles and various enterprises are concentrated in relatively small areas, are centers of man-made impact on nature. Gas and dust emissions from industrial enterprises, their discharge into the surrounding water bodies of sewage, municipal and household waste of a large city pollute the environment with a variety of chemical elements. In most industrial wastes, the content of such elements as mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, tin, copper, tungsten, antimony, bismuth is tens of thousands of times higher than in natural soils.
Atmospheric pollution is responsible for up to 30% of the general diseases of the population of industrial centers. In connection with the development in cities of various types of industry, especially chemical, an increasing amount of harmful substances is emitted into the atmosphere.
Clouds of black smoke first enveloped many cities in Europe and America in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Leader of the Industrial Revolution - Great Britain ranked first in air pollution. London became famous for its dense fog, which gave a peculiar flavor to detective stories, but shortened the lives of many citizens. However, in the early days of industrialization, the extent of the health effects of air pollution was not determined, because during this period, as a result of improved sanitation and nutrition, there was a sharp decrease in deaths from infectious diseases, which masked the harm caused by polluted air. In 1943, residents of Los Angeles began to complain about the periodic appearance of an annoying light blue haze in the air. Experts have established its connection with the presence of sulfur dioxide.
The industrial release of this substance was reduced, but the haze over the city continued to appear. Studies have shown that carbohydrates contained in gasoline vapor, interacting with other pollutants, form new compounds under the action of sunlight. The city administration decided to eliminate the leakage of gases from the fuel storage facilities of numerous oil refineries, but the haze over the city still did not disappear. Then it became clear that air pollutants are cars. So the world was introduced to photochemical oxidizers - compounds of ozone with various substances, which are formed by the interaction of hydrocarbons with nitrogen oxides emitted by motor vehicles and energy enterprises in sunlight.
The term "smog" was first applied to a cloud looming over Los Angeles. With the increase in the number of cars, a similar phenomenon began to be observed over other cities.
Currently, the car is in first place in terms of absolute emissions of gases. It is the source of almost half of the air pollutants. Carbon monoxide causes the main harm, but carbohydrates, nitrogen oxides contained in exhaust gases, and photochemical oxidizers also negatively affect the human body.
In Ukraine, Kyiv is the leader in transport emissions. Nitrogen oxides, when in contact with the moist surface of the lungs, form acids, and those, in turn, form nitrates and nitrites. Both the acids themselves and their derivatives irritate the mucous membranes, especially the deep sections of the respiratory tract, which can lead to reflex respiratory disorders and even pulmonary edema.
Among the sources of pollution that adversely affect human health, the car plays a significant, but not the main role. Automobiles cause 10-25% of diseases, although, as we have said, they produce almost half of all air pollutants. Sulfur oxides and various fine particles (mixtures of soot, ash, dust, droplets of sulfuric acid, asbestos fibers, etc.) cause more diseases than car exhaust fumes. They enter the atmosphere from power plants, factories and residential buildings. Sulfur oxides and dust particles are usually concentrated in places where coal is burned most intensively, they are dangerous, mainly in winter, when more fuel is burned. It has been proven that a high concentration of sulfur oxides and fine particles aggravates the course of chronic respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
Environmental pollution also affects the occurrence of diseases such as lung cancer, although the main role in the pathogenesis of this disease belongs to smoking. For residents of large cities, the likelihood of this disease is about 20-30% higher than for people living in villages or small towns. A relationship has been established between the content of particulate matter in the air and the incidence of stomach and prostate cancer. It is assumed that nitrogen oxides in the air combine with other pollutants to form substances that are among the most active carcinogens.
Apparently, radioactive particles scattered around the world in connection with nuclear weapons testing and the operation of nuclear power plants also take part in the occurrence of lung cancer. Among the various radioactive substances, plutonium is the most dangerous, characterized by a very slow decay. After the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine, Russian Federation and Belarus formed vast areas of pollution.
A connection between atmospheric air pollution and the growth of diseases of a genetic nature has been found, while the level of congenital malformations in industrial cities depends not only on the intensity of pollution, but also on the nature of atmospheric emissions. A number of chemicals have a mutagenic effect, which can manifest itself in an increase in the frequency of chromosomal changes in germ cells, which leads to neoplasms, spontaneous abortions, perinatal death of the fetus, developmental anomalies and infertility. In contaminated areas, adverse pregnancies and childbirth are more common.
Air pollution has aroused more concern in people than any other form of environmental destruction. Air pollution prevention programs in large cities were slow to implement, costly and often violated. However, they have brought some results. Currently, most developed countries are engaged in the elimination of the main sources of air pollution. Conversion of power plants to oil and natural gas significantly reduced the emission of sulfur oxides. Improvements in the design of automobiles have reduced the emission of gases containing carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. Where measures are taken to combat air pollution, improvements in public health can also be noted.
An additional source of chemicals for the body of urban residents is agricultural products. Cultivated near cities, it is polluted with fertilizers and pesticides (often in excess of reasonable levels). Chemicals used in agriculture - pesticides, herbicides, which occupy the first place in environmental pollution, have a significant impact on soil pollution.
One of the most acute problems of a large city is water. Recently, most large cities are experiencing ever-increasing difficulties with water supply. Although 5 liters of water per day is enough to satisfy a person’s vital needs, he needs much more: only for personal hygiene and domestic needs, at least 40-50 liters must be spent. Water consumption in the city averages from 150 to 200 liters, and in a number of industrial centers - up to 500 liters per capita per day. In small towns, water is used to a greater extent for domestic needs, while in large centers the ratio between the amount of water for industrial and domestic needs is exactly the opposite.
Despite the fact that water consumption is steadily increasing due to the growth of the world's population, the main threat is not this, but the progressive pollution of rivers, lakes and groundwater. Water purity is a huge public health problem. The danger of diseases caused by bacteria transmitted through water (for example, diphtheria) lies in the fact that they have a high biological activity and are involved in many human life processes. Water pollution has become the subject of intensive study, as the number of people suffering from diseases transmitted through contaminated water. numbered in the millions. Now this problem is being intensively solved: treatment facilities are used more efficiently before supplying it to residential buildings, the population has the opportunity to use a variety of water filters, or buy already purified water.
Noise plays a significant role in human life, especially in large cities. The negative impact of noise on the central nervous system human, blood pressure, activity internal organs. High noise levels contribute to the increase of various diseases. The impact of noise and vibration on the human body will be discussed later.
Among the physical environmental factors that adversely affect the health of citizens, electromagnetic fields also play an increasingly important role. The human nervous and reproductive systems are most vulnerable to such influences.
More recently, in the 60s and 70s of the 20th century, it was widely believed that environmental problems (including in cities) are typical only for industrialized countries. A turning point in approaches to the problems of the state and quality of the natural environment in developing countries occurred in the early 1970s. In 1972, the United Nations Stockholm Conference on the Environment described the ecological state of cities as one of the most critical problems in a group of developing countries.
In the cities of developing countries, with their disorderly development, environmental problems are increasingly noted. The construction of various large structures leads to soil subsidence, sinkholes and a number of other unfavorable environmental consequences. The reasons for these phenomena are different, but among them is the increased pressure of the economy and the population on the built-up area. Of no small importance is the fact that new settlements are often created on sites that are unfavorable in terms of engineering-geological and hydrogeological relations, “climb” the slopes of hills and high mountains, or “descend” into swampy areas.
For example, in the Mexico City agglomeration, located at an average altitude of 2240 m above sea level, temporary settlements are found at altitudes of more than 3000 m. Settling in these areas contributes to the spread of slope erosion. On the ecological situation in the Mexico City agglomeration, the subsidence of a significant part of its territory as a result of the continued use of groundwater to supply the multimillion-dollar capital of Mexico is having a huge and threatening impact. At the same time, despite the threatening hydrogeological situation in the central part of the city of Mexico City, intensive industrial and residential construction continues.
The situation is aggravated by the limitedness and remoteness of the Mexican capital from the high-mountain resources of surface water runoff. Many buildings and various transport structures are under threat of destruction due to the lowering of the territory. Drainage (drying) of the territory at the site of drained lakes causes frequent dust storms. Up to 7 such storms are observed annually, especially during the dry season. In the metropolitan area of Mexico, in no small part due to the deterioration of environmental conditions and environmental quality, there is an increase in cancer. Various allergic diseases affect 1/7 of the population of Mexico City.
In Calcutta, the only large river port complex in India, there is a violation of the lithological structure - the structure of sedimentary rocks. The same reason hinders the development of Bangkok, where the lowering of the territory is also observed due to the increasing use of groundwater in an unfavorable hydrogeological situation. The sinking of the territory in this largest industrial center of India and Southeast Asia increases the risk of devastating floods.
The deterioration of the quality of the air basin of large cities in developing countries is associated with the growth of population and industry, the pace of production and consumption of energy. The basis for the development of the electric power industry in developing countries has been the construction of thermal power plants, as a rule, without expensive environmental protection devices.
The volume of solid waste in the cities of developing countries is on average 3-4 times less than in industrialized countries, however, the problems of collection, storage, transportation and disposal of solid waste present considerable difficulties for cities in countries high level development. In Africa, only up to 1/3 of the urban population is served by municipal solid waste collection services. This has become an important factor in the instability of the health of citizens. Weakness in organized urban cleanup in cities in developing countries causes clogging and disables already inadequate drainage facilities. This complicates water supply and wastewater disposal. The problem of disposal of human waste will also be considered later.
There are also important geographic factors that affect the state of the environment in cities. This, in particular, is the ability of the atmosphere to dilute pollutants entering it, depending on meteorological conditions at different latitudes. In the tropics, where the majority of developing countries are located, the ability of the atmosphere to absorb and dilute the pollutants entering it is about 3 times lower than in the middle latitudes in Western Europe. Studies conducted in a number of developing countries have shown the presence of especially dangerous concentrations of pollutants in the atmosphere of their largest cities.
In the largest cities, a high, and often dangerous, degree of air pollution, to a certain extent, is due to a very significant concentration of industry.
Emissions of carbon monoxide lead to mass poisoning, which is accompanied by a drop in hemoglobin in the blood and a deterioration in the supply of oxygen to body tissues. The danger to the health of the urban population is also increasing because large capacities of the chemical industry and ferrous metallurgy are moving from industrial countries to the "third world" region. At the same time, large production complexes in these industries, especially those built by transnational corporations, often do not have modern and expensive treatment facilities to reduce the cost of projects.
A high degree of pollution of the air basin and water supply sources, unregulated development of industry and road transport contribute to the spread of cardiovascular, carcinogenic, respiratory, infectious, gastrointestinal diseases, as well as a number of other serious health disorders for large groups of the population.
A very important circumstance affecting the ecological state of vast territories and water areas outside large agglomerations should be considered the transfer of their pollution. In developing countries, adverse environmental impacts are not uncommon largest centers to the environment natural environment with ever-increasing radii of such influence. For example, traces of pollution of the air basin of the São Paulo agglomeration in Brazil are also found in distant river systems in the interior regions of Brazil and over the Atlantic Ocean.
Nevertheless, based on the understanding of the growing threat of an environmental catastrophe, in developing countries there is a growing awareness of the special importance and priority of the problems of protecting and improving the natural environment, including in cities. The necessary state regulations are being adopted, as well as resolutions of local authorities aimed at preserving natural resources, prevention of actions aimed at negative impact on the environment, conservation of nature.
Thus, it is undeniable that urbanization is accompanied by a negative impact on the state of the environment, which can lead to deterioration of the environment, health and life of the population.
Urbanization- this is a historical process of increasing the role of the city in the development of society, which covers changes in the location of production and, above all, in the resettlement of the population, its socio-professional structure, lifestyle, culture, etc. - a multilateral socio-economic, demographic and geographical process occurring on the basis of historically established forms of social and territorial division of labor. In a narrower, demographic and statistical understanding, urbanization is the growth of cities, especially large ones, an increase in the proportion of the urban population in a country, region, world (urbanization of the population).
The first cities appeared in the III-I millennium BC. in, Mesopotamia, China, as well as in some areas and adjacent to. In the Greco-Roman world, cities such as Athens, Rome, Carthage played a huge role. With the development of an industrial society, the objective necessity of concentration and integration of various forms and types of material and spiritual activity was the reason for the intensification of the process of urbanization, an increase in the concentration of the population in cities. At the present stage of urbanization in the economically developed, there is a predominance of large-town forms of settlements.
The development of the urbanization process is closely related to the peculiarities of the formation of the urban population and the growth of cities: the urban population itself; inclusion in the city limits or assignment to the administrative subordination of suburban areas (including cities, towns and villages); rural transformation settlements to urban. The actual growth of cities is also due to the formation of more or less wide suburban areas and urbanized areas. The living conditions of the population in these areas are increasingly approaching the conditions of life in large cities, the centers of gravity of these zones.
A comparative analysis of the demographic aspects of the process of urbanization in various countries of the world is usually based on data on the growth of the urbanization of the population - the share of the urban, or urbanized, population. However, in the reports different countries there is no information given for one date (the amplitude of fluctuations is up to 10 years), the methods of counting the urban population and determining the boundaries of cities are not the same. There are three countries in the world various types, according to which settlements are classified as urban:
- when settlements are subdivided according to a chosen criterion (for example, according to the type of local government, according to the number of inhabitants, according to the proportion of the population employed in);
- when the administrative center of a rural area is classified as a city, and the rest of it as a village;
- when clusters of a population of a certain size belong to cities, regardless of their administrative affiliation.
Since the criteria for identifying urban settlements vary considerably in individual countries, in order to obtain comparable data, the population of all settlements that have reached a certain population size is often included in the urban population. The values of 2, 5, 10, and 20,000 inhabitants are proposed as the world statistical qualification of the population of a city (almost not related to its definition in essence). Thus, the population of settlements with a population of at least 2,000 is often considered urbanized. But such a qualification, while suitable for certain countries, is still too low for the world standard. However, the actual scale of urbanization is so complex that it is preferable to use several criteria as steps. When using national criteria for the allocation of urban settlements, the dynamics of urbanization of the population is as follows. In 1800, the share of the urban population in the entire population of the globe was about 3%, in 1860 - 6.4%, in 1900 - 19.6%, by 1990 it increased to 43% (14 times).
The outpacing growth of the urban and non-agricultural population compared to the rural and agricultural population is the most characteristic feature of modern urbanization. In three parts of the world - and, America, Europe, urban residents predominate, at the same time, the African population, and due to its large numbers, creates a preponderance of the village over the city on average in the world. The countries of Asia and Africa have the largest reserves of urban population growth, and it is here that its most rapid growth has recently taken place.
The highest percentage of the urban population is economically . In 1990, the urban population was (in%): in - 74.3; c — 78.3; — 75; — 60; - 77.5; - 77.4; — 90; China - 26.2; - 25.7. When the proportion of the urban population exceeds 70%, the rate of its growth, as a rule, slows down and gradually (when approaching 80%) stops.
Urbanization is characterized by the concentration of the population in large and super-large cities. It is the growth of large cities (100 thousand people), the new forms of settlement associated with it, and the spread of the urban way of life that most clearly reflect the process of urbanization of the population. The share of large cities in the total population of the world has increased over more than 100 years (from 1860 to 1980) from 1.7 to 20%. No less remarkable is the development of the largest "millionaire" cities. If in 1800 there was only one city with a population of more than 1 million, then in 1990 there were over 300 such cities.
The modern type of urbanization in economically developed countries is no longer so much a rapid rate of growth in the share of the urban population, but rather an especially intensive development of suburbanization processes and the formation on this basis of new spatial forms of urban settlement - megacities. Under these conditions, the processes of territorial deconcentration of the population were clearly manifested. This refers not only to the movement of the population from large cities to their suburban areas - a process that was widely developed back in the 50s. XX century, but also the predominant growth of cities in peripheral areas compared to highly urbanized ones. In the 70s. For the first time in the United States, population growth rates were below the national average. Data for France confirm a general population shift from urban areas to small and medium-sized cities as a result of the change in direction. In , there was a decline in the population in the largest cities, and from the city centers the flows of migrants were directed mainly to their suburban areas. In many large urban agglomerations, the population has stopped increasing or even started to decline (often due to the decrease in the population of the city centers).
In the world, as already noted, the “population explosion” was accompanied by an “urban explosion”. With relatively low urbanization rates, many of these countries have relatively high rates of urbanization. The disproportionate growth of the capitals of a number of Asian and African states is associated with a special type of urbanization, which is distinguished by the mass attraction of peasants to large cities. The influx of the rural population into the cities, as a rule, far outstrips the growth in labor demand. In developing countries, multi-million urban agglomerations are being formed (for example, Buenos Aires, Sao Paulo, Calcutta, etc.). On the one hand, the process of urbanization contributes to the progress of these countries, raises the role of cities, on the other hand, it exacerbates the socio-economic problems generated by economic backwardness and associated with excessive "demographic" for large cities.
The impact of urbanization on demographic processes is manifested, to a large extent, depending on the differentiation of the urban environment, primarily on the differences in cities in size and economic profile (functional type). As the process of urbanization develops, the urban population decreases in comparison with the rural population, and in the future there is a drop in the birth rate in rural areas. Some developing countries (such as Egypt) have higher urban birth rates due to a range of socioeconomic, demographic and religious factors, notably the more balanced sex ratios in cities. In almost all countries, the birth rate of urban residents who have recently moved from rural areas is higher than that of long-term residents of cities (if the adaptation of rural residents to cities is not fraught with great difficulties).
As urbanization develops, the role of migration in the growth of the urban population is gradually decreasing. The intensity of the territorial mobility of the population as a whole is growing, especially the intensity of pendulum movements. The main role in the formation of the urban population of the Russian Federation for many years was played by migration from rural areas to cities and the transformation of villages into urban settlements. However, over time, the importance of natural increase in the formation of the population of cities increases. In conditions when the rate of natural growth is declining, the rate of growth of the urban population is also slowing down. In the early 90s. 20th century Population growth in many of Russia's largest cities has halted.
The profound impact of modern urbanization on many aspects of social life leads to the emergence of new theories that try to explain the role of urbanization in the development of society. This is, first of all, the socio-evolutionary theory of the "urban revolution", according to which, in the course of urbanization, its contradictions are gradually eliminated, and significant antagonisms between the city and the countryside are removed. The urban revolution must eventually lead to a "post-urban society". According to M. Weber, the theorist of urbanization, it leads to the creation of a “post-urban society” - a “society outside the cities” - by including most of the population in the industry of information production, the development of universal spatial mobility.
The growth of cities removes man more and more from nature. The inhabitants of medieval cities were closer to natural nature, despite the fact that these cities were a solid mass of stone and, due to the density of buildings, there was no place for gardens and parks in them. But they were small, and fields, meadows, forests began immediately behind the fortress walls.[ ...]
The growth of cities, the rapid development of industry and transport, the chemicalization and melioration of agriculture cause intense environmental pollution.[ ...]
The growth of cities is stimulated by the development and concentration of industrial production. In the USSR, the multiplicity of industrial production in 1975 in relation to previous periods was 131 by 1913, 17 by 1940, and 2.15 by 1965.[ ...]
With the growth of cities, the development of production, the technogenic transformation of the environment has acquired a global character, being currently one of the reasons for the reduction and extinction of many species of animals, including birds. The diversity of technogenic impact on natural ecosystems leads to the formation of many specific forms of technogenic biocenoses (Motorina, 1979), which have not only a negative, but also a positive impact on the avifauna. With a significant reduction in natural wetland habitats, anthropogenic water bodies (settlement tanks, bioponds, irrigation and filtration fields, sludge collectors, cooling ponds, fire-fighting ponds, ash dumps, etc.) have a special positive effect on birds, which often act as the most important habitats for birds. (Mishchenko and Sukhanova, 1991; Spiridonov, 2002). It should be noted that technogenic reservoirs are an integral and important part of any city, many industrial enterprises, with the increase in which the number of these peculiar biotopes will grow. So, in Mordovia in 1997 there were 46 units of treatment facilities, and in 1999 already 56.[ ...]
With the growth of cities, less employment of the population in production, easy accessibility of auto and air vehicles, the areas and importance in human life of recreational landscapes used by humans for recreation are increasing.[ ...]
With the growth of cities, the average travel distance and transport mobility of the population increase, the volume of freight traffic increases sharply, therefore, the number of vehicles and traffic flows significantly increase.[ ...]
With the growth of cities and the creation of new ones, the need for urban areas is constantly increasing, approximately every five years the size of residential land in cities increases by an average of 20%.[ ...]
With the growth of cities in the era of capitalism, garbage began to be first buried in the courtyard, then periodically taken out of the cesspools. By the beginning of the 19th century, special brick cesspools were built in large cities to collect garbage and sewage. Wastewater and, accordingly, the problem of their removal and purification did not exist at all. In 1810, sanitary engineering was enriched by the invention of the water closet. Initially, it was used on a very limited scale, but then it began to be increasingly used in the most comfortable houses of European capitals. In the middle of the 19th century, a decree was issued in London on the mandatory installation of water closets in all houses (Dunbar, 1910). At the same time, it was assumed that the effluents from them would drain into underground cellars, the contents of which would continue to be periodically cleaned and taken to landfills. No one imagined what actually happened. After putting this into effect, the cesspool ordinances quickly filled with faecal water, which began to flow out of them, spreading a disgusting stench around them. I had to urgently lay pipes through which fecal effluents flowed into the Thames. From that moment on, the problem of pollution of water bodies with sewage was born.[ ...]
As the city and its population grow in urban ecosystems, the number of waste-eating species increases: necrophages, coprophages, saprophages.[ ...]
Along with the growth of the world population, urbanization was the dominant trend in the development of mankind in the 20th century. In the 50s, the population of cities was 600 million people, in the late 80s - more than 2 billion people (43-45% of the world's population). Mass urbanization is a phenomenon of the 20th century: before 1900, only about 14% of the population lived in cities. At the same time, three demographic processes play a significant role: migration from rural areas to the city, natural growth of the urban population and the transformation of rural areas into cities. If these demographic trends continue, the number of city dwellers will double in 20-30 years. At the same time, to a large extent, the growth of cities (Fig. 2.1) is typical for third world countries (three out of five cities with a population of about 15 million people are located in developing countries).[ ...]
In the 19th century, due to the growth of cities and the pollution of rivers from the discharge of sewage into them, irrigation fields began to be arranged again in the industrial centers of Europe.[ ...]
Rapid urbanization and the growth of cities over the past 50 years have changed the face of the Earth more than any other human activity in history. Cities are characterized by a high population density (up to 20-30 people per 1 km compared to rural areas - 0.5-1). Even in developing countries, cities are growing much faster than the total population. The land area occupied by cities varies according to various estimates from 1 to 5%, this relatively small value, affecting its vast environments at the input and output, changes the nature waterways, forests, fields, oceans, atmosphere. Moreover, the influence can be both direct and indirect. The heat, dust and other air pollutants generated as a result of the functioning of cities significantly change the climate of cities in comparison with the climate of the surrounding area. In the city, as a rule, it is warmer, there is increased cloudiness, less sunlight than in the adjacent countryside. The construction of cities is a leading factor in soil erosion.[ ...]
Rapid urbanization and the growth of cities in the past half century have changed the face of the Earth, perhaps more than any other human activity in history. Two maps (Figure 2.22) show the extent of urbanization and urban influence in the United States. On map A (p. 92), areas with a population density of 50 or more people per square mile are shaded at different frequencies. Rice. 2.22, B is a photographic map composed of negatives received at night from a satellite; dark areas are cities, suburbs and densely populated rural areas lit by electric light. In essence, this map shows the density of energy distribution (electricity use). Zones with energy densities reaching urban levels now stretch in a continuous band from Boston to Washington, from Pittsburgh to Cleveland and Detroit, along the western and southern shores of Lake Michigan, the east coast of Florida and parts of the California coast.[ ...]
Thus, the rapid growth of cities and the rapid development of the construction industry further alienated man from nature. This process has gained such powerful momentum that it is unlikely to be stopped.[ ...]
With modern urban growth rates, the ratio of solving these problems is basically about 1:100:1000, and the first task is solved for 5 or more years in advance, the third - daily.[ ...]
In the conditions of constant growth of cities and industrial centers, when a person is surrounded by glass, reinforced concrete and synthetic materials for many hours, the role of living plants in the interior is especially important. Plants create the illusion of contact with nature; beauty of forms, pleasant smell and calm green color have a beneficial effect on the central nervous system, helping to cope with a bad mood or stress. But the most important are the sanitary and hygienic functions of plants. It has been proven that plants absorb dust, purify indoor air from carbon dioxide, where it is almost 20 times more than in the open air, promote humidification and ionization of air, reducing its temperature, but what is especially valuable - they suppress and destroy many harmful microorganisms due to the release of special volatile substances - phytoncides.[ ...]
The development of production, the growth of cities and the human impact on the natural environment require increased attention to the protection of atmospheric air. The objectives of the legislation of the Russian Federation are to regulate public relations in this area in order to keep clean and improve the condition of the atmospheric air, prevent and reduce harmful chemical, physical, biological and other effects on the atmosphere that cause adverse consequences for the population, flora and fauna, as well as strengthen legality in the field of atmospheric air protection.[ ...]
The book points out that the growth of the city is accompanied by the development and concentration of industrial production, which are combined with the continuous development and introduction of new substances, preparations, materials and products from them into all areas of the economy and everyday life of the population. Along with this, freight and passenger traffic is significantly increasing. All this leads to the fact that a large amount of chemicals harmful to human health is emitted into the atmosphere of cities, and the soil and water of open reservoirs are polluted. The influence of air, water and soil pollution on the living conditions and health of people is shown. A system of measures is given to protect the air basin of the city, to protect water bodies from pollution by urban runoff, and soil from clogging with waste. The issues of combating urban noise and measures to protect the residential area from intense noise impacts are also considered. Instrumental and calculation methods of sanitary research in the field of sanitary protection of the environment are indicated modern city.[ ...]
The development of industry, the growth of cities and towns, the creation of new industrial and agricultural regions lead to a significant expansion of water consumption in our country. Of increasing practical importance are open sources of water supply, the water quality of which does not always meet the standards of the state standard. In this regard, most water pipelines are equipped with treatment facilities that improve the quality of natural waters.[ ...]
The albedo values of some building materials are of some interest for the ecology of the city: sandstone - 18%, gray granite - 35-40, slate - 8, gravel - 13, asphalt - 10-20%, etc. This concept plays an important role when considering the series environmental issues(global warming, desertification), since catastrophic deforestation, an increase in the area of anthropogenic deserts, the growth of cities and industrial zones lead to a change in the albedo of the earth's surface.[ ...]
The problem of wastewater treatment has been around for a long time. The growth of cities, the concentration and growth in the number of industrial enterprises forced many European countries back in the 18th-19th centuries to adopt some special laws and rules for the protection of water, sometimes very strict. For example, in Russia, it was required that fish live in the outlet ponds of sewage treatment plants of textile factories. In the absence of accurate and sensitive methods chemical analysis such a natural biological indicator of water purity was quite reliable. In the Fraction, an industrial enterprise has the right to take water from the river only downstream from the place of discharge of its own effluents, which, of course, forces companies to take care of their high-quality treatment.[ ...]
The Soviet Union also has large associations of cities and industrial centers, such as Donbass, Dnepropetrovsk-Dneprodzerzhinsk, the Moscow agglomeration; Recently, the rapid growth of cities and industry is characteristic of the Middle Volga region from Saratov to Kazan.[ ...]
In the era of feudalism and the period of development of capitalism, with the growth of cities and industry, due to the increased consumption of water and the lack of sewerage, the sanitary condition of cities deteriorated sharply. This caused epidemics in the cities.[ ...]
The development of industrial production led to the rapid growth of cities and the urban population. There was a need to arrange recreation places, i.e. parks, city gardens, squares and other green areas.[ ...]
AT modern conditions rapid development industry, urban growth and development of new areas, the impact on the environment is increasing. OIO, in particular, manifests itself in a sharp increase in harmful emissions entering the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources. The atmosphere is one of the main environmental systems; her purity - necessary condition maintaining people's health. The Soviet state is constantly concerned about preventing air pollution. This is reflected in the Constitution of the USSR, in the Law of the USSR on the Protection of Atmospheric Air.[ ...]
The amount of household waste is constantly increasing due to the growth of cities. For example, Polish specialists conducted two-year studies (1965-1966) to determine the accumulation of garbage in different cities, depending on the size of the city. The results obtained are presented in table. 10. For comparison, data are given for the cities of Germany.[ ...]
The proportion of forests of the first group with the development of industry, the growth of cities gradually increases, and the third - decreases. Part of the forests was transferred to the use of collective farms and state farms. They make up approximately 4% of the total area of the forest fund.[ ...]
After the Great October socialist revolution along with the growth of cities, more rapid construction of sewers began. At present, the throughput capacity of wastewater treatment plants in Moscow exceeds 4 million m3/day and continues to increase.[ ...]
After the Great October Socialist Revolution, along with the growth of cities, more rapid construction of sewers began. If in 1917 there were 18 cities with sewerage systems with a total length of networks of about 1500 km and a sewage flow rate of 150 thousand m3 / day, then in 1963 there were already over 1000 cities and workers' settlements with sewage systems with a network length of about 20,000 km and daily throughput of sewage about 15 million m3; the amount of industrial wastewater discharged amounted to about 20 million m3! Day.[ ...]
One of the most important global problems is urbanization, or the rapid growth of cities and urban populations. This process belongs to the category of major global changes. In 1996, the world's urban population was 2.64 billion, or 46% of the total population. Against the backdrop of a general increase in the world population, the urban population for 1990-1995. increased at a rate of 2.5% per year, while agriculture - only 0.8%. Every day, about 150 thousand people are added to the urban population of the developing countries of the world.[ ...]
In the second half of the 19th century, the rapid development of industry, together with the growth of cities, led to severe pollution of rivers with sewage. This caused great damage to both water supply and fisheries. In addition, trawling organized on a massive scale has led to a sharp decrease in the catch of fish in the seas. Since that time, the study of the vital activity of small plants and animals, spending their entire lives in water, begins.[ ...]
Influence of human economic activity on the karst process. The growth of the city and the development of territories previously considered unsuitable for urban planning are inevitably accompanied by a serious human impact on the geological environment. This leads to a significant change in the relief, the destruction of surface microforms, soil cover, disturbance of the clay-loamy cover of overlying deposits, to a change in the physical and mechanical properties of soils and the hydrogeological situation. Ultimately, all this often causes the activation of dangerous geological processes, and especially karst and suffusion [Abdrakhmanov, Martin, 1993; Karst..., 2002].[ ...]
The scientific and technological revolution, high rates of development of production and the growth of cities determine the increasing scale of human impact on the natural environment. In accordance with the Constitution of the USSR, in the interests of present and future generations, the necessary measures are being taken in our country to preserve the purity of the air and improve the environment. The Soviet state is implementing a set of scientific, technical, economic, social and other measures aimed at preventing and eliminating air pollution.[ ...]
Environmental pollution is increasing due to the increase in the volume of household waste, the growth of cities as the most powerful sources of pollution, and the intensification of agricultural production. Pollution provokes an increase in morbidity, triggering the mechanism of natural selection, leading to a change (deterioration) in the gene pool. The fight against pollution, in turn, is associated with a significant increase in unproductive costs.[ ...]
The vast majority of citizens prefer to relax, spend their holidays outside the city, in the bosom of nature - in a more natural ecological environment. But staying in it is short, there are fewer and fewer truly clean places, and the desire to combine pastoral with comfort makes such a vacation more and more expensive. In addition, in popular recreation areas, the permissible recreational load is rapidly growing and they easily turn into an extension of the city. In developed countries in the last third of the XX century. Along with the slowdown in urbanization, there is a process of territorial deconcentration of the population: not only the movement from megacities to suburban areas, but the growth of cities in peripheral areas.[ ...]
On the chemical composition Natural waters are also influenced by human activities. The rapid growth of cities, industrial facilities, the construction of canals, reservoirs, etc. violate the natural hydrochemical regime and change the composition of natural waters.[ ...]
characteristic features modern stage of social development are the rapid growth of cities and the increase in the number of people living in them. In urban settlements, a special environment for human life is being formed - an urban (urbanized) environment.[ ...]
One of the main processes characterizing urbanization is the emergence and growth of cities, the increase in the number of urban residents mainly due to the migration of the population from rural areas.[ ...]
The modern rapid development of industry, agriculture, transport, as well as the growth of cities, are accompanied by huge discharges of polluted waters. In the absence of appropriate measures to reduce sewage pollutants, their dilution in natural water bodies becomes insufficient. Large concentrations harmful impurities prevent self-purification of water, and its pollution progresses rapidly.[ ...]
Nevertheless, ever-increasing population, the development of the factory industry and the growth of cities make it necessary to bring nutritious products from less populated to more populated countries. On the other hand, the further development of the one-sided productivity of domestic animals entails the impossibility of crossing the known boundaries of equilibrium, the consequence of which are diseases that pose an enormous danger to both animals and humans.[ ...]
Since then, the garbage has been deposited in various storage facilities in the countryside. As a result of the growth of cities, free areas in their vicinity decreased, and the unsanitary state of landfill masses became dangerous. Free-standing landfills have been replaced with waste storage pits. About 90% of waste in the US is still buried.[ ...]
In urban conditions, the car is a source of warming the surrounding air. If 100,000 cars move simultaneously in a city, this is equal to the effect produced by 1 million liters of hot water. Exhaust gases from vehicles containing warm water vapor contribute to climate change in the city. Higher steam temperatures increase heat transfer by the moving medium (thermal convection), resulting in more precipitation over the city. The influence of the city on the amount of precipitation is especially clearly seen in their regular increase, which occurs in parallel with the growth of the city. For a ten-year observation period in Moscow, for example, 668 mm of precipitation fell per year, in its vicinity - 572 mm, in Chicago - 841 and 500 mm, respectively.[ ...]
Improving the forms and improving the quality of medical care is a very significant aspect of urban growth. Of particular note is the proximity of outpatient care to the place of residence of a person and the high qualification of specialized pre-medical and medical intervention. Large medical complexes of cities provide unlimited possibilities for laboratory diagnostics and application modern methods treatment. In the conditions of the city, the activities of sanitary and epidemiological institutions are being improved, ensuring constant monitoring of the implementation of sanitary norms and rules.[ ...]
Water resources. The development of industry, the transfer of agriculture to an industrial basis, the growth of cities contribute to constant water consumption. Every day, humanity consumes up to 7 billion tons of water, which corresponds in mass to the total amount of minerals mined per year. The main consumers of water are the chemical, petrochemical, pulp and paper industries, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, energy, melioration. In 1985, 282 km3 of water was used in our country for various needs, including more than 80 km3 for industry. The classification of water according to its intended purpose is shown in fig. 4.5.[ ...]
The combined sewerage system is a combination of common and separate systems. This is explained by the fact that with the growth of the city, household and industrial waters from new districts of the city / rida are discharged into the general alloy system, and storm water is sent through an independent drainage network to the nearest reservoirs. With such a system, part of the districts of the city has a general alloy system, and the other part (new districts) has a separate one.[ ...]
During the period of feudalism, drainage facilities were practically not built. Sewage was either collected in special containers - cesspools, or poured into the streets. It is known that the cities of Europe "drowned in the mud." Industrial development and urban growth in Europe in the 19th century. led to the extensive construction of drainage channels. In Paris, their length was: in 1806 - 23.5 km, in 1858 - 170 km. FROM early XIX in. in England, measures are being taken to improve the sanitary improvement of cities.[ ...]
Experts believe that the upcoming changes in society will manifest themselves primarily in the following: spending on military purposes will decrease; there will be shifts in the structure of employment: the trend of urban growth and an increase in the share of the urban population will be reversed; with the deepening of the process of transition to an environmentally oriented economy, the principle of sustainable development will gradually overshadow economic growth as a focus of economic policy; the criteria for evaluating progress will change; there will be a transformation of personal priorities and values; international cooperation will be strengthened. These are General characteristics the future of a sustainable society, which are given by the employees of the Worldwatch Institute.[ ...]
After the Great October Socialist Revolution, extensive construction of municipal and industrial water pipelines began in the country. The water supply of cities and industrial centers developed especially intensively after 1928 in connection with the rapid development of large-scale industry, accompanied by the growth of cities and workers' settlements. Large filter stations were built in Moscow, Leningrad, Rostov-on-Don, Sverdlovsk, Novosibirsk, Gorky, Kyiv and many other cities.[ ...]
The turning point in the development of the territory of the forest-steppe zone of Western Siberia was the construction at the end of the 19th century. railway. The road, which accelerated the agricultural development of Siberia, as well as the formation of settlements along it, mostly later transformed into cities, passed through the forest-steppe zone. The table, which shows the growth of the urban population in the cities of Western Siberia in the 19th - early 20th centuries, shows the growth trend of cities located along the railway.[ ...]
Purposeful use of territories, their rational distribution for various economic functions in accordance with natural features have always been the essence of urban planning, the subject of management and optimization of the territorial organization of production, resettlement and recreational areas. As cities grow and negative changes in the state of the environment, the content that was invested in the concept of "rational use of territories" changes. According to the traditional view, it meant, first of all, a fairly intense functional load on urban areas in order to save land resources. However, this or that territory can not withstand anthropogenic pressures to the same extent and not equally experience these loads. Concerning environmental aspect when considering the problem of rational use of the territory is of great importance.
