ESSAY

«PEDOLOGY AND ITS IMPACT ON DOMESTIC

EDUCATION"

Performed:

I.A. Smolyakova

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...3

1 Fundamentals of pedology……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

1.1 What is pedology………………………………………………………5

1.2 Basic concepts of pedology……………………………………………6

1.3 The birth of pedology as a science……………………………………..7

2 The first pedological research in Russia…………………………….11

2.1 The emergence and development of pedology in Russia…………………………11

2.2 The influence of pedology on domestic education………………..14

3 Pedology and its significance for pedagogy of the 20th century…………………………...18

3.1 Stages of development of science…………………………………………………..18

4 Reasons and consequences of the prohibition of pedology from Russia………………………22

4.1 Strength and weakness of pedology…………………………………………...22

4.2 Prerequisites for the prohibition of pedology…………………………………….24

4.3 Consequences of the defeat of pedology……………………………………24

4.4 Legacy of pedology. Pedology today…………………………...26

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….29

References………………………………………………………………31

Introduction

In the 21st century, the problem of educating the younger generation under the negative influence of environmental factors on the child, such as:

environmental factors. More and more children are born with congenital ailments, chronic diseases, especially in large cities and in the zone of radiation contamination.

criminal factors. The growth of crime in cities and criminal arbitrariness, kidnapping, etc.

psychological. The rhythm of life in the metropolis, the need to start an independent life early, the variety of television programs with various content, the Internet, etc.

All this requires the teacher modern approach to the upbringing and education of the next generation.

Modern pedagogical educational institutions train specialists who are competent in many areas related to the health, development, and psychology of the child. It is generally recognized that this knowledge is necessary for solving various problems of upbringing and education. More and more new methods of studying the child's psyche, the characteristics of childhood are being created. Developers of modern educational programs are largely based on the research of specialists in various fields.

As a future teacher, I also became interested in the search for a rational and effective system of education that takes into account the age and individual characteristics of the child, as well as based on the material of sciences related to pedagogy and not only. However, in my research, I turned to the past. The subject of the science of pedology seemed to me extremely interesting for knowledge and application, despite a number of visible shortcomings. The purpose of my work is to try to answer a number of questions:

What did pedology give to world pedagogy and psychology?

What sciences today are based on the experience of pedology?

Are the studies of pedologists used in modern pedagogy?

Tasks:

1 trace the path of the emergence of pedologists, the prerequisites for the emergence of science;

2 to get acquainted with the basic concepts of pedology;

3 to study the influence of pedology on domestic education;

4 to understand the reasons for the defeat of pedology and its further oblivion.

1Fundamentals of pedology

1. What is pedology

Pedology (from the Greek pais - child and logos - word, science) is a direction in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the end of the 19th century. under the influence of evolutionary ideas, associated primarily with the name of S. Hall, who in 1889 created the first pedological laboratory. In pedology, the child was considered comprehensively, in all its manifestations, in constant development and in various, including social, conditions, and the goal was to help develop all its potentialities.

It is the science of children, the doctrine of child development, which gives decisive importance to the biological, physiological and psychological features in the formation of his character and abilities.

Among all the variety of definitions of its subject, the definition of it as the science of the integral development of the child seems to be the most meaningful. In this definition, according to L. S. Vygotsky, two essential features of pedology as an independent scientific discipline are singled out - integrity and development (understood as a single process). These signs, in essence, are distinguished as leading by many prominent psychologists and educators of the 20-30s, including P.P. Blonsky, N.K. Krupskaya, although in their specific content they differ from each other. The concept of integrity is central here. L.S. Vygotsky understood a holistic approach to the study of a child as a special orientation towards revealing those new qualities and specific features that arise from the combination of individual aspects of his development - social, psychological and physiological - into a holistic process. “The study of these new qualities and the new patterns corresponding to them, which are presented in the synthesis of individual aspects and processes of development, it seems to me, is the first sign of pedology as a whole and of each individual pedological research.”

To reveal such regularities and qualities, not reducible to one of the aspects of a child's development, actually meant to substantiate the right to exist in pedology as an independent scientific discipline. The solution of this problem in relation to the 20-30s. in many ways turned out to be impossible, due to which doubts arose about the objective existence of the very subject of pedology, which later ended with its complete denial as a science. In fact, in the first half of the 30s. pedology "takes the form of a kind of pedagogical anthropology, carrying out a synthesis, largely mechanical, of scientific data about the child from the point of view of their pedagogical applications." The upbringing and education of students are revealed from the positions of a multi-level organization of human development, which involves the consideration of social, psychological and biological properties in unity. Indicative in this regard for the 30s. is "Pedology" P.P. Blonsky, published in 1934.

1. Basic concepts of pedology

Development. The basic concept of pedology, the only correct one is the dialectical concept of development.

Growth: A child is qualitatively different from an adult. Growth is not only a quantitative addition of matter: quantity turns into quality.

Constitution and character: growth causes a number of qualitative changes in a growing organism. The totality of qualitative peculiarities of an organism forms its constitution. The constitution is usually called the physique of the body.

Wednesday. “If we consider all human behavior as its relationship with environment, we can assume in advance that in this correlative activity there can be three main typical moments. The first is the moment of relative equilibrium created between the organism and the environment.

Children's divisions. All school childhood Blonsky breaks it down into 3 stages: early prepubertal childhood (7-10 years); late prepubertal childhood (10-12; 13 years); age of puberty (13-16 years).

Transitional ages. The so-called "Critical ages" - birth, 3 years, 7 years, puberty. They are characterized by extreme impressionability, nervousness, imbalance, unmotivated strange actions, etc.

Pedological and chronological age. Problems of acceleration, inhibition of development, physical and mental. Each of the age stages has its own peculiarity, but not every child experiences this stage at the same time.

1.3 The birth of pedology as a science

In the era of feudalism, pedagogy was guided by the principle:

"Break the will of the child so that his soul can live." A more or less systematic study of the child began only in the era of industrial capitalism.

Industrial capitalism, drawing more and more masses of the population into production as hired labor, demanded from them a certain level of education. In this regard, the question of universal education arose. What was needed was a method of teaching that would work successfully in inexperienced hands. In an effort to make teaching more accessible and understandable, Pestalozzi tried to build it on the laws of psychology. Herbart continued the "psychologization of learning", he introduced psychology into all the main departments of pedagogy. At the time it was created practical psychology, namely in the middle of the 19th century, general psychology was greatly rebuilt, in the era of machine production and the development of technology, it became experimental. Educational psychology also transformed into experimental educational psychology or experimental pedagogy. So the German psychologist and teacher MEYMANN in "lectures on the introduction to experimental pedagogy and its psychological foundations”explains the age-related psychological characteristics of children, their individual characteristics, the technique and economics of memorization and the application of psychology to teaching literacy, counting and drawing. E. Meiman was one of the pioneers of developmental psychology in Germany. He founded a psychological laboratory at the University of Hamburg, which conducted research mental development children. Maiman is also the founder of the first special journal dedicated to pedagogical problems- "Journal of educational psychology". In his various activities, he paid the main attention to the applied aspect of child psychology and pedology, since he believed that the main task of pedology is to develop methodological foundations for teaching children. In his theoretical approaches, Maiman sought to combine Selley's associationist approach with Hall's theory of recapitulation. Meiman believed that child psychology should not only study the stages and age characteristics of mental development, but also explore individual developmental options, for example, questions of child giftedness and backwardness. Inborn tendencies of children. At the same time, training and education should be based both on knowledge general patterns and understanding the characteristics of the psyche of this particular child.

However, pedagogy has a number of very important problems that cannot be solved by the means of pedagogical psychology (the goals of education, the content educational material), so pedagogical psychology cannot replace pedagogy. Maiman believed that such a general picture of a child's life should be given by a special science - the science of young age (Jugendlehre), and for this, in addition to psychological data about the child, familiarity with the physical life of the child, knowledge of the dependence of the life of a growing person on external conditions, knowledge of the conditions education. So the development of educational psychology and experimental pedagogy leads to the recognition of the need to create a special science - the science of young age.

Relatively early, at the end of the 19th century, in the circles of the American psychologist, STANLEY HALL began to realize the impossibility of studying the mental development of the child separately from his physical development. As a result, it was proposed to create a new science - PEDOLOGY, which would give a more complete picture of the age development of the child. American psychologist Hall is the founder of pedology - integrated science about the child, which is based on the idea of ​​pedocentrism, that is, the idea that the child is the center of research interests of many professionals - psychologists, educators, biologists, pediatricians, anthropologists, sociologists and other specialists. Of all these areas, pedology includes the part that has to do with children. Thus, this science, as it were, unites all branches of knowledge related to the study of child development.

The idea of ​​the need to study child development was established with the penetration of evolutionary ideas into psychology. The application of these ideas to the study of the psyche meant the recognition of its genesis, development, and also its connection with the process of adaptation of the organism to the environment. One of the first to review the subject and tasks of psychology from this point of view was the English psychologist G. Spencer. However, he was mainly interested in the methodological and general theoretical problems of mental development. Hall, first of all, drew attention to the importance of studying the development of the child's psyche, the study of which can be a genetic method for general psychology.

Hall associated the importance of studying child psychology with his theory of recapitulation. The basis of this theory is Haeckel's biogenetic law, applied by Hall to explain child development.

Naturally, such a rigid and straightforward transfer of biological laws to pedagogy could not but be criticized, and many provisions of Hall's pedological concept were revised quite soon. However, the very science of pedology, created by him, very quickly gained popularity all over the world and existed almost until the middle of the 20th century. Popularity was brought to Hall and the methods of studying children he developed, primarily the questionnaires and questionnaires he published for adolescents, teachers and parents, which also made it possible to compile a comprehensive description of the child, analyze their problems not only from the point of view of adults, but also the children themselves.

Thus, S. Hall expressed the idea of ​​​​creating an experimental child psychology that was in the air, combining the requirements of pedagogical practice with the achievements of biology and psychology that were timely for him.

The first pedological research in Russia

2.1 The emergence and development of pedology in Russia

Feudal Russia, with its Domostroy pedagogy, was as little interested in the psychology of the child as the feudal West. As well as there, the origin and development of educational psychology in Russia is associated with the democratic movement:

The first to look at the matter of education from a philosophical point of view was N.I. Pirogov. The principle of education put forward by him in a person, first of all a Human, caused the need to pose and discuss many theoretical problems. He took pedagogy to a new plane. It was a requirement of sound pedagogy based on psychology. Having shown that a person is a person, and not a means to achieve other goals, Pirogov raised the question of the need for a comprehensive, primarily psychological study of a person, knowledge of the patterns of his development, identification of the conditions and factors that determine the formation of the mental sphere of a child. With this approach, psychology came to the fore, became the necessary basis for solving pedagogical problems. He considered the task of studying the patterns of child development to be paramount and urgent. Noting the originality of childhood in general, Pirogov recognized the need to take into account the individual differences of children, without this it is impossible to influence the formation of the moral world of the individual, to develop the best human traits.

A new understanding of the tasks of upbringing inevitably entailed a new approach to interpreting the essence of upbringing, a new look at the factors of upbringing and the means of pedagogical influence.

A huge contribution to the development of these problems was made by K.D. Ushinsky. He gave his interpretation of the most complex and always topical questions about the psychological nature of education, about its limits and possibilities, about the relationship between education and development, about the combination of external educational influences and the process of self-education. According to Ushinsky, the subject of education is a person. “The art of education is based on the data of anthropological sciences, on complex knowledge about a person who lives in a family, in society, among the people, among humanity and alone with his conscience.” Ushinsky based his theory of education on two main concepts - "organism" and "development". From this he deduced the need for a harmonious combination of mental, moral and physical education. The works of these outstanding teachers of the 19th century helped to look at the problem of education in a new light, to recognize the importance of psychology for education, to pave the way for the further development of educational psychology in Russia.

Passion for experimental pedagogy flares up in the era of 1905. An attempt to create experimental pedagogy and a special science, pedology, instead of pedagogical psychology, found a response in Russia. Rumyantsev was a particularly ardent propagandist of pedology in pre-revolutionary times.

For the early period of Soviet pedology, the names of the then largest pedological universities and departments are already characteristic: medical-pedological institute, pedologist - defectological department. This influence of doctors on the emerging Soviet pedology was mainly useful: it became easier and easier to connect the doctrine of the growth and physical development of the child with his psychology. It became easier and easier for pedology to take shape as a special independent science, moreover, materialistic. Works are beginning to appear that claim to give a general concept of childhood. Of these works, it can be noted: school age» Arkin, «Pedology» Blonsko, «Reflexology of childhood» Aryamov.

Relying on natural science, young Soviet pedology waged an energetic struggle against idealism and took the path of materialism more and more resolutely. But the natural-scientific materialism with which pedology was then imbued was not yet dialectical, but mechanistic materialism. He considered the child as a kind of machine, whose activity is entirely determined by the influence of external stimuli. This mechanistic concept manifested itself especially clearly in the works of pedologists who gravitated toward reflexology. Thus, the problem of studying the laws of child development eludes mechanists in pedology.

If in the first years of its existence, Soviet pedology was influenced by natural science and medicine, then in the subsequent time it was decisively influenced by pedagogy. Pedology became more and more decisively a pedagogical science, and the pedologist began to enter children's institutions as a practical worker. Pedology was becoming more and more a social science, biologism was subjected to intense criticism, and the enormous role of the influence of the surrounding social environment and, in particular, education was recognized. Scientific and pedagogical production also grew (the works of Molozhavy, Blonsky, Basov, Vygotsky, Shchelovanov, Aryamov, Arkin).

Pedology turned its face to pedagogy. However, such a strong influence of pedagogy on pedology sometimes developed into an identification of these sciences, hence such incorrect definitions as “pedology is a part of pedagogy” or “pedology is the theory of the pedagogical process” came from. The problems of pedagogy and pedology are not identical (for pedagogy - how a teacher should teach, for pedology - how a child learns).

The problem of growth is one of the most basic pedological problems. Of course. It uses the achievements of psychology, but it also uses data from various other sciences.

The problem of development is a philosophical problem. Not only should pedology not be alien to philosophy, but it is precisely philosophy that forms the basis of pedology.

The study of child development is not limited to the present, without knowing the history of mankind, it is impossible to understand the history of child development. Thus, history is one of the most basic sciences for pedology.

Activity Knowledge nervous system necessary pedology. In general, it needs knowledge of the characteristics of the child's organism: pedology uses a great deal of biological material in the study of the development of the child.

Pedology is the science of the age development of a child in a certain socio-historical environment.

Representatives of science in the early twentieth century. are Rumyantsev, Nechaev, Rossolimo, Lazursky, Kashchenko. Later, pedological ideas were developed by Abramov, Basov, Bekhterev, Blonsky, Vygotsky, Zalkind, Molozhavy, Fortunatov and others.

2.2 The influence of pedology on domestic education

A distinctive feature of the Soviet period in the history of culture and pedagogy is the enormous role played by the party and the state in its development. The state took over the financing of all branches of culture: education, logistics, all kinds of art, establishing the strictest censorship of literature, theater, cinema, educational institutions, etc. A coherent system of indoctrination of the population was created. The mass media, being under the most severe control of the party and the state, along with reliable information, used the method of manipulating the consciousness of the population. The idea was instilled in the people that the country was a besieged fortress, and only those who defended it had the right to be in this fortress. The constant search for enemies became a distinctive feature of the activities of the party and the state.

In line with the class struggle, bourgeois culture was constantly opposed to the new, proletarian culture. In contrast to bourgeois culture, the new, socialist culture, in the opinion of the Communists, must express the interests of the working people and serve the tasks of the class struggle of the proletariat for socialism. From these positions, the communists also determined their attitude to the cultural heritage of the past. Many values ​​were excluded from the cultural process. The special storages contained the works of writers, artists and other representatives of culture that were not pleasing to the communists. Noble estates were destroyed, temples, churches and monasteries were destroyed, the connection of times was destroyed.

20-30s 20th century were the heyday of extracurricular activities. It was then that interesting pedagogical initiatives were introduced into life, original forms of organizing children's life appeared, there was an intensive formation of the scientific and methodological base of extracurricular and extracurricular work, serious Scientific research and monitoring the development of children's amateur performances, creativity personality, its interests and needs. Collective and group forms of work were studied. Among the most famous teachers who have made a huge contribution to the formation and development of out-of-school education in our country, we will name E.N. Medynsky, P.P. Blonsky, S.T. Shatsky and V.P. Shatskaya, A.S. Makarenko, V.N. Tersky. It should also be noted that N.K. Krupskaya and A.V. Lunacharsky "not only enriched pedagogy with their work on this problem, but also helped to solve it at the state level, influencing the education policy of the USSR."

School and out-of-school areas of education began to receive a certain design and concretization. Moreover, out-of-school education then played an even more prominent role, since it was in the practice of out-of-school work that ideas were born related to the upbringing of children in new socio-cultural conditions.

In 1918, the first out-of-school institution was opened - the Biological Station for Young Nature Lovers under the guidance of a talented teacher and scientist B.V. Vsesvyatsky. Soon the number of various extracurricular institutions increased dramatically.

In the mid 30s. children's sports schools and stadiums. Later there were motorways for children, clubs for young sailors with their own fleets and shipping companies. The country entered a period of rapid industrialization, and the development of children's technical creativity became one of the main tasks of out-of-school education in the 1930s. Particular attention was paid to the development of a network of various technical stations for children due to the need to prepare a large number qualified specialists for all sectors of the national economy, technically competent workers for new buildings.

In 1925, the Artek All-Union Pioneer Camp was opened. Later, especially in post-war years, pioneer camps were massively developed. They solved the problems not only of improving the health of children, but also of socio-political and labor education.

Attention was also paid to the development of the general culture of the younger generation, the formation of the artistic interests of children of different ages. For this purpose, such important cultural and educational institutions as children's libraries, theaters, cinemas, and galleries were created. Music, art, choreographic schools appeared, thanks to which conditions were created for the education of young talents.

The increase in the number and variety of out-of-school institutions is a clear sign of the prewar years. At that time, teachers began to theoretically comprehend the accumulated experience, which helped to determine the basic principles of extracurricular work: the mass character and general accessibility of classes based on the voluntary association of children according to their interests; development of their initiative and initiative; socially useful orientation of activity; a variety of forms of extracurricular work; taking into account age and individual features children.

Distinctive features of the club (out-of-school) work of A.S. Makarenko, as well as S.T. Shatsky, considered, first of all, creativity and self-organization. Makarenko considered it necessary to make the leisure and recreation of the Communards meaningful and interesting. The work of the circle, emphasized A.S. Makarenko, should have a real socially useful orientation, be built on the basis of self-organization. The lever of the entire club system of the Communards was the principle of acquiring a variety of knowledge and skills that they could use in socially useful activities.

All club work pupils of A.S. Makarenko and S.T. Shatsky was built on the basis of children's self-government Makarenko emphasized that it is necessary to involve all the pupils without exception, including the younger ones, in the performance of various organizational functions.

The conclusions of these teachers destroyed the prevailing idea of ​​the child only as an object of pedagogical influence. They showed that a child in an out-of-school institution is an active subject of the educational process. This position, and its scientific and methodological justification, was very bold for that time.

The aspiration of youth leaders for centralized management of amateur movements subordinated the youth movement and the technical creativity of the children to the pioneer organization. And then the pioneer organization itself was included in the system of school activities. Out-of-school institutions for the most part began to be called pioneer houses, which, of course, influenced the content and organization of work in them.

8. Kugukina L. Professional and pedagogical self-education // Preschool education, 1996, No. 4.

9. Lunacharsky A. V. On upbringing and education. M., 1976.

10. Makarenko A.S. Pedagogical essays, M., 1983-1986. T. 7.

11. Martsinovskaya G.D., Yaroshevsky M.G. Developmental and pedagogical psychology of pre-revolutionary Russia, Dubna, 1995.

12. Nikolskaya A.A. 100 outstanding psychologists of the world, Moscow - Voronezh, 1995.

13. Petrovsky A.V. History of Soviet psychology, Moscow, 1967.

14. Slastenin V. A., Maksakova V. I. . Foreword // Blonsky P.P. Pedology. M., 1989

16. Ushinsky K.D. Man as an object of education. Experience of pedagogical anthropology, M., Grand, 2004

17. Shvartsman P.Ya., Kuznetsova I.V. Pedology // Repressive science, issue 2, ed. Yaroslavsky M.T., St. Petersburg, 1994

18. Shcherbakov A.I. Psychological foundations for the formation of the personality of a Soviet teacher, Leningrad, 1967

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

Pedology (from Greek rbydt - child and Greek lgpt - science) is a direction in science that aimed to combine the approaches of various sciences (medicine, biology, psychology, pedagogy) to the development of the child.

The term is obsolete, and currently has only historical meaning. Most of the productive scientific results pedological research has been assimilated by the psychology of childhood.

Story.

In the world. The emergence of pedology was caused by the penetration of evolutionary ideas into psychology and pedagogy and the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy. The first works of a pedological nature date back to the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. - G. S. Hall, J. Baldwin, E. Meyman, V. Preyer and others. The term "pedology" was proposed in 1893 by the American researcher Oscar Chrisman.

Pedology in Russia and the USSR. In Russia, the ideas of pedology were accepted and developed by V.M. Bekhterev, G.I. Rossolimo, A.P. Nechaev and others, while I. Pavlov and his school were very critical.

In the USSR, pedology was at its peak in the 1920s and 1930s, especially after the support of L.D. Trotsky, when pedology was "crossed" with Freudianism. Schools were actively introducing the practices of psychological testing, completing classes, organizing a school regime, etc. In Moscow and Petrograd, institutes of Soviet “psychoanalytic pedology” were created, corresponding to the “House of the Child” (A. Luria, V. Schmidt, E. Adler).

However, the strong bias in the activities of pedological laboratories towards sorting students on the basis of their intellectual qualities was not consistent with the Communist Party line on the equality of all representatives of the working class in obtaining education, and was not consistent with the ideology of universal equality embodied in the practice of "group education". In addition, the illiterate implementation of the "psychoanalytic" bias in the upbringing of children showed the entire inconsistency of the union of pedology and psychoanalysis that had long existed at the expense of the state. A.S. Makarenko and K.I. Chukovsky waged an active struggle against pedology.

The result of this was the defeat and collapse of pedology, which came after the decision of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks "On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education" (1936).

However, along with pedology, the development of some productive branches of psychology as a natural science discipline was frozen for many years.

Since the 1950s a gradual return of some ideas of pedology to pedagogy and psychology begins.

Since the 1970s active work has begun on the use of tests in pedagogy and the education system.

The main representatives of Soviet pedology: P.P. Blonsky, M.Ya. Basov, L.S. Vygotsky.

One of the prominent trends in modern Russian pedagogy reflects the desire to experimentally investigate various pedagogical issues and phenomena. Experimental pedagogy goes hand in hand with experimental psychology and shares the same fate with it: who, in the field of the study of mental phenomena, gives great importance experimental way, he will be inclined to look for solutions to pedagogical questions in the same experimental way. The fact is that both psychological and pedagogical experiments are related, closely related to each other, although each of these types has its own, somewhat special tasks and its own methodology: psychological experiments are laboratory, divorced from life, very abstract in terms of task, but very accurate; pedagogical - complex, more vital, carried out at school in ordinary school conditions, and therefore less accurate. Anyone who is not a fan of the experiment in psychology will hardly give it a wide place in pedagogy. And about the significance of experimental psychology, about the limits of its application, about the value of the data obtained by it, there is still a dispute, there is still no agreement in opinions; experimental pedagogy is in the same position. The dispute, in fact, can be reduced to such a basic question - is it about new sciences or only about new methods of research in science? Defenders of experiments in the study of psychological and pedagogical phenomena often argue that they are the heralds of a new truth, a new science, that the former psychology and pedagogy are already something obsolete, old, scholastic, all this junk must be forgotten, there is no use from it, but it is necessary start anew, build new, experimental psychology and pedagogy. Such a negatively contemptuous attitude towards the former psychology and pedagogy is completely wrong and is the result of an understandable enthusiasm for a new direction in science. It is impossible to throw overboard the old psychology and pedagogy, because experimental psychology and pedagogy are only new methods of research in science, and not new sciences. In order to investigate something experimentally, one must already be familiar with a given area of ​​phenomena, understand its significance and the need for a more thorough study of it; the very setting of the experiment, i.e., the choice of a known particular phenomenon for study, presupposes an analysis of the complex in which it enters as an element; conclusion of the consequences from the experiment and scientific assessment they also require common considerations and discussions. In a word, each experiment is a small part of a great whole, about which it is necessary to have an idea before starting to experiment with the mind and consciousness. Experimental studies are usually very detailed analytical studies, the understanding of which requires a broad synthesis, and in pedagogy in particular, the concepts of goals and ideals, judgments about good and bad, expedient and inexpedient, their degrees, which are usually not given by simple factual knowledge, are necessary. whether acquired by experiment or otherwise.

In order to judge the value of this or that pedagogical system, it is not enough to know that, according to experimental verification, the educated person began to memorize easier, judge more accurately, his imagination became more alive, etc., you need to know that he generally became the best or the worst person. And for this, a broad sociological verification of all human activity is needed, and not a partial experimental one.

“To speak in favor of some end, any appointment or intention, is to declare that this end is better than another end, that this appointment is more worthy than another, that this intention is more valuable than another. But if there is anything that enters into the concept of science itself, it is the unwavering recognition that in the world of scientific facts nothing is good or bad, valuable or worthless, worthy or unworthy: of a scientific fact, we can only say that he is" 1.

Quite rightly, one of the most prominent representatives of experimental psychology and pedagogy among us argues that “the first merit (and, in our opinion, the most important P.K.) of experimental psychology over didactics is the ideal of accuracy and conclusiveness of the study of questions of school education that it vividly sets forth. . Instead of unfounded assertions and general (not always definite) impressions, it introduces exactly described facts, scientifically verified propositions into didactics. At the same time, sometimes in a brilliant way, what many teachers agreed with for a long time is confirmed, sometimes the incorrectness of the prevailing didactic premises is revealed.

The former psychology, and in connection with it, pedagogy, was based on self-observation and observations on others, the new, experimental one, on experiment. Thus, by their very foundations, the old and the new psychology and pedagogy seemed to be essentially different. The old ones had close ties with philosophy, logic, ethics, and the closest friends of the new ones were physiology, hygiene, anthropology. "Tell me who your friends are and I'll tell you who you are." And the friends of the old and new psychology and pedagogy are very different. But upon closer examination, the differences are not so great.

If one psychology and pedagogy were based on observation, and the other on experiment, then there is no need to oppose observation and experiment. They are undoubtedly different, but not opposite, there is a natural connection between them. Experiments are made not only by man, but also by nature, when she discovers the same property under different conditions, in varying degrees of strength and with unequal shades, when, in a word, she modifies the property depending on the conditions. People who do not want to experiment and even, perhaps, have not heard anything about experiments, setting other new conditions for activity, encourage them to modify their properties and activity, that is, they experiment without suspecting it themselves, as is often the case in the field of education, when new techniques and methods of education and training are introduced when the pedagogical environment surrounding the educated changes, when a new teacher arrives. From this arises the concept of a natural experiment, i.e., the observation of a phenomenon under various conditions, proposed by some defenders of experimental psychology and pedagogy. Let children and youth indulge in sports, games, gymnastics, manual labor and not suspect that at this time they are subjected to the most careful observation, taking into account all the manifestations of mental life that are planned to be taken into account. Such observation, systematically carried out according to a predetermined plan, of the complex manifestations of the mental life of children in the ordinary conditions of their home or school environment is a natural experiment. According to the results, in terms of accuracy, it is lower than a laboratory study, but higher than a simple non-systematized observation 3.

Of course, this is true, nature (if it is only possible to personify it) produces experiments, but a person cognizes natural experiments by a process denoted in logic by the name of observation, and not experiment. It is true that man himself may experiment quite often without being aware of it, although his unintentional experiments will be very lax and therefore not entirely accurate.

If careful observation (a natural experiment) is of great importance for experimental psychology and pedagogy, self-observation is no less important for them. Even in certain types of psychological experiment, when it comes to the study of elementary sensations, self-observation does not play a significant role, and the experimented subject turns to a certain extent into a simple, as it were, dead instrument of experience, the experience of which during the experiment is of no concern to the experimenter. But the situation is quite different in cases where complex phenomena are studied, and pedagogical experiments concern ordinary complex phenomena. It is impossible to understand the answers to questions about such complex phenomena if one does not pay attention to the experiences that accompany them, to the psychic environment in which they arise and which determines their character. And about the mental experiences corresponding to a given phenomenon, about the mental environment of a known phenomenon, the experimenter can report only by self-observation. The more precise and sharper the latter, the more valuable and fruitful the experiment will be; the narrower and more vague the self-observation, the darker the meaning and significance of the testimony of the experimenter. The meaning of a word can be understood by considering it separately; but we can correctly understand its exact meaning in a certain place in the writer only when we take the given word in the context, i.e., in the whole sentence, in the given period, in the passage. Experiments about the meaning of individual, disparate words are psychological, laboratory experimentation; experiments about the meaning of a word taken in context, in connection with a whole passage, are pedagogical experimentation.

Thus, for all experiments concerning more or less complex phenomena, and especially for pedagogical ones, the observation by the experimenters themselves of their states is an essential factor in the value of the experiment. Consequently, in the experiment, the psychology and pedagogy of self-observation, the old ones, and the psychology and pedagogy of experience, the new ones, meet and act together.

Therefore, there can be no question of denying the former psychology and pedagogy, recognizing them as empty scholasticism and replacing them with new ones. The connection of the old psychology and pedagogy with the new ones is preserved, the new ones are a further development of the former ones, mainly from the methodological side. The significance of experimental psychology and pedagogy as new research methods in science is indisputable and serious.

By the very essence of knowledge based on simple observation, even if it is many years and careful, it does not have complete accuracy and distinctness. The mere observation is under great pressure from the prevailing views and habits, observation often confirms the existence of something that is not really there, that is only in the mind of the observer, which causes firm belief in him. Experience is very little subject to such distortion by preconceived ideas and faith, it is colder and stricter, it tests subjective assumptions by measure and weight, by precise instruments that are impassive, that are alien to love and hate. Therefore, experimental research, no matter what it is applied to, dispels fog, uncertainty, it everywhere brings light and clear outlines. The same thing happens when applied to the study of child personality. But such a study is only just beginning, and independent Russian works in this direction very little. To a certain extent, an indicator of the success of experimental studies of children in the preschool period of their life can be the publication of a publication of the Pedagogical Academy under the title "The Spiritual Life of Children." In this issue of two articles, N.E. Rumyantsev “How has the spiritual life of children been studied and is being studied?” and “The character and personality of the child.

The study of personality ”, the reader can get acquainted with the former and current methods of studying a child’s personality, with the history of the emergence of child psychology, with the classification of children’s characters, compiling characteristics, etc. In addition, the named issue discusses next questions: about heredity and environment as factors of education; about memory; about attention; about the development of imagination in children; about children's games; about the development of children's speech; about the main periods in the development of the mental life of children. All these are very important, very essential questions of child psychology, without a detailed solution of which it is impossible to construct a correct theory of family education of children. It is only necessary to note that articles on the study of the above-mentioned aspects of the mental life of children are not so much independent experimental research as they are acquaintance with the work in the field of child psychology by foreign experimenters. But it is also difficult to expect the emergence of independent research in a given field of science before a detailed acquaintance with foreign works and their critical assimilation. It is clear, therefore, that the study of the mental manifestations of children continues and through systematic observations, systematic and extensive plans for such observations are published by the figures in the field of experimental psychology themselves (see, for example, the work of A.F. Lazursky “Program for the Study of Personality” and G.I. Rassolimo "Plan for the study of the child's soul in a healthy and diseased state", M., 1909).

Interest in new research methods in the field of psychology and pedagogy in the Russian educational and pedagogical world is quite large, as evidenced by two congresses on pedagogical-experimental psychology and two on experimental pedagogy, held in last years in St. Petersburg - all four are very crowded, attracting a lot of participants from all over Russia; psychological and pedagogical experimental rooms created for scientific experimental research in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa and some other cities; psychological classrooms at gymnasiums, designed to demonstrate experiments in teaching psychology; courses in experimental psychology and pedagogy at the Pedagogical Academy in Petrograd; rather rapidly growing literature on these branches of knowledge, however, mainly translated.

With the spread of interest in experimental research and in the course of the creation of psychological cabinets in secondary educational institutions Naturally, the question arose about the possibility and expediency of practical applications of experimental research in schools in teaching and upbringing. There were heated debates on this issue at congresses on experimental psychology and pedagogy. Some fans of experimental pedagogy assumed that it was already possible to use new psychological data to solve practical pedagogical problems, that with the help of simple psychological cabinets and simple experiments with calculations, it would be possible to penetrate the recesses of mental life, to find out the essence of the individual, the level of his talent, his general orientation and inclinations in the future, etc. Obviously, all this is exaggerated hopes, hot hobbies. Experimental psychology is a new scientific trend that is just beginning to develop its own paths, posing questions to itself, trying to solve all kinds of and sometimes very difficult and intricate problems. It is in the period of searches, experiments, it is groping for both tasks and methods. New and new horizons are opening before him, very vast and very complex. Of course, little has been achieved so far to decide anything firmly, to establish any new truths and provisions of experimental psychology, which is quite natural, and therefore the naive confidence in the possibility of finding practical applications of experimental psychology today does not have sufficient grounds. So far, this scientific direction is the business of scientists, and not of practical workers, and psychological classrooms at gymnasiums, according to the decision of the last congress on experimental pedagogy in Petrograd, should serve to demonstrate new research methods, and by no means to solve practical pedagogical problems.

One of the types of research practiced by new psychologists and educators is questionnaires, that is, questionnaires addressed to the masses. You can ask about known objects of individuals, selecting them according to gender, age, education, cultural conditions of life, or without any selection - every acquaintance you meet; you can offer questions at once to the whole audience or class, asking them to prepare answers by a certain date; printed questionnaires can be sent out, distributing them in tens of thousands of copies. The method is simple, but it also requires caution. One must always skillfully and deliberately put questions, briefly, accurately and at the same time accessible. Quite often questionnaires sin against these elementary rules and reduce the value of the questionnaire. Respondents must be selected or answers grouped; to lump together the answers of adults and children, educated and uneducated, men and women, is to deprive the questionnaire of any scientific value. Finally, you need to be sure that the questions posed were understood by the respondents, that when answering they did not receive help from anywhere, for example, children - from adults. Here are two very interesting questionnaires conducted by domestic teachers.

One Russian researcher became interested in the issue of the physical and geographical representations of children, for which he sent out the corresponding questionnaires to educational institutions, male and female, in the cities of Kyiv, Vilna, Zhitomir and Glukhov. Pupils and pupils of preparatory classes at the age of 9-11 were interviewed. 500 responses were sent. The questions on the questionnaires were as follows: did the respondent see the rising sun, morning dawn, open horizon, valley, ravine, beam, stream, springs, pond, water meadow, swamp, eared field, field work, loamy soil, chernozem, ice drift, sign whether he is picking mushrooms in the forest, boating on the river, swimming in the river, whether he knows the countries of the world. In addition, it was required to report whether he traveled on railway, on a steamboat, whether he walked outside the city, whether he lived in the countryside and in other cities. It turned out that, on average, only half of the students saw and had an idea about these phenomena; with some words (for example, soil), only a third of the respondents connect real ideas. Knowledge of individual natural phenomena and occupations fluctuates between 25% (ice drift) and 80% (picking mushrooms in the forest). By dividing the proposed questions according to their content into three groups, we get the following percentage of affirmative answers:

1) astronomical representations: horizon, sunrise, dawn, cardinal points - 44.3%;

2) physical and geographical: valley, ravine, ravine, stream, spring, pond, swamp, water meadow, eared field, loamy or chernozem soil - 52%;

3) general acquaintance with nature, including the following activities: picking mushrooms in the forest, field work, boating, swimming in the river - 68.7.

17.6% (88 people out of 500) took country walks on foot, went by steamboat and railroad, 50.8% (254 people) did not take country walks, 38.2% (191 people) did not go by steamboat, 11.4% (57 people) did not travel by rail. From the same questionnaire, it turns out that country walks on foot constitute the main condition for a wide range of physical and geographical representations: the world of physical and geographical representations of children who did not walk outside the city is not only poor quantitatively, but also very peculiar in composition.

From the considered point of view, the article by N.V. Chekhov "On the threshold to school and from school". (With what knowledge and skills do illiterate children come to school? How do they feel about schoolwork and what do they take out of school? See the 10th edition of the collection “Issues and Needs of Teachers”). This article was compiled on the basis of a questionnaire conducted in the summer of 1909 among students of the summer Moscow teacher's courses. All answers are for students. rural schools. In total, there were 174 classified and counted answers. There were a lot of questions (49), we will focus on answers only to the main questions.

Do children freely understand the questions of adults (and teachers) in everyday life and can they give sensible answers to them? 144 responses were received, distributed as follows:

Questions are not understood, 44 (31%)

Most do not understand, 23 (15%)

They understand, but cannot answer, 46 (32%)

Understand and give sensible answers, 31 (22%)

Can they coherently tell what happened to them and what they saw?

Can't, 97 (67%);

A minority can, 20 (13%);

They know how, 27 (20%).

Thus, in half of the schools, all or most of the students, upon entering the school, neither understand the teacher's questions, nor are they able to answer sensibly "due to the inability to master speech." Four-fifths of the students are unable to coherently describe what happened to them or what they saw.

Most, but not all, know their name and the name of their village. In half of the schools, children do not know their patronymic or last name.

Up to how many can they usually count? In most cases, children entering school can count up to 10. Only children in 19 schools can count up to 10, while in others they continue to count, namely: up to 20 - in 21 schools, from 20 to 100 - in 43 schools. 38 schools can count in pairs, 79 do not know how to count; heels - they can at 20 and can't at 97; counting in tens at 27 and not at 70. Thus, in most schools, children can count up to 10 or 20, in a minority - up to 100, and in about 1/3 of schools they can count in pairs, heels and tens. Children entering school have knowledge of measures and coins, for example, in most schools they know coins, they do not know only in 20 schools.

Acquaintance with nature - with animals found in the area, birds, fish, insects, plants, etc. In most cases, the number of animals known to children of one school is very limited, and often they do not know the most common ones. For some orders of animals, many children have only common names. In any case, in any alphabet there will be much more names of animals, and, consequently, a significant part of these names will be unknown to children, although they may know this animal, but under a common name with relatives to it. According to the number of names mentioned in the answers, the first place belongs to birds, then trees, fish, flowers, insects, wild mammals and, finally, reptiles. In this sequence, apparently, children develop an interest in wildlife. In some places, species names are used instead of generic ones (for example, in the Kuban, children call all trees oaks, in the Kazan province - birches, in Tambov - twigs).

There is no doubt that all didactics and methods elementary school should be based on such careful examinations of the mental and moral baggage of the children they bring to school. It is ridiculous to start learning to count from one, to stop at a detailed study of the numbers of the first ten, when children can count up to 10, 20, up to 100, they can count in pairs, heels; it is useless to require children to repeat the teacher's story when they do not understand his simple question and cannot, if they did, answer it. Gymnasium pedagogy should have the same basis - a detailed scientific examination of the physical and spiritual personality of children entering the gymnasium.

Regarding the methodological perfection of the above two questionnaires, the following should be noted: in the first, the questions are clearly posed, the answers are selected, but it remains unknown how the questionnaires were filled out, whether there were any conversations, help, etc. at that time. It is impossible not to notice that the children interviewed did not live in one locality, but in four different ones, as a result of which local conditions could influence the answers and thereby reduce the value of the questionnaire. The second questionnaire was conducted among teachers who came from 41 provinces of Russia and Finland, hence, from areas with different nature, language of inhabitants and different cultural backgrounds. Already this circumstance significantly weakens the scientific value of the questionnaire, and the breadth of some questions joins it. For example, what does the question mean: can children talk coherently? What are the criteria for skill and incompetence? One teacher could consider one as such, and another - others. In the same way, the first question is broad and vague: do children freely understand the questions of adults in everyday life and can they give sensible answers to them? The degrees of understanding and sensibility are different, understanding and sensibility can often come into contact with misunderstanding and stupidity, as a result of which the same answer can be attributed to opposite groups - sensible and stupid. At the same time, teachers answered the second questionnaire not at home, but in Moscow, having gathered for courses, therefore, from memory, without proper information and preparation, all this cannot but affect negatively the value of the questionnaire.

The most characteristic method of research by new psychologists and educators is, of course, experiment. In order to clarify the use of experiment for solving psychological and pedagogical problems, we will present two Russian experimental studies aimed at solving two very important problems, namely, about the mental characteristics of the blind and about methods for determining personal characteristics. The first study belongs to A. Krogius, the second - to G.I. Rossolimo.

The work of A. Krogius is only a part of the work devoted to the study of the processes of perception in the blind; the second part will include a study of the blind processes of representation, memory, thinking, and emotional-volitional life. Thus, the entire spiritual world of the blind was supposed to be subjected to experimental examination. The essence of the first half of the work already done can be stated as follows: from the physical side, the blind are characterized by insufficient development of the muscular system, a weakening of the general nutrition, and their entire physical development seems to be weak, delayed; growth is mostly below average, the skeletal system is thin, fragile. Often there are traces of rickets, an abnormally large head, curvature of the lower extremities and spine, thickening of the joints, etc. Activity of the heart, lungs, gastrointestinal and other internal organs often weakened. Due to the general weakening of the vital activity of the internal organs, the blind are excessively susceptible to various infectious diseases and are unable to fight them. And the morbidity and mortality among them are very high. Of those born blind and blind in childhood, only a few survive to old age. Nervous diseases are also frequent in the blind. In general, the picture of the physical condition of the blind is disappointing. One of the main reasons for the weak physical development of the blind is their lack of mobility. Fearing to run into obstacles, the blind involuntarily limit their movements, which is expressed in the whole figure of the blind: the position of the body of the blind is mostly bent, the head is stretched forward, they move hesitantly, with concentration; the face of the blind man is inactive, there is no facial expression. Sometimes it gives the impression of a marble sculpture. The games of the blind are rarely alive. With little blind people, the game often consists in jumping up on the spot and raising their hands up. But they develop significantly automatic movements: pointing with the head, with the whole body, spinning in one place, various contractions of the muscles of the upper and lower extremities. Especially often they have pressure on the eyeball.

In almost all writings on the psychology of the blind, there is a remark that the blind perceive sound stimuli better than the sighted. According to the author's experimental studies, the blind better determine the direction of the sound than the sighted: with the same experiments, the total number of errors in the blind was 365.5, and in the sighted - 393.5. For the blind, the voice of the speakers has the same meaning as the face has for the sighted: it is a conductor for them of spiritual properties and changes in the mood and consciousness of the speakers; by their gait, by their voice they recognize people whom they have heard for a long time. “If the eyes are the mirror of the soul,” one blind woman remarked, “then the voice is her echo, her breath; the voice reveals the deepest feelings, the most intimate movements. You can artificially create an expression for yourself, but you can’t do it with a voice. Instead of insufficient vision, the blind are gifted, as it were, with a special “sixth sense”. What does it consist of? It consists in the ability to recognize indoors and outdoors, while moving and standing, whether the blind person is in front of any object, whether the latter is large, wide or narrow, separate with a gap or a continuous solid barrier; a blind man can even know, without touching an object, whether there is a wooden fence, a brick wall, or a hedge in front of him; and does not confuse shops with residential buildings, can indicate doors, windows, regardless of whether they are open or closed. One blind man was walking with his sighted friend and, pointing to the palisade separating the road from the field, said: "This fence is somewhat lower than my shoulder." The sighted man replied that he was taller. The fence was measured and found to be three fingers below the shoulder. The height of the fence was determined by a blind man at a distance of four feet. If the lower part of the fence is made of bricks and the upper part of wood, then this can easily be determined by the blind in the same way as the line of division. Irregularities in height, projections and depressions of the walls can also be recognized.

What is the source of the "sixth sense"? Some previous researchers tried to look for it in the surviving remnants of vision, but numerous facts strongly refuted this hypothesis.

In modern times, three assumptions have been put forward on the mentioned issue:

1) the "sixth sense" is due to auditory sensations and has its own source in them;

2) the "sixth sense" is reduced to the tactile sensations of the face, is associated with tactile sensitivity and rests on its sophistication;

3) the "sixth sense" is due mainly to the temperature sensations of the face - the absorption of radiant heat from surrounding objects and its return to these latter. The author of the work under consideration adheres to the third hypothesis, which he created. Her main reasons are as follows:

Weakening of the "sixth sense" when wetting the veil that covered the subject's face during the experiments. In this case, there is a decrease in the thermal transparency of the bedspread, while its gas permeability remains without much change, as with the dryness of the bedspread;

Preservation of the "sixth sense" with a wax paper cover; with a slight change in the thermal transparency of the bedspread and complete blockage of the air flow by it, the function of the "sixth sense" both when walking and at rest decreases only slightly - corresponding to a slight decrease in thermal transparency;

The presence of a "sixth sense" in a calm position, both acting on the subject under test, and the subject himself;

An increase or decrease in the "sixth sense" with an increase or decrease in the temperature of the stimulus;

The dependence of the "sixth sense" on the amount of radiated heat.

Against the theory of auditory sensations as the source of the “sixth sense”, the following facts can be cited:

1) localization of the "sixth sense" in the face (not a single blind person localized it in the ears);

2) the preservation of the "sixth sense" with tightly closed ears;

3) the presence of a "sixth sense" in the deaf;

4) a gradual decrease in the "sixth sense" depending on the thickness of the bedspread;

5) inability to perceive the approach of objects from above and behind.

Based primarily on temperature sensations, the "sixth sense" finds support in auditory and any other sensations received by the blind. A change in, for example, auditory perceptions from approaching objects is sometimes extremely important for a blind person. This change is a signal irritation, already from afar warning the blind of the presence of an obstacle and forcing him to pay special attention to irritations acting on the skin of the face, that is, thermal and tactile.

The tactile and tactile-motor perceptions of the blind are worse than those of the sighted. A variety of experiments carried out in this direction, constantly gave the same result - a greater number of errors in perception in the blind than in the sighted. Vision plays the role of a kind of educator of tactile impressions - in the presence of it, tactile perceptions receive greater accuracy and certainty.

The spatial perceptions of the blind differ to a large extent from the spatial perceptions of the sighted, which is quite understandable. In the discrimination of spatial forms, the most prominent place among the blind is occupied by active touch, which takes place during the movement of the touching finger and during convergent palpation, i.e., by several parts of the body at once. It happens slowly and is accompanied by rather significant inaccuracies. Objects very large and distant are inaccessible to the direct perception of the blind, and the recognition of small familiar forms that appear in a slightly different form is difficult for the blind. If a blind person has become acquainted, for example, with a plaster model of some animal, then he is unable to recognize another model of the same animal depicting it in a different position. He knows physical objects by one or two signs, especially prominent ones, for example, by horns, beak, etc., and therefore he easily confuses: he mixes a bear with a dog, the head of Venus de Milo with the head of a horse. In the perception of the actual space of the blind, the main role is played by the sequential addition of elements, in the perception of the sighted, their simultaneity. Therefore, the space of the blind is more abstract than the space of the sighted, and numerical verbal symbols and reduced schemes play a very prominent role in it. When educating the blind, these methods should be brought to the fore, since they give the blind the opportunity to form a holistic view of spatial relationships at the same time. Large objects and large models greatly interfere with the emergence of blind holistic ideas in the mind.

G.I. Rossolimo deals with mental profiles. A profile is a special warehouse of personality, explored with the help of specially designed tasks. The number of mental processes studied is 11: attention, will, accuracy of perception, memorization of visual impressions, elements of speech, numbers, meaningfulness, combination ability, sharpness, imagination, observation; separate study groups - 38, because mental processes are studied from various angles, for example, attention in relation to stability:

a) simple

b) with a choice

c) with distraction and in relation to volume;

The accuracy of the susceptibility of visual impressions:

a) with sequential recognition,

b) with simultaneous judgment,

c) during subsequent reproduction and recognition of colors, etc.

In each group of studies - 10 experiments, and a total of 380 experiments. The graphic profile is expressed by a curve: a diagram is drawn in the form of 38 equal vertical lines, each divided into 10 equal parts. To determine the height of each process, the principle of positive and negative answers to 10 tasks related to each group was used.

If all 10 problems are solved correctly, then on the vertical line corresponding to this group, a point is placed on the tenth division, if only four out of 10 problems are correctly solved, then the point is placed on the fourth division. At the end of the study, the experimenter connects the points placed on each of the 38 perpendiculars with straight lines, and the psychological profile is ready.

The author assumes that his profiles can be widely used: to develop the question of the types of mental individualities; for comparative study of the same individual; to solve various general pedagogical issues, etc.

It is obvious that the author's method is associated with painstaking and extremely tedious experimental work, with a mass of diagrams and lengthy numerical calculations. How well the author chose 11 processes for the characteristics of the psychological profile is a big question, much and important is left without research, and the same activity in essence is examined several times under different names, for example, meaningfulness, ingenuity, combinational activity. Generally theoretical basis the method and choice of precisely the listed processes, and not any others, perhaps more characteristic of the individual, are not indicated. For the production of all 380 experiments, the author spends 3 1/2 hours during quick work, distributing this time over 4 days and more; but sometimes he had to hurry and carry out the whole work of research in one day. Not to mention such an emergency work in one day, which strongly resembles the usual hasty school exam, but even in 4 days it is difficult enough to correctly and confidently detect the spiritual face of a person; after all, in this short period he can be in a somewhat special state, imperceptible and unknown to the researcher, be slightly excited or depressed, experience an oncoming illness, be under the influence of some event, etc. Therefore, for a real penetration into the human soul and its correct The characteristics of the psychological profile must certainly be compiled several times, especially when moving from one age to another, and compiled slowly, thoughtfully. In any case, the method of G.I. Rossolimo is interesting, largely developed, a lot of work has been put into its improvement. Rossolimo's "profiles" deserve attention also because this method is widely used in practice.

Despite the youth and natural imperfection of experimental psychological and pedagogical research, they managed to have a beneficial effect on the organization of school education in one significant respect - on the desire to single out children who are incapable, backward and poorly developing from ordinary schools. It is known what a burden on the class are the enumerated groups of students; this was known, of course, for a long time, but the natural remedy for evil was considered to be the exclusion of those deprived of nature. With the spread of careful study of the personality of students, it came to the conclusion that all these so-called incompetent and backward children are not so bad that nothing could come of them. The whole trouble is that they cannot successfully study in ordinary schools for normal children; but if we were to create schools adapted to their characteristics, to the level of their abilities, then perhaps there would be success. They made an attempt, it turned out to be successful, and, following the example of the so-called Mannheim system, they began to talk about the need to divide schools:

1) to ordinary schools - for normal children,

2) for auxiliary - for backward

3) for repetition - for the weakly gifted.

Moscow already has parallel departments for handicapped children at city schools. The organization of such departments is based on the following principles: a limited number of students (from 15 to 20); strict individualization of education; the pursuit is not so much for the amount of information, but for their high-quality processing; special attention to physical education (good nutrition, staying in the yard for at least an hour, frequent change of activities due to the rapid fatigue of children, gymnastics, modeling, drawing); development in children with the help of appropriate exercises of observation, attentiveness, etc. There are similar departments for retarded children in Petrograd - at city schools, a private institution of Dr. Malyarevsky, etc. In view of the importance of this issue, a whole a number of reports on the study of personality traits in general and the determination of the degree of intellectual insufficiency of children in particular, mainly according to foreign samples, and even some private questions were discussed about how best to educate the incapacitated - in a boarding school or coming, in what proportion should there be a message in such schools scientific information and exercises in the craft, is it possible to indicate simple and practical methods for recognizing such children, etc. Finally, the opposite question arose: should we single out from total mass gifted schoolchildren? (Report by V.P. Kashchenko). Gifted children often do almost as badly in schools as poor children, only for slightly different reasons, although, in the end, the reason is essentially the same - the inconsistency of teaching with personal abilities and needs. If it is now considered a duty of justice to single out the incapable from the general mass of schoolchildren, then isn't it an even greater moral obligation to single out gifted children from the crowd of mediocrities? Moscow already has a society in memory of Lomonosov, which aims to help gifted children from the peasant class receive a secondary, higher, general and special education. The society has already begun its activities, it has to deal with the selection of children, it uses the method of G.I. Rossolimo.

The third technique in the new approach to the study of questions of psychology and pedagogy is based on a combination of experiment and observation. We find it in the study of the question of personality, its properties, which G.I. Rossolimo tried to solve it strictly experimentally.

To conduct such research, it is very important, first of all, to understand the methods leading to the solution of the problem, to collect and indicate the most expedient among them and to test them in practice. Such a work was carried out by a group of employees of the laboratory of experimental pedagogical psychology in Petrograd, and then processed and presented by one of the members of this circle, Mr. Rumyantsev. The circle set out to indicate the most simple methods that do not require the use of complex equipment, and at the same time the most reliable. Noting the main precautions when performing experiments, the circle described the methods for studying sensations, perception, and memorization. For more complex mental phenomena - processes of judgment, imagination, manifestations of feelings and will - it was more difficult to indicate methods than for simple phenomena, since they are less amenable to experimentation, but some indications are given in this area.

A similar methodological significance is drawn up by F.E. Rybakov "Atlas for the experimental psychological study of personality" (M., 1910), the purpose of which is to provide an opportunity for "teachers, doctors and in general persons who have contact with someone else's soul, without the help of any tools to explore the features of the mental life of the chosen person", and refers mainly to manifestations higher processes. The atlas contains many tables (57) for examining the ability to perceive attention, observation, memory, suggestibility, fantasy, etc., comments on research methods, description and explanation of the tables.

The actual study of personality in a new way was carried out by a group of people working under the guidance of A.F. Lazursky. This study is interesting not so much from the side of results, but from the side of the method. It was carried out in a double way: by careful observation of selected personalities and experiments on them. Observations were carried out on the cadets of the 2nd Petersburg cadet corps(11 people). Age observed - 12-15 years. Observations were made by the educators of the corps, in front of whom the whole life of the pupils passed. Day after day, a diary was kept about the pupils chosen for observation for about a month and a half, and a certain, pre-developed research program was taken as the basis, and observations were recorded with all possible objectivity and at the same time with all the accompanying circumstances, often of great importance. for the analysis and evaluation of individual manifestations of personality. After a month and a half, keeping a diary was stopped, and only from time to time any outstanding facts were recorded, especially brightly illuminating one or another side of the mental life of the observed person. After some time, additional information about what was already observed from memory was collected and recorded: in accordance with the program, various sections were discussed - about sensations, associations, memory - and the data of the diary were supplemented with recalled facts, the authenticity of which the reporter was sure that his memory did not deceive him. When all the material was collected, a characteristic of this person was compiled.

Many zealous and ardent experimenters are distrustful and even contemptuous not only of self-observation, but also of psychological observations, trusting only experiment, tables, curves, arithmetic mean. The work mentioned above was carried out under the pressure of a different view: the researchers had a high opinion about the characteristics compiled by the described method and about all the material obtained, they were convinced that the collected material “has no less degree of reliability than the results pilot study that it is even possible, permissible, to “verify the experiment by means of observation.” The study is cautious, well-founded, its methodology, in general, is absolutely correct, although critical remarks can be made about some particulars about the observations made, not in their favor.

As for the actual experiments, the researchers used the following:

1) setting dots on white paper;

2) counting out loud;

3) choosing a letter from the printed text;

4) memorizing a poem;

5) composing phrases from several given words.

Obviously, the experiments are distinguished by great simplicity and applicability, and do not require special special skills on the part of the testers. At the same time, they touched on very different aspects of mental life: speed and coordination of movements, mental performance, the activity of attention, memory, etc. It turned out that in some cases the results of the experiments largely coincided with observational data, while in others the coincidences did not It was. A more detailed analysis of the data obtained showed that the experiments concern several other aspects of mental activity than those that were meant at the beginning, during the observations. On the other hand, the experiments singled out and emphasized with particular clarity such features of the mental life of the subjects, concerning which educational diaries and additional information could only provide general, more or less summary data. In the end, the researchers came to the conclusion "of the need for both experimental methods, and the method of systematic external observation.

By this method - a combination of experiments with observation - many private studies were carried out on certain issues of psychology and pedagogy, such as the development of memory, its types, the susceptibility to suggestion depending on its form and the age of the subject, the tediousness of various educational subjects, mental performance at various times of the day. Between these particular questions, the attention of Russian researchers was attracted by a very interesting and important question about the peculiarities of the mental work of men and women. This problem was studied in relation to elementary school children, adults, students and female students.

Children aged 11-12 who studied in Petrograd city schools were examined. The children under study (no more than 20 per classroom department) were interviewed together, immediately, in the classroom, for which they were selected according to age, the social environment to which they belonged, and generally equalized as far as possible. There were equal numbers of boys and girls in each class department surveyed. Muscular strength, active attention, speed of mental processes, memorization, judgment, associative processes and creativity were tested. Most of the experiments were repeated five times. The results are as follows:

1) in terms of muscular strength (squeezing the dynamometer with the right and left hands), boys, as expected, are superior to girls, as well as

2) in active attention. The last test was to find and cross out one or two badges from eight different ones. A total of 1600 icons were printed on 40 lines. The difference between the icons was only in the direction of a small additional dash. On average, one girl scanned 96.8 lines in 50 minutes and made 37.8 skips. One boy scanned 97 lines in the same time and allowed 25.4 gaps. If we take the average number of skips for a boy as 100, then the girl will have 148 of them. "The speed of work for both (that is, for boys and girls) is the same."

In the speed of mental processes, girls overtake boys without compromising the quality of work. "Characteristically, something of the same phenomenon is noted in the group of younger children, in whom the superiority of the work of girls over the work of boys is also expressed." This conclusion seems to us not entirely consistent with the previous one: in order to quickly and correctly perform additions and subtractions of numbers (57 + 28 \u003d ? or 82-48 \u003d ?, etc.), active attention, strong-willed effort was necessary. And the previous result indicates its relative weakness in girls compared to boys. At the same time, the third result indicates a higher speed of mental processes in girls compared to boys, and the conclusion on the second question states the same speed of work for both. 4) Girls remember better than boys (slightly better: out of 10 two-digit numbers, boys remember an average of 4.45, and girls 5.0) and 6) In the formulation of judgments, in associative processes and creativity, boys overtake girls, with the exception of associations with symbols like letters where girls take precedence over boys. From his research, which, of course, requires verification and testifies to the physical and mental differences between boys and girls, the author drew a conclusion about the benefits and desirability of co-education. This last question requires a broad and detailed study in order to be properly answered.

Similar Documents

Analysis, generalization of the most significant trends, principles, ways, results of the development of psychological science in Russia in the twentieth century. The state of psychological knowledge of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. The development of Soviet pedology. Development of psychoanalysis. Results of development.

term paper, added 10/26/2008


The science of the general mental patterns of human interaction with the environment. Place of psychology among other sciences. Classification of branches of psychology. The idea of ​​organization (systemic) of Anaxagoras, the causality of Democritus and the laws of Heraclitus.

abstract, added 01/27/2010


Historical aspects of the formation of child psychology as a science in the works of foreign psychologists. Methods for assessing the volitional capabilities of the child. Formation and development of child psychology and pedology in Russia. Brief review of theories of mental development of the child.

term paper, added 08/01/2011


Areas of psychological knowledge: scientific and everyday (ordinary) psychology. The relationship of psychology and scientific and technological progress. The closest relationship between psychology and pedagogy. The structure and branches of modern psychology, its in the system of sciences.

abstract, added 07/18/2011


Characteristics of personality in the works of domestic and foreign scientists. Freudianism as a widespread theory that influences the psychology of personality. The main aspects of personality: social, individual and biological characteristics, personal experience.

term paper, added 04/18/2011


Definition of psychology as a scientific study of behavior and internal mental processes and the practical application of the knowledge gained. Psychology as a science. The subject of psychology. Communication of psychology with other sciences. Methods of research in psychology.

control work, added 11/21/2008


Political psychology as an interdisciplinary science at the intersection of political science and social psychology. The emergence of the main stages in the development of political psychology. Analysis of interdisciplinary connections of political psychology. Psychology of small groups in politics.

term paper, added 11/24/2014


The place of psychology in the system of sciences. Methods for obtaining knowledge in everyday life and scientific psychology: observation, reflection, experiment. Branches of psychology: children's, age, pedagogical, social, neuropsychology, pathopsychology, engineering, labor.

abstract, added 02/12/2012


Scientific activity of V.M. Bekhterev, his contribution to domestic psychology. Development of the idea of ​​a comprehensive study of man and the doctrine of the collective. G.I. Chelpanov as a representative of experimental psychology, his epistemological and philosophical research.

abstract, added 08/01/2010


The subject and current state of social psychology, its theoretical and applied tasks. The emergence and stages of its formation in the West. Features of the development of domestic socio-psychological ideas. Social Psychology and related disciplines.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Hosted at http://www.allbest.ru/

Introduction

In the 21st century, the problem of educating the younger generation under the negative influence of environmental factors on the child, such as:

environmental factors. More and more children are born with congenital ailments, chronic diseases, especially in large cities and in the zone of radiation contamination.

criminal factors. The growth of crime in cities and criminal arbitrariness, kidnapping, etc.

psychological. The rhythm of life in the metropolis, the need to start an independent life early, the variety of television programs with various content, the Internet, etc.

All this requires from the teacher a modern approach to the upbringing and education of the younger generation.

Modern pedagogical educational institutions train specialists who are competent in many areas related to the health, development, and psychology of the child. It is generally recognized that this knowledge is necessary for solving various problems of upbringing and education. More and more new methods of studying the child's psyche, the characteristics of childhood are being created. The developers of modern educational programs largely rely on the research of specialists in various fields.

As a future teacher who already has teaching practice, I also became interested in finding a rational and effective system of education that takes into account the age and individual characteristics of the child, as well as based on the material of sciences related to pedagogy and not only. However, in my research, I turned to the past. The subject of the science of pedology seemed to me extremely interesting for knowledge and application, despite a number of visible shortcomings. The purpose of my work is to try to answer a number of questions:

What did pedology give to world pedagogy and psychology?

What sciences today are based on the experience of pedology?

Are the studies of pedologists used in modern pedagogy?

To do this, I set the following tasks for my research:

trace the path of the emergence of pedology, the prerequisites for the emergence of science;

briefly familiarize yourself with the basic concepts of pedology;

study the fate of science in Russia and the USSR;

understand the reasons for the defeat of pedology and its further oblivion.

Chapter 1.The birth of pedology as a science

In the era of feudalism, pedagogy was guided by the principle:

"Break the will of the child so that his soul can live." A more or less systematic study of the child began only in the era of industrial capitalism.

Industrial capitalism, drawing more and more masses of the population into production as hired labor, demanded from them a certain level of education. In this regard, the question of universal education arose. What was needed was a method of teaching that would work successfully in inexperienced hands. In an effort to make teaching more accessible and understandable, Pestalozzi tried to build it on the laws of psychology. Herbart continued the "psychologization of learning", he introduced psychology into all the main departments of pedagogy. At the time that practical psychology was being created, namely in the middle of the 19th century, general psychology was being greatly restructured, in the era of machine production and the development of technology, it became experimental. Educational psychology also transformed into experimental educational psychology or experimental pedagogy. So the German psychologist and educator MEIMANN in his “lectures on introduction to experimental pedagogy and its psychological foundations” sets out the age-related psychological characteristics of children, their individual characteristics, the technique and economics of memorization and the application of psychology to teaching literacy, counting and drawing. E. Meiman was one of the pioneers of developmental psychology in Germany. He founded a psychological laboratory at the University of Hamburg, which conducted research on the mental development of children. Meiman is also the founder of the first special journal devoted to pedagogical problems, the Journal of Educational Psychology. In his various activities, he paid the main attention to the applied aspect of child psychology and pedology, since he believed that the main task of pedology is to develop methodological foundations for teaching children. In his theoretical approaches, Maiman sought to combine Selley's associationist approach with Hall's theory of recapitulation. Meiman believed that child psychology should not only study the stages and age characteristics of mental development, but also explore individual developmental options, for example, questions of child giftedness and backwardness. Inborn tendencies of children. At the same time, education and upbringing should be based both on knowledge of general patterns and on an understanding of the characteristics of the psyche of this particular child.

However, pedagogy has a number of very important problems that cannot be solved by the means of pedagogical psychology (the goals of education, the content of educational material), therefore pedagogical psychology cannot replace pedagogy. Maiman believed that such a general picture of a child's life should be given by a special science - the science of young age (Jugendlehre), and for this, in addition to psychological data about the child, familiarity with the physical life of the child, knowledge of the dependence of the life of a growing person on external conditions, knowledge of the conditions education. So the development of educational psychology and experimental pedagogy leads to the recognition of the need to create a special science - the science of young age.

Relatively early, at the end of the 19th century, in the circles of the American psychologist, STANLEY HALL began to realize the impossibility of studying the mental development of the child separately from his physical development. As a result, it was proposed to create a new science - PEDOLOGY, which would give a more complete picture of the age development of the child. American psychologist Hall is the founder of pedology - a complex science of the child, which is based on the idea of ​​pedocentrism, that is, the idea that the child is the center of research interests of many professionals - psychologists, educators, biologists, pediatricians, anthropologists, sociologists and other specialists. Of all these areas, pedology includes the part that has to do with children. Thus, this science, as it were, unites all branches of knowledge related to the study of child development.

The idea of ​​the need to study child development was established with the penetration of evolutionary ideas into psychology. The application of these ideas to the study of the psyche meant the recognition of its genesis, development, and also its connection with the process of adaptation of the organism to the environment. One of the first to review the subject and tasks of psychology from this point of view was the English psychologist G. Spencer. However, he was mainly interested in the methodological and general theoretical problems of mental development. Hall, first of all, drew attention to the importance of studying the development of the child's psyche, the study of which can be a genetic method for general psychology.

Hall associated the importance of studying child psychology with his theory of recapitulation. The basis of this theory is Haeckel's biogenetic law, applied by Hall to explain child development.

Naturally, such a rigid and straightforward transfer of biological laws to pedagogy could not but be criticized, and many provisions of Hall's pedological concept were revised quite soon. However, the very science of pedology, created by him, very quickly gained popularity all over the world and existed almost until the middle of the 20th century. Popularity was brought to Hall and the methods of studying children he developed, primarily the questionnaires and questionnaires he published for adolescents, teachers and parents, which also made it possible to compile a comprehensive description of the child, analyze their problems not only from the point of view of adults, but also the children themselves.

Thus, S. Hall expressed the idea of ​​​​creating an experimental child psychology that was in the air, combining the requirements of pedagogical practice with the achievements of biology and psychology that were timely for him.

Chapter 2. First pedolsogical research in Russia

2. 1 Pappearanceeand racallepedology in Russia

Feudal Russia, with its Domostroy pedagogy, was as little interested in the psychology of the child as the feudal West. As well as there, the origin and development of educational psychology in Russia is associated with the democratic movement:

The first to look at the matter of education from a philosophical point of view was N.I. Pirogov. The principle of education put forward by him in a person, first of all a Human, caused the need to pose and discuss many theoretical problems. He took pedagogy to a new plane. It was a requirement of sound pedagogy based on psychology. Having shown that a person is a person, and not a means to achieve other goals, Pirogov raised the question of the need for a comprehensive, primarily psychological study of a person, knowledge of the patterns of his development, identification of the conditions and factors that determine the formation of the mental sphere of a child. With this approach, psychology came to the fore, became the necessary basis for solving pedagogical problems. He considered the task of studying the patterns of child development to be paramount and urgent. Noting the originality of childhood in general, Pirogov recognized the need to take into account the individual differences of children, without this it is impossible to influence the formation of the moral world of the individual, to develop the best human traits.

A new understanding of the tasks of upbringing inevitably entailed a new approach to interpreting the essence of upbringing, a new look at the factors of upbringing and the means of pedagogical influence.

A huge contribution to the development of these problems was made by K.D. Ushinsky. He gave his interpretation of the most complex and always topical questions about the psychological nature of education, about its limits and possibilities, about the relationship between education and development, about the combination of external educational influences and the process of self-education. According to Ushinsky, the subject of education is a person. “The art of education is based on the data of anthropological sciences, on complex knowledge about a person who lives in a family, in society, among the people, among humanity and alone with his conscience.” Ushinsky put two main concepts - "organism" and "development" as the basis of his theory of education. From this he deduced the need for a harmonious combination of mental, moral and physical education. The works of these outstanding teachers of the 19th century helped to look at the problem of education in a new light, to recognize the importance of psychology for education, to pave the way for the further development of educational psychology in Russia.

Passion for experimental pedagogy flares up in the era of 1905. An attempt to create an experimental pedagogy and a special science - pedology, instead of pedagogical psychology, found a response in Russia. Rumyantsev was a particularly ardent propagandist of pedology in pre-revolutionary times.

For the early period of Soviet pedology, the names of the then largest pedological universities and departments are already characteristic: the medical-pedological institute, the pedological-defectological department. This influence of doctors on the emerging Soviet pedology was mainly useful: it became easier and easier to connect the doctrine of the growth and physical development of the child with his psychology. It became easier and easier to take shape in pedology as a special independent science, moreover, a materialistic one. Works are beginning to appear that claim to give a general concept of childhood. Of these works, one can note: “Preschool age” by Arkin, “Pedology” by Blonsky, “Reflexology of childhood” by Aryamov.

Relying on natural science, young Soviet pedology waged an energetic struggle against idealism and took the path of materialism more and more resolutely. But the natural-scientific materialism with which pedology was then imbued was not yet dialectical, but mechanistic materialism. He considered the child as a kind of machine, whose activity is entirely determined by the influence of external stimuli. This mechanistic concept manifested itself especially clearly in the works of pedologists who gravitated toward reflexology. Thus, the problem of studying the laws of child development eludes mechanists in pedology.

If in the first years of its existence, Soviet pedology was influenced by natural science and medicine, then in the subsequent time it was decisively influenced by pedagogy. Pedology became more and more decisively a pedagogical science, and the pedologist began to enter children's institutions as a practical worker. Pedology was becoming more and more a social science, biologism was subjected to intense criticism, and the enormous role of the influence of the surrounding social environment and, in particular, education was recognized. Scientific and pedagogical production also grew (the works of Molozhavy, Blonsky, Basov, Vygotsky, Shchelovanov, Aryamov, Arkin).

Pedology turned its face to pedagogy. However, such a strong influence of pedagogy on pedology sometimes grew into an identification of these sciences, hence such incorrect definitions as “pedology is a part of pedagogy” or “pedology is the theory of the pedagogical process”. The problems of pedagogy and pedology are not identical (in pedagogy - how a teacher should teach, in pedology - how a child learns).

The problem of growth is one of the most basic pedological problems. Of course. It uses the achievements of psychology, but it also uses data from various other sciences.

The problem of development is a philosophical problem. Not only should pedology not be alien to philosophy, but it is precisely philosophy that forms the basis of pedology.

The study of child development is not limited to the present, without knowing the history of mankind, it is impossible to understand the history of child development. Thus, history is one of the most basic sciences for pedology.

Knowledge of the activity of the nervous system is necessary for pedology. In general, it needs knowledge of the characteristics of the child's organism: pedology uses a great deal of biological material in the study of the development of the child.

Pedology is the science of the age development of a child in a certain socio-historical environment.

Representatives of science in the early twentieth century. are Rumyantsev, Nechaev, Rossolimo, Lazursky, Kashchenko. Later, pedological ideas were developed by Abramov, Basov, Bekhterev, Blonsky, Vygotsky, Zalkind, Molozhavy, Fortunatov and others.

2. 2 Development of pedology with the USSR

A distinctive feature of the Soviet period in the history of culture and pedagogy is the enormous role played by the party and the state in its development. The state took over the financing of all branches of culture: education, logistics, all kinds of art, establishing the strictest censorship of literature, theater, cinema, educational institutions, etc. A coherent system of indoctrination of the population was created. The mass media, being under the most severe control of the party and the state, along with reliable information, used the method of manipulating the consciousness of the population. The idea was instilled in the people that the country was a besieged fortress, and only those who defended it had the right to be in this fortress. The constant search for enemies became a distinctive feature of the activities of the party and the state.

In line with the class struggle, bourgeois culture was constantly opposed to the new, proletarian culture. In contrast to bourgeois culture, the new, socialist culture, in the opinion of the Communists, must express the interests of the working people and serve the tasks of the class struggle of the proletariat for socialism. From these positions, the communists also determined their attitude to the cultural heritage of the past. Many values ​​were excluded from the cultural process. The special storages contained the works of writers, artists and other representatives of culture that were not pleasing to the communists. Noble estates were destroyed, temples, churches and monasteries were destroyed, the connection of times was destroyed.

20-30s 20th century were the heyday of extracurricular activities. It was then that interesting pedagogical initiatives were introduced into life, original forms of organizing children's life appeared, the scientific and methodological base of extracurricular and out-of-school work was intensively developing, serious scientific research and observations were carried out on the development of children's amateur performances, creative abilities of the individual, his interests and needs. Collective and group forms of work were studied. Among the most famous teachers who have made a huge contribution to the formation and development of out-of-school education in our country, we will name E.N. Medynsky, P.P. Blonsky, S.T. Shatsky and V.P. Shatskaya, A.S. Makarenko, V.N. Tersky. It should also be noted that N.K. Krupskaya and A.V. Lunacharsky "not only enriched pedagogy with their work on this problem, but also helped to solve it at the state level, influencing the education policy of the USSR."

School and out-of-school areas of education began to receive a certain design and concretization. Moreover, out-of-school education then played an even more prominent role, since it was in the practice of out-of-school work that ideas were born related to the upbringing of children in new socio-cultural conditions.

In 1918, the first out-of-school institution was opened - the Biological Station for Young Nature Lovers under the guidance of a talented teacher and scientist B.V. Vsesvyatsky. Soon the number of various extracurricular institutions increased dramatically.

In the mid 30s. children's sports schools and stadiums were created. Later there were motorways for children, clubs for young sailors with their own fleets and shipping companies. The country entered a period of rapid industrialization, and the development of children's technical creativity became one of the main tasks of out-of-school education in the 1930s. Particular attention was paid to the development of a network of various technical stations for children in connection with the need to train a large number of qualified specialists for all branches of the national economy, technically competent workers for new buildings.

In 1925, the Artek All-Union Pioneer Camp was opened. Later, especially in the post-war years, pioneer camps were massively developed. They solved the problems not only of improving the health of children, but also of socio-political and labor education.

Attention was also paid to the development of the general culture of the younger generation, the formation of the artistic interests of children of different ages. For this purpose, such important cultural and educational institutions as children's libraries, theaters, cinemas, and galleries were created. Music, art, choreographic schools appeared, thanks to which conditions were created for the education of young talents.

The increase in the number and variety of out-of-school institutions is a clear sign of the prewar years. At that time, teachers began to theoretically comprehend the accumulated experience, which helped to determine the basic principles of extracurricular work: the mass character and general accessibility of classes based on the voluntary association of children according to their interests; development of their initiative and initiative; socially useful orientation of activity; a variety of forms of extracurricular work; taking into account the age and individual characteristics of children.

Distinctive features of the club (out-of-school) work of A.S. Makarenko, as well as S.T. Shatsky, considered, first of all, creativity and self-organization. Makarenko considered it necessary to make the leisure and recreation of the Communards meaningful and interesting. The work of the circle, emphasized A.S. Makarenko, should have a real socially useful orientation, be built on the basis of self-organization. The lever of the entire club system of the Communards was the principle of acquiring a variety of knowledge and skills that they could use in socially useful activities.

All club work of A.S. Makarenko and S.T. Shatsky was built on the basis of children's self-government Makarenko emphasized that it is necessary to involve all the pupils without exception, including the younger ones, in the performance of various organizational functions.

The conclusions of these teachers destroyed the prevailing idea of ​​the child only as an object of pedagogical influence. They showed that a child in an out-of-school institution is an active subject of the educational process. This position, and its scientific and methodological justification, was very bold for that time.

The aspiration of youth leaders for centralized management of amateur movements subordinated the youth movement and the technical creativity of the children to the pioneer organization. And then the pioneer organization itself was included in the system of school activities. Out-of-school institutions for the most part began to be called pioneer houses, which, of course, influenced the content and organization of work in them.

Chapter 3. Fundamentals of pedology

3.1 What is pedology

Pedology (from the Greek pais - child and logos - word, science) is a direction in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the end of the 19th century. under the influence of evolutionary ideas, associated primarily with the name of S. Hall, who in 1889 created the first pedological laboratory. In pedology, the child was considered comprehensively, in all its manifestations, in constant development and in various, including social, conditions, and the goal was to help develop all its potentialities.

This is the science of children, the doctrine of the development of the child, which attaches decisive importance to biological, physiological and psychological characteristics in the formation of his character and abilities.

Among all the variety of definitions of its subject, the definition of it as the science of the integral development of the child seems to be the most meaningful. In this definition, according to L. S. Vygotsky, two essential features of pedology as an independent scientific discipline are singled out - integrity and development (understood as a single process). These signs, in essence, are distinguished as leading by many prominent psychologists and educators of the 20-30s, including P.P. Blonsky, N.K. Krupskaya, although in their specific content they differ from each other. The concept of integrity is central here. L.S. Vygotsky understood a holistic approach to the study of a child as a special orientation towards revealing those new qualities and specific features that arise from the combination of individual aspects of his development - social, psychological and physiological - into a holistic process. “The study of these new qualities and the new patterns corresponding to them, which are presented in the synthesis of individual aspects and processes of development, it seems to me, is the first sign of pedology as a whole and of each individual pedological research.”

To reveal such regularities and qualities, not reducible to one of the aspects of a child's development, actually meant to substantiate the right to exist in pedology as an independent scientific discipline. The solution of this problem in relation to the 20-30s. in many ways turned out to be impossible, due to which doubts arose about the objective existence of the very subject of pedology, which later ended with its complete denial as a science. In fact, in the first half of the 30s. pedology "takes the form of a kind of pedagogical anthropology, carrying out a synthesis, largely mechanical, of scientific data about the child from the point of view of their pedagogical applications." The upbringing and education of students are revealed from the positions of a multi-level organization of human development, which involves the consideration of social, psychological and biological properties in unity. Indicative in this regard for the 30s. is "Pedology" P.P. Blonsky, published in 1934.

3. 2 Research work

Research work in pedology should be developed in close connection with the tasks of practical pedological work at school. Its content should be determined by the most pressing practical issues of the school and the interests of the methodological and theoretical service of pedological practice.

Research work should be built to a large extent on the study and generalization of the experience accumulated by the practical workers of the school.

In the field of pedological study of the content, methods and forms of organization of educational work, the following problems seem to be the most relevant:

bringing curricula in the main disciplines of schooling in line with age characteristics: mathematics, native language, history, natural science and polytechnic work;

pedological foundations for constructing methods and forms of current and final accounting of school success and organization of transfer and graduation tests;

specific program and methodological features in the work of preschool institutions and preparatory classes of the school in connection with the age characteristics of children;

pedological bases of dosage study loads students;

in the area of educational work The most important issues should include the following:

issues of forming the worldview of students;

pedological prerequisites for the formation of conscious discipline of students;

the work of children's organizations and the social work of children in terms of its compliance with the interests and age capabilities of children and its educational significance;

pedological foundations of sex education in public schools;

pedological foundations of physical education of children;

study of the children's asset and its role in certain specific areas of the school;

typology of "difficult" childhood in connection with the individualization of pedagogical work with various categories of "difficult" children and the typification of a network of special institutions for "difficult" children;

regarding vocational guidance work at school research work should be expanded on the following main issues:

studying the inclinations, interests and abilities of students secondary school in connection with the tasks of career guidance work;

methods of studying special talents for the purpose of career guidance;

principles and methods of professional consulting conclusions;

The most important theoretical problems to be developed are, first of all:

study of the patterns underlying the age division;

development of the main methods of pedological study of children of different ages in relation to specific tasks pedological practice at school.

The main methods of pedology are observation and experiment. The study of child development should begin with the observation of specific factors in this development. Scientific observation differs from simple contemplation in that it is expedient and planned: scientific observation always has as its goal the solution of some scientific problem and is carried out according to a certain plan and in a certain sequence.

Questionnaire: very popular due to the fact that with the help of it relatively quickly you can get a lot of material. In those cases when we need to know more deeply the experiences of the subject under study, we ask him about them, using introspection. A peculiar form of using self-observation in pedology and child psychology is the use of adults' memories of their childhood (retrospection). At the same time, questionnaires and self-observation in pedology must be used very carefully.

The best way to analyze the relationship of a given phenomenon with another is if we see a change in the phenomenon under study. That is why the researcher strives in the process of studying to evoke, at least artificially, these phenomena. Such an observation of the phenomenon under study under artificially created conditions for its change is called experimental observation, or experiment. Pedology willingly uses experiment, continuing in this respect the traditions of experimental pedagogy.

Statistics gives a quantitative description of mass phenomena. The significance of statistics in pedology should not be overestimated: statistics for pedology does not provide everything; it gives only a quantitative, only a description of only a mass phenomenon. But do not underestimate it: it helps a lot to clarify and streamline the material being studied.

3. 3 Basic concepts of pedology

Development. The basic concept of pedology, the only correct one is the dialectical concept of development.

Growth: A child is qualitatively different from an adult. Growth is not only a quantitative addition of matter: quantity turns into quality.

Constitution and character: growth causes a number of qualitative changes in a growing organism. The totality of qualitative peculiarities of an organism forms its constitution. The constitution is usually called the physique of the body.

Wednesday. “If we consider all human behavior as its relationship with the environment, we can assume in advance that in this correlative activity there can be three main typical moments. The first is the moment of relative equilibrium created between the organism and the environment.

Children's divisions. Blonsky divides all school childhood into 3 stages: early prepubertal childhood (7-10 years old); late prepubertal childhood (10-12; 13 years); age of puberty (13-16 years).

Transitional ages. The so-called "Critical ages" - birth, 3 years, 7 years, puberty. They are characterized by extreme impressionability, nervousness, imbalance, unmotivated strange actions, etc.

Pedological and chronological age. Problems of acceleration, inhibition of development, physical and mental. Each of the age stages has its own peculiarity, but not every child experiences this stage at the same time.

Chapter 4. Pedology and its significance for pedagogy of the twentieth century

4. 1 Stages of development of science

After the October Socialist Revolution of 1917, a network of pedological institutions developed, extensive literature was published, a conference (1927) and a congress of pedologists (1928) were held, and the journal Pedology (1928-32) was published. By the end of the 20s. P. began to lay claim to the role of the "Marxist science of children," monopolizing the right to study the child, pushing aside pedagogy, and absorbing the psychology, anatomy, and physiology of childhood.

During this period, several directions in pedagogy were developed. In particular, special attention was paid to pedology.

The very formulation of the task of creating a unified concept of the development of the child, and the consideration of the problems of upbringing and teaching students from its standpoint, are an undoubted merit of psychological and pedagogical science. In the 20-30s. the peculiarities of its solution were determined by a narrow amount of scientific knowledge about the essential connections between the individual aspects of a child's development. The methodological problems of the multilevel organization of human development were poorly developed, especially in the field of the correlation of the properties of different hierarchical levels, the removal of lower levels of development by higher ones. Their insufficient development, in particular, was clearly manifested in the biogenetic, reflexological and sociogenetic concepts of the development of the child.

Features of the development of pedology as a science, the concept prevailing in it, had a direct impact on the formation of psychological service at school. First, by virtue of the very understanding of the subject of pedology, it essentially takes on a complex character, combining the features of psychological, sociological, and biomedical services at the same time. Child and educational psychology is considered as an integral part of pedology, therefore its scientific data come into pedagogical practice indirectly - through this science of the child, where they are synthesized with data from other human sciences.

Moreover, the significance of these data for pedagogical practice, as well as the very role of psychology in ensuring the educational process, was far from the same throughout the entire period under consideration. In this regard, two main periods in the development of psychological service at school are quite clearly traced, the first of which falls on the beginning - the end of the 20s, and the second - on the beginning - the middle of the 30s. At the first stage in pedology, the biogenetic and reflexological concepts of child development played a leading role, exaggerating the role of biological data in the study of its nature. It was at this time that the “anti-psychologism” that is customarily spoken of in critical articles on pedology manifested itself to the greatest extent. "Anti-psychologism" not in the sense that the significance of psychological data for pedagogy was denied. On the whole, and in relation to this period, it can be said that pedology and its service in the school derived their main content from child and pedagogical psychology. The point is rather that the significance of these data for the education and upbringing of students was undermined by a simplistic interpretation of higher mental functions, primarily consciousness, a mechanistic understanding of the influence of biological factors and the environment on the development of the child, his upbringing and education.

The low level of pedological service of the educational process was also determined at that time by the peculiarities of the organizational and staffing of the pedological service. In the 20s. systematic pedological work to assist the school was mainly carried out through the health authorities (with the exception of Moscow and Leningrad, where pedological institutions were run by the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR). Most often, psychological service in these conditions arose and was carried out in the following form: as pedological work unfolded, the school doctor was charged with studying other aspects of the child's development. He was supposed to conduct sociological surveys of his environment, to investigate mental properties and processes. To carry out such work in the system of short-term courses or permanent seminars, they received additional psychological and pedagogical training. The main attention in this training was paid to mastering the methodology of studying the child and mastering the main factors of his development and behavior. Much less often this work on the psychological support of the educational process in the 20s. conducted by teachers who also received additional qualification in these courses and seminars.

Of course, these measures to organize a psychological service can only be considered as preparatory, they could not be effective enough. Due to the specifics of the basic education of doctors, the general focus of the activities of health authorities on solving problems related to protecting the health of children and medical and sanitary work, the pedological service at school naturally took on a biological bias. In the school practice of experimental institutions, where, of all institutions, pedological work became most widespread in the 1920s, this bias was expressed in the fact that school pedologists, carried away by all kinds of anthropometric measurements when examining students, dissolved their qualitative mental characteristics and properties in biological characteristic.

The pedagogical significance of such characteristics was largely undermined by the fact that they were obtained, as a rule, "in the silence of classrooms, in isolation from the live practice of teaching and educating students." Diagnostic work of the pedological service in the 20s. was practically not connected with the formative one, the latter was completely shifted to the shoulders of teachers. Numerous documents of this time indicate that the work of a school pedologist acts as an examination, registration, ascertainment, but not an active participation in the formation of the child's personality. As a result, the data themselves were very poorly introduced into the educational process. Often, indeed, it turned out the way A.S. figuratively wrote about it. Makarenko: “When a person has been studied, learned and recorded that he has a will - A, emotion - B, instinct - C, then no one knows what to do with these values ​​further.”

The real participation of the pedologist in the organization of the educational process was most often expressed in the work of recruiting study groups and selecting children for auxiliary schools. main method diagnostic examination students were given tests. The first series of tests for the school in our country was published in 1926, but by the end of the 20s: there is literally a craze for them. The first pedological congress (late 1927 - early 1928) was forced to adopt a special decision on this issue, which limited their use in pedagogical practice. It especially emphasized that for practical conclusions about one or another child, in addition, the whole complex of conditions in which the child lives and his full psychophysiological characteristics should be taken into account.

4. 2 New stage

At the turn of the 1920s and 1930s, in essence, a new stage began in the development of the pedological service at school, due to a number of theoretical and practical prerequisites. Among the first should, first of all, include the increased needs of public education and the new conditions for the work of the Soviet school, in the most complete form in relation to this period, indicated in the party resolutions on the school of 1931-1933. Among the main directions of the restructuring of the Soviet school, determined by these documents, bringing all types of educational work into full compliance with the age characteristics of children was called, in essence, fundamental.

At the same time, new theoretical prerequisites for the development of the school pedological service are emerging. By this time, behavioral and biological attitudes in the study of the child were being overcome in pedology, new concepts of its development were being developed, built on the ideas of the socio-historical conditioning of higher mental functions, the connection between learning and development. P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky and other major theoreticians of pedology directly address the problems of child and educational psychology, they do a lot of research on higher mental processes, seeing in this an important reserve for improving the quality of pedological research. P.P. Blonsky, for example, wrote in this connection: “Employment in pedology more and more convinces me of the superficiality of ordinary pedological research. In an effort to deepen them, I delve more and more into psychology. The psychologization of pedology directly affected the method of studying the child: observations of the development of students in the process of their education and upbringing came to the fore; the attitude towards tests is changing, their role in pedagogical practice, in diagnosing the mental development of schoolchildren, is more soberly assessed.

All this, of course, significantly expanded the possibilities of psychological support for the educational process by the pedological service at school. In order to realize these opportunities in practice, it was necessary to develop a new, more advanced mechanism for its legal and personnel support. The last task in the period under review was solved in stages. In 1928, the first official regulation “On holding a mass practical work on a Comprehensive Study of Childhood”, developed jointly by the People's Commissariat for Education and the People's Commissariat for Health of the RSFSR. Its main goal was the differentiation of the medical-pedological and pedagogical-pedagogical services, the allocation of the latter as an independent service in the school. To solve this problem, it was planned to deploy a network of pedological and pedagogical cells with a special composition of pedagogical educators at methodological rooms, educational organizations, EDs, central institutions, educational institutions, etc. depending on the material capabilities of each individual of these institutions.

However, this provision proved ineffective. In particular, this was expressed in the fact that part of the pedagogical institutions were still located in the system of public health authorities. These shortcomings were called upon to eliminate the special resolution of March 7, 1931 "On the organization of pedological work carried out by various departments", which clearly delineated the functions and content of pedological-pedagogical and medical-pedological work, laid a clearer legal and organizational basis for its implementation in school. In accordance with this resolution, on May 6, 1931, the order of the People's Commissar of Education "On the organization of pedological work through the organs of public education" was issued, the addition and development of which was the resolution of the collegium of the People's Commissariat for Education "On the state and tasks of pedological work" dated May 7, 1933.

These documents reflect a new understanding of the purpose of the school pedological service: they act as scientific support for the entire process of teaching and educating students and certain types of educational work, taking into account psychological and physiological data about their individual and age characteristics.

4. 3 Aims of pedology and the structure of pedologicaleskoy service

When implementing a new understanding of the purpose of the pedagogical service, special attention was paid to the organic connection of diagnostic work with the practical participation of the pedologist in the organization of the educational process. Thus, the first direction of work was aimed at solving the following practical problems of upbringing and teaching students: completing school classes on the basis of studying the educational readiness and level of mental development of schoolchildren; development of practical measures to rationalize classes, the general regime of the school and internal regulations; identifying the reasons for the failure of individual students and developing measures to combat them; analysis of educational work, its individual segments (topic, lesson) in terms of their compliance with the age capabilities of children; planning and distribution of public work, educational activities, taking into account the individual characteristics of students, etc. At the same time, the tasks and functions of the pedological service related to its scientific, methodological and practical work on studying students and the pedagogical process were quite clearly differentiated.

Adequate to these functions and tasks, the structure of the pedological service was created, which includes several stages:

1) the head center in the form of an interdepartmental pedological commission and a pedological group of an educational and methodological center under the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR;

2) pedological laboratories and classrooms as methodological centers at regional and district public education bodies;

3) pedological rooms directly at the school.

These forms of pedological work were links of one structure and complemented each other. In fact, they were formed even before the adoption of the above documents.

4. 4 Practical work

Pedological laboratories and district offices carried out mainly methodological functions in the organization of the school pedological service. Their distinctive feature was the organic combination of practical work with research activities, achieved, in particular, by creating flexible organizational structures. The latter should primarily include temporary research and working groups, staffed from among the staff of regional laboratories and district pedological offices. At the Moscow Central Pedological Laboratory, for example, in 1931 there were groups on the methodology of recruiting study groups, standardizing the complex characteristics of the child, studying the socio-political ideas of children, on the psychophysiology of labor education and polytechnic education of students, etc. As a rule, these groups were created according to the main directions of pedological work at school and had as their goal the development of specific guidelines for its implementation. School pedologists and teachers were involved in this scientific and methodological work, who, under the guidance of specialists from regional and district institutions, performed individual tasks to examine various aspects of a child’s development in close connection with his upbringing and education (intellectual development of students, their polytechnic outlook, vocabulary and etc.).

The interaction of methodological centers with employees of the school pedological service was also carried out through correspondence, personal meetings, individual consultations, within the framework of permanent seminars and courses for the training and retraining of pedological personnel. Regional pedological laboratories and district offices also provided direct practical help school, but it was still episodic in nature and often came down to examining difficult children at the request of schools. They simply did not have the opportunity to carry out such work on a large scale, and it was not part of their functions.

Practical work on the study of the child and the psychological support of the educational process was carried out mainly by school pedologists, whose staff increased significantly in the early 1930s. They were staffed by many advanced schools, most of the experimental and exemplary schools. In the mass school of the first stage, this work was more often carried out by teachers in combination with their main work in this period. By order of the People's Commissar of Education of May 6, 1931, it was envisaged to have among the teachers one worker with pedological training. He should have, along with pedagogical work carry out pedological work on assignments and under the guidance of a district pedologist.

Pedological offices at the school and their employees were directly connected with the pedagogical process and paid much more attention to it than regional and district pedological institutions. This was facilitated by the organizational measures carried out by the People's Commissariat for Education and flexible organizational structures created by the school itself. In this regard, attempts to give collective forms to pedological work at school, to consider it as a school-wide affair, the affair of the entire pedagogical team, are of particular interest. With such an organization of the pedological service, the main factor in its conduct was pedological commissions (cells, brigades), which, along with pedologists, included teachers, a school doctor, a representative of the school administration and student organizations. The pedologist in this commission acted only as a more qualified specialist: it was his job to explain, organize, teach teachers to correctly pose and solve pedological issues, but they had to be solved jointly. With such an organization of the pedological service, the author notes, teachers saw in the pedologist a real assistant in difficulties school life, earlier, such a situation was observed: pedologists were on their own, and teachers were on their own.

In those schools where the pedological service was organized in similar forms, the opinion of the school pedologist was discussed and adopted collectively. True, this position was far from certain. It raised objections from many practical pedologists, who believed that a pedological opinion for the school collective should be mandatory, and just as the opinion of a doctor can only be challenged and canceled by a more competent doctor, so the opinion of a specialist pedologist can be changed by a pedologist. In the meantime, the author points out, the special conclusions of pedologists are put to the vote of the school council, changed for practical purposes. This question remains debatable in our time. It is clear that his decision in the above-mentioned deliberative form was intended to prevent pedagogically unreasonable interference in the teaching and upbringing process, to more fully coordinate pedological work in the school, to make it more open to the entire teaching staff, including students.

An essential prerequisite for the real participation of a pedologist in solving specific issues of upbringing and education of schoolchildren was his work as a full member in the pedagogical council, methodological commissions, production meetings, where he represented a special branch of activity - the pedological service at school. This participation became more effective where pedologists worked as teachers or freed class teachers. All this, of course, ensured a fairly rapid and widespread introduction of psychological data into the daily practice of the school.

The great influence of scientific concepts of child development on pedagogical practice, the prominent role of the pedologist in organizing the educational process, are also noted in the party resolution of 1936. But the results of this influence and pedological work as a whole are critically evaluated. So, in a purely negative way, the participation of a pedologist in the study of poor progress and mental abilities of students, the acquisition of study groups, and the selection of children in special classes in auxiliary schools is revealed. Since this line of work was the leading one for the psychological service in the 1920s and 1930s, let us dwell on it in some detail.

Great attention to this range of problems in pedological work was determined by the general policy of the People's Commissariat of Education for the differentiation of education and training of students. She was viewed as necessary condition development of the individual abilities of each child, as an important means of rationalizing educational process. The psychological justification for differentiated learning in relation to the practice of pedological work at that time was given by P.P. Blonsky. According to his theory, each child has an individual development formula, his own pedological age, which may not coincide with the age of the average child. In terms of learning ability and mental development, they are quite clearly distinguished among students, according to P.P. Blonsky, three more or less stable groups: talented children, children with an average level of development and slowly developing, who, due to their mental abilities, can advance in learning at different rates.

With the usual forms of organization of education, ignoring these differences, by the end of primary education, the school, according to P.P. Blonsky, becomes the school of the average student. Plus-variants (i.e., gifted children) are subjected to especially intensive leveling in it. P.P. Blonsky sharply opposes the ingrained idea that talent will always show itself, showing that of all categories of children, just talented children are especially sensitive to all adverse conditions. It is no coincidence that many of them in such conditions of learning soon become "lazy and empty flowers." The distribution of students into homogeneous study groups allows, according to P.P. Blonsky, not only to create conditions for the development of their mental abilities. It is of great importance for the correct formation of their personal properties. On the one hand, the arrogance of gifted children, associated with their position as the first students in the class, as a rule, disappears when they enter the environment of their peers. On the other hand, children with an average level of development and weaker ones in the conditions of such training become more lively, talkative and active.

...

Similar Documents

Psychology of childhood. Development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy. Pedology as a discipline and mass movement in pedagogy. The main representatives of Soviet pedology. The first works of a pedological nature.

presentation, added 06/15/2014


The main stages of the formation and development of pedagogical views S. Frenet. Essence and content analysis pedagogical ideas S. Frenet. The role and significance of the ideas of S. Frenet for modern school and pedagogy. Implementation of the ideas of S. Frenet in school education in Russia.

term paper, added 07/29/2010


History of Pedagogy. Modern content of scientific principles of school organization and pedagogy. The main directions of development of pedagogical science and its relationship with practice. Methodological foundations of pedagogical science. Methodology of pedagogy.

term paper, added 02/14/2007


The history of the development of psychological knowledge. Interpretation of the theory of behaviorism in the works of Watson, Huld and Skinner. Consideration of pedagogy as a science of education. The concept and properties of sensations, their classification and interaction. Stages of the pedagogical process.

test, added 05/07/2012


Basic concepts of pedagogical science, stages and directions of its development. Pedagogical theories of the era of the New Age and the Enlightenment, their content and significance in history, approaches to the upbringing and education of children. Ushinsky as the founder of scientific pedagogy.

control work, added 12/10/2013


Definition of the concept of personality in domestic and foreign psychology, personality structure. Ways of inclusion and the degree of participation of the individual in various types of social relations. The value of education as a subject of pedagogy. System of concepts and theories of pedagogy.

test, added 01/25/2010


Out-of-school education in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. The first kindergartens in Russia. Direction of educational work and selection of personnel. Paid Kindergarten A.S. Simonovich for children of the intelligentsia. The importance of the preschool period in the development of the child's personality.

test, added 07/28/2010


School and pedagogical thought in the countries of Western Europe in the Middle Ages, as well as in the period of the XVII-XIX centuries. Development of the theory and practice of education in Western Europe and the United States in the second half of the 20th century. Education and school in Kievan Rus and the Russian state.

test, added 01/05/2015


Independent work. The formation of pedagogy as a science. Education and upbringing as processes of social inheritance. The relationship of pedagogical science and practice. Methods of pedagogical research. pedagogical experiment. Experienced work.

cheat sheet, added 10/12/2008


Human Motivation by Abraham Harold Maslow. Self-actualization as a mechanism and process of personality development. Pragmatic Pedagogy by John Dewey. Methods of pedology as a theory. Grenville Stanley Hall's principle of recapitulation. Formation of the child's psyche.

Pedology is the science of an integrated approach to the study of the physical and mental development of a child in connection with its constitution and behavioral characteristics. Pedology included information about the child's constitution, his biological age, behavioral characteristics, and a system of tests that assessed the level of development and professional orientation (profile) of abilities.

The American psychologist S. Hall, who in 1889 created the 1st pedological laboratory, is recognized as the founder of pedology; the term itself was coined by his student - O. Crisment. But back in 1867, K. D. Ushinsky in his work “Man as an Object of Education” anticipated the emergence of pedology: “If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first recognize him in all respects.”

In the West, pedology was practiced by S. Hall, J. Baldwin, E. Meiman, V. Preyer, and others.

The founder of Russian pedology was the brilliant scientist and organizer A.P. Nechaev. A great contribution was made by V.M. Bekhterev, who in 1907 organized the Pedological Institute in St. Petersburg. The first 15 post-revolutionary years were favorable: there was a normal scientific life with stormy discussions, in which approaches were developed and the growing pains inevitable for young science were overcome.

The subject of Pedology, despite numerous discussions and theoretical developments of its leaders (A. B. Zalkind, P. P. Blonsky, M. Ya. Basov, L. S. Vygotsky, S. S. Molozhaviy, etc.), is clearly defined was not, and attempts to find the specifics of pedology, not reducible to the content of sciences adjacent to it, were not successful.

Pedology sought to study the child, while studying it comprehensively, in all its manifestations and taking into account all influencing factors. Blonsky defined pedology as the science of the age development of a child in a certain socio-historical environment. The fact that pedology was still far from ideal is explained not by the fallacy of the approach, but by the enormous complexity of creating an interdisciplinary science. Of course, there was no absolute unity of views among pedologists. However, there are four main principles:

1. The child is an integral system. It should not be studied only “in parts” (something by physiology, something by psychology, something by neurology).

2. A child can be understood only by considering that he is in constant development. The genetic principle meant taking into account the dynamics and trends of development. An example is Vygotsky's understanding of a child's egocentric speech as a preparatory phase of an adult's inner speech.

3. A child can be studied only taking into account his social environment, which affects not only the psyche, but often also the morphophysiological parameters of development. Pedologists worked a lot and quite successfully with difficult teenagers, which was especially important in those years of prolonged social upheavals.

4. The science of the child should be not only theoretical, but also practical.

Pedologists worked in schools, kindergartens, various teenage associations. Psychological and pedological counseling was actively carried out; work was carried out with parents; developed the theory and practice of psychodiagnostics. Institutes of pedology functioned in Leningrad and Moscow, where representatives of various sciences tried to trace the development of the child from birth to adolescence. Pedologists were trained very thoroughly: they received knowledge in pedagogy, psychology, physiology, child psychiatry, neuropathology, anthropology, sociology, and theoretical classes were combined with everyday practical work.

In 1901 - Nechaev A.P. organized a laboratory of experimental psychology at the Pedagogical Museum of military educational institutions. He launched an experimental psychological study of the foundations of school work. In 1904, pedological courses were opened at his laboratory (director - N.E. Rumyantsev). On his initiative in 1906 and 1909. All-Russian congresses on pedagogical psychology and experimental pedagogy were organized (1910, 1913, 1916).

After 1917, pedology developed rapidly. The unfavorable social situation in the country led to demoralization, an increase in the number of suicides, an increase in the aggressiveness of children and adolescents, and a loss of purpose. What to do with it? Pedology arose out of necessity, the demands of practice gave birth to it.

Methods of pedology:

• Observation
• Experiment
• natural experiment
• Statistical Methods
• Tests

Borders of pedology and psychology:

Pedology relies on general psychology and plays a methodological role in relation to child psychology (generalY®pedology®childrenY)

Borders of pedology and pedagogy:

pedology studies the laws of development, and pedagogy deals with scientific organization development based on knowledge of the laws of development. The laws of child development were formulated by L.S. Vygotsky.

In the 20s. Nechaev, Basov, Blonsky, Aryamov, Zalkind and Vygotsky publish works on pedology. In late 1928 - early 1929, the first pedological congress was held under the chairmanship of Zalkind. The following tasks were on the agenda:

1. Elimination of illiteracy.
2. The development of the children's and youth communist movement, including among mentally retarded and sick children.
3. Fighting the idea of ​​the mental inferiority of the proletariat and national minorities.

The theory of pedology was characterized primarily by the absence of a unified definition of science. Here are some different definitions:

Pedology is

The sum of the sciences about the child (an eclectic point of view - Basov).

The science of the growth, constitution and behavior of a typical mass child in various phases and periods of childhood (Blonsky).

The science of symptom complexes (Blonsky).

A new science, the boundaries and content of which have not yet been determined, but this is the science of the developing child (Vygotsky).

The child is studied as a whole, as a whole the child has a high value. The goal of pedology is the formation of an active creative personality. An individual approach to each child is important.

There were 2 main directions in pedological science - sociogenetic (Zalkind) and biogenetic (Blonsky). Different criteria for periodization were distinguished: Vygotsky (sociogenetic approach): infancy, early childhood, preschool age, primary school, age of puberty, adolescence. Blonsky (biogenetic approach): uterine childhood, toothless childhood, milk-toothed childhood, change of milk teeth to molars (all about dentition).

Why criticized pedologists?

1. lack of qualified practicing psychologists in educational institutions.
2. mechanistic, eclectic approach to the processing of psychological (especially foreign) theories.
3. the goal set by pedology (see above) was not relevant in the conditions of that social reality.

The impetus was the mass testing of children (non-adapted translation methods), which showed frightening results. In 1936, a decree “On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education” was issued, pedology was “closed”, pedologists were fired and arrested. After reading the decree, Zalkind suddenly died of a heart attack.

Direct and indirect consequences of the defeat of "pedology"

The culmination of the attack on psychology on the “ideological front” was the defeat of pedology in connection with the Decree adopted by the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks on July 4, 1936 “On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education”. The tragic consequences of this action affected the fate of psychological science for many years and determined its relationship with other related branches of knowledge.

The destruction of pedology as a phenomenon of the regression of science in the era of Stalinism received a significant response and responded with severe complications and inhibition of the development of a number of related fields of knowledge and, above all, in all branches of psychology, in pedagogy, psychodiagnostics and other areas of science and practice.

The accusation of "dragging pedology" hung over psychologists, educators, doctors and other specialists, often never associated with "pseudo-science". The fate of textbooks on psychology is typical and indicative in this respect.

Despite the indication contained in the resolution of the need to create a “Marxist science of children”, a theoretical platform has not been developed that could ensure the integration of knowledge about the child obtained by developmental psychology, age physiology, sociology and ethnography of childhood, pediatrics and child psychopathology. Still not secured systems approach to the developing human organism and personality. A break in the development of the science of children for 50 years, even if it was very imperfect at first, is an important circumstance and we have to overcome its negative consequences.

After the defeat of pedology, pedagogy was to be "restored in its rights." However, having defeated pedology, pedagogy won pyrrhic victory. She failed to exercise her rights. Isn’t it “pedological fear” that lies one of the reasons for the accusations of pedagogy for many years in its “childlessness”, in the tendency to see in a child just a point of application of forces, either a boy or a girl, and not a thinking, rejoicing and suffering person , a developing personality with whom it is necessary to cooperate, and not just teach her, demand and drill her? Pedagogy, having done away with pedology, threw out, along with the “pedological” water, the child, whom she, when it is bad, and when it is good, but directedly began to deal with!

Concerns about possible accusations of attempts to restore “pedological perversions” for a long time held back the development of child and pedagogical psychology, not only immediately after 1936, but also in the future, especially after the August (1948) session of the All-Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, at which the status of genetics as the next "pseudoscience" after pedology, and the three-story word "Weismannist - Mendelian - Morganist" became as abusive as the word "pedologist". The reasons for this are obvious - the problem of heredity and environment was again in the focus of attention of the VASKhNIL session.

The study of what a child is was increasingly replaced by a declaration of what it should be. As a result, a situation developed (and now hinders the solution of many practical pedagogical problems) in which the idea of ​​what a child should be turns into a statement that this is what he is. The attitudes coming from the pedagogy of upbringing, which did not know the real child or teenager well, are now beginning to be overcome, but for a long time they were dominant. The real achievements of psychologists, and it is impossible to deny them, arose not because of, but in spite of the defeat of pedology.

The dramatic consequences of the defeat of pedology affected the fate of the entire applied psychology in the USSR, which developed intensively in the 1920s and was suppressed in the mid-1930s, during the liquidation of another “pseudo-science”, this time in the role of psychotechnics, a special branch of psychology that saw its task in the implementation of practical goals by psychological means, in the use in production of the laws of human behavior ("subjective factor") for the expedient influence on a person and regulation of his behavior.

from the Greek pais - child + logos - word, science) - a trend in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, due to the penetration of evolutionary ideas into pedagogy and psychology, the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy.

Amer. is recognized as the founder of P. psychologist S. Hall, who created the 1st pedological laboratory in 1889; the term was coined by his student. - O. Crisment. But back in 1867, K. D. Ushinsky, in his work “Man as an Object of Education,” anticipated the appearance of P.: “If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first recognize him in all respects.”

In the West, P. was engaged in S. Hall, J. Baldwin, E. Meiman, V. Preyer, and others. P. was a brilliant scientist and organizer A. P. Nechaev. A great contribution was made by V. M. Bekhterev, who in 1907 organized the Pedological Institute in St. Petersburg. The first 15 post-revolutionary years were favorable: there was a normal scientific life with stormy discussions, in which approaches were developed and the growing pains inevitable for young science were overcome.

The subject of P., despite numerous discussions and theoretical developments of its leaders (A. B. Zalkind, P. P. Blonsky, M. Ya. Basov, L. S. Vygotsky, S. S. Molozhaviy, etc.), is clearly defined was not, and attempts to find the specifics of P., not reducible to the content of the sciences adjacent to it, were not successful.

P. sought to study the child, while studying it comprehensively, in all its manifestations and taking into account all the influencing factors. Blonsky defined child development as the science of the age-related development of a child in a particular sociohistorical environment. The fact that P. was still far from ideal is explained not by the fallacy of the approach, but by the enormous complexity of creating an interdisciplinary science. Of course, there was no absolute unity of views among pedologists. However, there are 4 main principles.

1. The child is an integral system. It should not be studied only "in parts" (something by physiology, something by psychology, something by neurology).

2. A child can be understood only by considering that he is in constant development. The genetic principle meant taking into account the dynamics and trends of development. An example is Vygotsky's understanding of a child's egocentric speech as a preparatory phase of an adult's inner speech.

3. A child can be studied only taking into account his social environment, which affects not only the psyche, but often also the morphophysiological parameters of development. Pedologists worked a lot and quite successfully with difficult teenagers, which was especially important in those years of prolonged social upheavals.

4. The science of the child should be not only theoretical, but also practical.

Pedologists worked in schools, kindergartens, various teenage associations. Psychological and pedological counseling was actively carried out; work was carried out with parents; developed the theory and practice of psychodiagnostics. In L. and M. there were in-you P., where representatives of different sciences tried to trace the development of the child from birth to adolescence. Pedologists were trained very thoroughly: they received knowledge in pedagogy, psychology, physiology, child psychiatry, neuropathology, anthropology, sociology, and theoretical classes were combined with everyday practical work.

In the 1930s criticism of many provisions of P. began (problems of the subject of P., bio- and sociogenesis, tests, etc.), 2 resolutions of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks were adopted. In 1936, P. was defeated, many scientists were repressed, and the fate of others was crippled. All pedological institutes and laboratories were closed; P. was excluded from the curricula of all universities. Labels were lavishly pasted: Vygotsky was declared an "eclecticist", Basov and Blonsky were declared "propagandists of fascist ideas."

The rulings and the ensuing landslide "criticism" barbarously but skillfully distorted the very essence of P., accusing her of adherence to the biogenetic law, the theory of 2 factors (see Convergence theory), fatally predetermining the fate of the frozen child social environment and heredity (this word should have sounded abusive). In fact, V.P. Zinchenko believes, pedologists were ruined by their system of values: "Intellect occupied one of the leading places in it. They valued, first of all, work, conscience, intelligence, initiative, nobility."

A number of works by Blonsky (for example: The development of schoolchildren's thinking. - M., 1935), the works of Vygotsky and his collaborators on child psychology laid the foundation for modern scientific knowledge about the mental development of the child. The works of N. M. Shchelovanov, M. P. Denisova, and N. L. Figurin (see Resuscitation Complex), which were created in pedological institutions by name, contained valuable factual material that was included in the fund of modern knowledge about the child and its development. These works formed the basis of the current system of education in infancy and early childhood, and the psychological research of Blonsky Vygotsky provided opportunities for the development of theoretical and applied problems of developmental and educational psychology in our country. At the same time, the real psychological meaning of the studies and their pedological design did not allow for a long time to separate one from the other and to appreciate their contribution to psychological science. (I. A. Meshcheryakova.)

Addendum: Undoubtedly, Mr. arbitrariness in relation to domestic P. played a decisive role in its tragic end, but attention is drawn to the fact that in other countries P. eventually ceased to exist. The fate of P. as an instructive example of a short-lived project of complex science deserves a deep methodological analysis. (B. M.)

PEDOLOGY

a trend in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, due to the spread of evolutionary ideas and the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy. It is associated primarily with the name of S. Hall, who in 1889 created the first pedological laboratory. The founders of pedology are S. Hall, J. M. Baldwin, E. Kirkpatrick, E. Meiman, V. Preyer, and others. In Russia, pedology was widely spread even in the pre-October period. By the end of the 20s. a significant corps of psychologists, physiologists, defectologists worked in pedological institutions.

In pedology, the child was considered comprehensively, in all its manifestations, in constant development and in various, including social, conditions; the goal was to help develop all its potentialities. The content of pedology was a combination of psychological, anatomical-physiological, biological and sociological approaches to the development of the child, although these approaches were interconnected purely mechanically.

However, the subject of pedology, despite numerous discussions and theoretical developments, was not defined, and attempts to find the specifics of pedology were unsuccessful, although a large empirical material on the development of children's behavior was accumulated in the studies of domestic pedologists. Valuable in pedology was the desire to study the development of the child in an integrated approach, a practical focus on the diagnosis of mental development.

In 1936, pedology in the USSR was declared a "pseudo-science" and ceased to exist. The result of the defeat of pedology was the inhibition of the development of pedagogical and developmental psychology, the lag in the field of psychodiagnostics, the weakening of attention to the personality of the child in the processes of education and upbringing (the so-called "childlessness" of pedagogy).

Pedology

Word formation. Comes from the Greek. pais - child and logos - word, science.

Specificity. It emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. under the influence of evolutionary ideas. It is associated primarily with the name of S. Hall, who in 1889 created the first pedological laboratory. In pedology, the child was considered comprehensively, in all its manifestations, in constant development and in various, including social, conditions, and the goal was to help develop all its potentialities.

Pedology

from the Greek pais, paidos - child and... logos - teaching, knowledge; letters. science of children), a direction in psychology and pedagogy, which aimed to combine biological, sociological, psychological and other approaches to the development of the child. Arose in con. 19th century The spread of pedology in Russia in the 1920s and 30s. was accompanied by heated discussions about its subject, tasks and methods. Many works carried out in line with pedology contained valuable material on the problems of childhood. Valuable in P. was the desire to study the development of the child in an integrated approach, a practical focus on the diagnosis of mental development. By a decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (1936), pedology was declared a "pseudo-science" and ceased to exist. The result of the defeat of pedology was the inhibition of the development of pedagogical and developmental psychology, the lag in the field of psychodiagnostics, the weakening of attention to the personality of the child in the processes of education and upbringing (the so-called "childlessness" of pedagogy).

Pedology

Greek pais (paidos) - child + logos - science, teaching) - a trend in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, due to the spread of evolutionary ideas and the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy. The founders of P. - S. Hall, J.M. Baldwin, E. Kirkpatrick, E. Meiman, V. Preyer, and others. The content of P. was a combination of psychological, anatomical, physiological, biological, and sociological approaches to the development of the child, but these approaches turned out to be purely mechanically related. In Russia, P. became widespread as early as the beginning of the 20th century. By the end of the 1920s, a significant body of psychologists, physiologists, defectologists (P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky and others) worked in pedological institutions. The subject of P., despite numerous discussions and theoretical developments of its representatives, was not defined. Attempts to find the specifics of P., not reducible to the content of the sciences adjacent to it, were not successful, although in the studies of scientists working in the field of P., a large amount of empirical material was accumulated on the development of children's behavior. Valuable in P. was the desire to study the development of the child in an integrated approach, a practical focus on the diagnosis of mental development. By a resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (1936), P. was declared a “pseudo-science” and ceased to exist. The result of the defeat of P. was the inhibition of the development of pedagogical and developmental psychology, the lag in the field of psychodiagnostics, and the weakening of attention to the personality of the child in the processes of education and upbringing (the so-called “childlessness” of pedagogy). A.V. Petrovsky

Pedology

Current in pedagogy and psychology late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century, using the psychological, anatomical, physiological, biological and social characteristics of the child in his education and upbringing. In the USSR, it was banned as a "bourgeois" science, which to a certain extent slowed down the development of pedagogical and psychological sciences.