Solodkov sologub human physiology general sports age. Human physiology. General. Sports. Age. Introduction. History of physiology
The textbook has been prepared in accordance with the new program in physiology for universities of physical culture and the requirements of the State Standard for Higher vocational education.
For students, graduate students, scientific staff, teachers, trainers and doctors working in the field of physical culture.
FOREWORD ...... 3 Part I. GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY ...... 8 1. Introduction. History of physiology ...... 8 1. 1. The subject of physiology, its relationship with other sciences and its significance for physical culture and sports ...... 8 1. 2. Methods of physiological research ...... 9 1 3. Short story physiology ...... 10 2. General patterns physiology and its basic concepts ...... 12 2. 1. Main functional characteristics of excitable tissues ...... 12 2. 2. Nervous and humoral regulation of functions ...... 14 2. 3. Reflex mechanism activity of the nervous system ...... 15 2. 4. Homeostasis ...... 16 2. 5. The occurrence of excitation and its conduct ...... 17 3. The nervous system ...... 21 3 1. The main functions of the central nervous system ...... 21 3. 2. The main functions and interactions of neurons ...... 21 3. 3. Features of the activity of nerve centers ...... 25 3. 4. Coordination of activity CNS ...... 29 3. 5. Functions of the spinal cord and subcortical parts of the brain ...... 33 3. 6. Autonomic nervous system ...... 39 3. 7. Limbic system ...... ... 43 3. 8. Functions of the cerebral cortex ...... 43 4. Higher nervous activity ...... 49 4. 1. Conditions for the formation and types of conditioned reflexes ...... 49 4. 2. External and internal inhibition of conditioned reflexes ...... 52 4. 3. Dynamic stereotype ...... 52 4. 4. Types of higher nervous activity, first I and the second signal system ...... 53 5. Neuromuscular apparatus ...... 55 5. 1. Functional organization of skeletal muscles ...... 55 5. 2. Mechanisms of contraction and relaxation of the muscle fiber ...... 57 5. 3. Solitary and tetanic contraction. Electromyogram ...... 60 5. 4. Morphofunctional bases of muscle strength ...... 63 5. 5. Modes of muscle work ...... 67 5. 6. Energy of muscle contraction ...... 68 6. Voluntary movements...... 71 6. 1. Basic principles of organization of movements...... 71 6. 2. The role of various departments of the central nervous system in the regulation of postural-tonic reactions...... 75 6. 3. The role of various parts of the central nervous system in the regulation of movements ...... 77 6. 4. Descending motor systems ...... 81 7. Sensory systems ...... 83 7. 1. Overall plan organization and functions of sensory systems ...... 83 7. 2. Classification and mechanisms of excitation of receptors ...... 84 7. 3. Properties of receptors ...... 86 7. 4. Coding of information ... ... 87 7. 5. Visual sensory system ...... 88 7. 6. Auditory sensory system ...... 93 7. 7. Vestibular sensory system ...... 96 7. 8. Motor sensory system ...... 99 7. 9. Sensory systems of the skin, internal organs, taste and smell ...... 102 7. 10. Processing, interaction and meaning of sensory information ...... 105 8 Blood ...... 109 8. 1. Composition, volume and functions of blood ...... 110 8. 2. Blood cells ...... 112 8. 3. Physical and chemical properties of blood plasma ...... 116 8. 4. Blood clotting and transfusion ...... 118 8. 5. Regulation of the blood system ...... 121 9. Blood circulation ...... 123 9. 1. The heart and its physiological properties ...... 123 9. 2. Movement of blood through the vessels (hemodynamics) ...... 128 9. 3. Regulation of the cardiovascular system ...... 132 10. Respiration. ..... 136 10. 1. External breathing 136 10. 2. Exchange of gases in the lungs and their transport by blood...... 139 10. 3. Regulation of respiration...... 143 11. Digestion...... 145 11.1. general characteristics digestive processes ...... 145 11. 2. Digestion in various parts of the gastrointestinal tract ...... 147 11. 3. Absorption of food digestion products ...... 153 12. Metabolism and energy. ..... 155 12. 1. Protein metabolism ..... 155 12. 2. Carbohydrate metabolism ..... 156 12. 3. Lipid metabolism ..... 157 12. 4. Metabolism water and mineral salts ...... 159 12. 5. Energy metabolism ...... 160 12. 6. Regulation of metabolism and energy ...... 163 13. Isolation ...... 165 13. 1. General characteristics of excretory processes ...... 165 13. 2. Kidneys and their functions ...... 165 13. 3. The process of urination and its regulation ...... 168 13. 4. Homeostatic function of the kidneys ...... 170 13. 5. Urination and urination ...... 170 13. 6. Sweating ...... 171 14. Heat exchange ...... 173 14. 1 Human body temperature and isotherm...... 173 14. 2. Mechanisms of heat generation...... 174 14. 3. Mechanisms of heat transfer...... 176 14. 4. Regulation of heat exchange..... 177 15. Internal secretion...... 178 15. 1. General characteristics endocrine system ...... 178 15. 2. Functions of the endocrine glands ...... 181 15. 3. Changes in endocrine functions under various conditions ...... 192 Part II. SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY ...... 198 Section I. GENERAL SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY ...... 198 1. Sports physiology - an educational and scientific discipline ...... 199 1. 1. Sports physiology, its content and tasks. ..... 199 1. 2. The Department of Physiology and its role in the formation and development of sports physiology ...... 201 1. 3. The state and prospects for the development of sports physiology ...... 206 2. Adaptation to physical loads and reserve capabilities of the body ...... 210 2. 1. The dynamics of body functions during adaptation and its stages ...... 211 2. 2. Physiological features of adaptation to physical stress ...... 215 2. 3. Urgent and long-term adaptation to physical loads...... 217 2. 4. Functional system of adaptation...... 221 2. 5. The concept of physiological reserves of the body...... 224 3. Functional states athletes ...... 226 3. 1. General characteristics of functional states ...... 226 3. 2. Physiological patterns of development of functional states ...... 229 3. 3. Types of functional conditions ...... 231 4. Functional changes in the body during physical exertion ...... 237 4. 1. Changes in the functions of various organs and systems of the body ...... 237 4. 2. Functional changes during exercise constant power ...... 240 4. 3. Functional shifts with loads of variable power .. .... 241 4. 4. Applied value of functional changes for assessing the performance of athletes...... 243 5. Physiological characteristics of the state of the body during sports activities...... 244 5. 1. The role of emotions in sports activities. ..... 244 5. 2. Pre-launch states...... 247 5. 3. Warm-up and working out...... 250 5. 4. Steady state during cyclic exercises...... 252 5 5. Special states of the body during acyclic, static and variable power exercises ...... 253 6. Physical performance of an athlete ...... 254 6. 1. The concept of physical performance and methodological approaches to its definition ... ... 255 6. 2. Principles and methods of physical performance testing...... 257 6. 3. Relationship of physical performance with the orientation of the training process in sports...... 262 6. 4. Physical performance reserves.. .... 264 7. Physiological basis of athletes fatigue ...... 269 7. 1. Definition and physiological mechanisms of development fatigue ...... 269 7. 2. Factors of fatigue and the state of body functions ...... 273 7. 3. Features of fatigue during various types of physical activity ...... 275 7. 4. Prefatigue, chronic fatigue and overwork ...... 278 8. Physiological characteristics of recovery processes ...... 281 8. 1. General characteristics of recovery processes ...... 281 8. 2. Physiological mechanisms of recovery processes ...... ... 283 8. 3. Physiological patterns of recovery processes...... 285 8. 4. Physiological measures to increase the efficiency of recovery...... 288 Section II. PARTICULAR SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY ...... 291 9. Physiological classification and characteristics of physical exercises ...... 291 9. 1. Various criteria for the classification of exercises ...... 292 9. 2. Modern classification of physical exercises .. .... 293 9. 3. Physiological characteristics of sports postures and static loads ...... 294 9. 4. Physiological characteristics of standard cyclic and acyclic movements ...... 298 9. 5. Physiological characteristics of non-standard movements. ..... 303 10. Physiological mechanisms and patterns of development of physical qualities...... 305 10. 1. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves of development of strength ...... 306 10. reserves of speed development ...... 310 10. 3. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves of endurance development ...... 313 10. 4. The concept of dexterity and flexibility. Mechanisms and patterns of their development. ..... 318 11. Physiological mechanisms and regularities of the formation of motor skills...... 320 11. 1. Motor skills, skills and methods of their study...... 320 11. 2. Physiological mechanisms of the formation of motor skills ...... 321 11. 3. Physiological patterns and stages of motor skills formation...... 324 11. 4. Physiological bases of motor skills improvement...... 330 12. Physiological bases of fitness development... ... 333 12. 1. Physiological characteristics of training and the state of fitness ...... 334 12. 2. Testing the functional fitness of athletes at rest ...... 336 12. 3. Testing the functional fitness of athletes with standard and limit loads ...... 339 12. 4. Physiological characteristics of overtraining and overstrain ...... 343 13. Sports performance in special environmental conditions ...... 346 13. 1. The influence of temperature and humidity on sports performance ...... 346 13. 2. Sports performance under conditions of changed barometric pressure ...... 348 13. 3. Sports performance under changing climatic conditions ...... 353 13. 4. Physiological changes in the body when swimming ...... 355 14. Physiological basis of women's sports training ...... 357 14. 1. Morphological and functional features of the female body ...... 357 14. 2. Changes in body functions during training ...... 365 14. 3. Influence of the biological cycle on the performance of women ...... 370 14. 4. Individualization of the training process, taking into account the phases of the biological cycle ...... 373 15. Physiological and genetic features of sports selection ...... 375 15. 1. Physiological and genetic approach to the issues of sports selection ...... 376 15. 2. Hereditary influences on the morpho-functional characteristics and physical qualities of a person ...... 378 15 3. Taking into account the physiological and genetic characteristics of a person in sports selection ...... 383 15. 4. The value of genetically adequate 390 15. 5. The use of genetic markers to search for highly trained and fast-trained athletes...... 395 16. Influence of the genome on the functional state, performance and health of athletes. ..... 398 16. 1. Storage, transmission of hereditary information and genome decoding...... 398 16. 2. Genetic DNA markers in sports...... 402 16. 3. Genetic doping in sports. .... . 405 16. 4. Detection of dopings ...... 415 16. 5. Health risk ...... 417 17. Physiological bases of health-improving physical culture ...... 421 conditions modern life ...... 422 17. 2. Hypokinesia, hypodynamia and their influence on the human body ...... 425 17. 3. The main forms of health-improving physical culture and their influence on the functional state of the body ...... 428 Part III. AGE PHYSIOLOGY ...... 435 1. General physiological patterns of growth and development of the human body ...... 435 1. 1. Periodization and heterochrony of development ...... 435 1. 2. Sensitive periods ... ... 438 1. 3. The influence of heredity and the environment on the development of the body ...... 441 1. 4. Epochal and individual acceleration, biological and passport age ...... 444 2. Physiological characteristics of the body of preschool children and primary school age and their adaptation to physical activity ...... 448 2. 1. The development of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and sensory systems ...... 448 2. 2. Physical development and the musculoskeletal system ...... 456 2. 3. Features of blood, circulation and respiration ...... 457 2. 4. Features of digestion, metabolism and energy ...... 461 2. 5. Features of thermoregulation, processes secretion and activity of the endocrine glands ...... 462 2. 6. Physiological features of the adaptation of children of preschool and primary school about age to physical activity ...... 466 3. Physiological characteristics of the body of children of middle and senior school age and their adaptation to physical stress ...... 488 3. 1. Development of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and sensory systems ...... 489 3. 2. Physical development and the musculoskeletal system ...... 494 3. 3. Features of blood, circulation and respiration ...... 497 3. 4. Features of digestion, secretion and endocrine system ...... 500 3. 5. Features of thermoregulation, metabolism and energy ...... 506 3. 6. Physiological features of the adaptation of children of middle and senior school age to physical activity ..... 508 4. Physiological features of a physical culture lesson at school...... 530 4. 1. Physiological substantiation of the normalization of physical activity for schoolchildren...... 530 4. 2. Changes in the functions of the body of schoolchildren at a physical culture lesson ...... 533 4. 3. The impact of physical education on the physical, functional 536 4. 4. Physiological and pedagogical control over physical education and physiological criteria for restoring the body of schoolchildren ........ 543 5. Physiological characteristics of the body of people of mature and elderly age and their adaptation to physical activity. ..... 548 5. 1. Aging, life expectancy, adaptive reactions and reactivity of the organism ...... 549 5. 2. Age-related features of the musculoskeletal system, vegetative and sensory systems ...... 553 5 3. Age-related features of regulatory systems...... 557 5. 4. Physiological features of the adaptation of people of mature and old age to physical activity...... 561 6. Physiological features of information processing in athletes of different ages.... .. 573 6. 1. Importance of information processing processes and their age features...... 573 6. 2. Physiological basis of the processes of perception, decision-making and programming of response actions ...... 575 6. 3. Speed and efficiency of tactical thinking. Brain capacity ...... 579 6. 4. Noise immunity of athletes, its age characteristics ...... 582 7. Functional asymmetries of athletes of different ages ...... 583 7. 1. Motor asymmetries in humans, their age characteristics ...... 583 7. 2. Sensory and mental asymmetries. Individual asymmetry profile ...... 586 7. 3. Manifestation of functional asymmetry in athletes ...... 589 7. 4. Physiological bases of training process management, taking into account functional asymmetry ...... 593 8. Physiological bases individual typological characteristics of athletes and their development in ontogenesis ...... 595 8. 1. Individual typological characteristics of a person ...... 596 8. 2. The development of typological characteristics in ontogenesis ...... 598 8 3. Individual typological features of athletes and their consideration in the training process ...... 601 8. 4. Individual typological features of biorhythms and their influence on human performance ...... 604 CONCLUSION ...... 609
Publisher: "Sport" (2015)
Author Alexander Sergeevich Solodkov
Alexey Solodkov, Elena Sologub
Human physiology. General. Sports. Age
Textbook for higher educational institutions physical culture
Edition 6, corrected and enlarged
Approved by the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Physical Culture and Sports as a textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture
The publication was prepared at the Department of Physiology of the National state university physical culture, sports and health named after P.F. Lesgafta, St. Petersburg
Reviewers:
IN AND. Kuleshov, doctor med. sciences, prof. (VmedA named after S.M. Kirov)
THEM. Kozlov, doctor biol, and doctor ped. sciences, prof.
(NSU named after P.F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg)
Foreword
Human physiology is the theoretical basis of a number of practical disciplines (medicine, psychology, pedagogy, biomechanics, biochemistry, etc.) Without understanding the normal course of physiological processes and the constants characterizing them, various specialists cannot correctly assess the functional state of the human body and its performance in various conditions activities. Knowledge of the physiological mechanisms of regulation of various functions of the body is important in understanding the course of recovery processes during and after intense muscular labor.
Revealing the main mechanisms that ensure the existence of a holistic organism and its interaction with environment, physiology allows us to find out and investigate the conditions and nature of changes in the activity of various organs and systems in the process of human ontogenesis. Physiology is a science that carries out systems approach in the study and analysis of the diverse intra- and intersystem relationships of a complex human organism and their reduction into specific functional formations and a single theoretical picture.
It is important to emphasize that domestic researchers play a significant role in the development of modern scientific physiological concepts. Knowledge of the history of any science is a necessary prerequisite for a correct understanding of the place, role and significance of the discipline in the content of the socio-political status of society, its influence on this science, as well as the influence of science and its representatives on the development of society. Therefore, consideration of the historical path of development of individual sections of physiology, the mention of its most prominent representatives and the analysis of the natural scientific base on which the basic concepts and ideas of this discipline were formed, make it possible to assess the current state of the subject and determine its further promising directions.
Physiological science in Russia in the XVIII-XIX centuries is represented by a galaxy of brilliant scientists - I.M. Sechenov, F.V. Ovsyannikov, A.Ya. Danilevsky, A.F. Samoilov, I.R. Tarkhanov, N.E. Vvedensky and others. But only I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov is credited with creating new directions not only in Russian but also in world physiology.
Physiology as an independent discipline began to be taught in 1738 at the Academic (later St. Petersburg) University. Moscow University, founded in 1755, also plays a significant role in the development of physiology, where in 1776 a department of physiology was opened in its composition.
In 1798, the Medico-Surgical (Military Medical) Academy was founded in St. Petersburg, which played an exceptional role in the development of human physiology. The department of physiology created under her supervision was successively headed by P.A. Zagorsky, D.M. Vellansky, N.M. Yakubovich, I.M. Sechenov, I.F. Zion, F.V. Ovsyannikov, I.R. Tarkhanov, I.P. Pavlov, L.A. Orbeli, A.V. Lebedinsky, M.P. Brestkin and other prominent representatives of physiological science. Behind each named name are discoveries in physiology of world significance.
Physiology was included in the training program in physical education universities from the first days of their organization. On the created P.F. Lesgaft in 1896 at the Higher Courses of Physical Education immediately opened a cabinet of physiology, the first head of which was Academician I.R. Tarkhanov. In subsequent years, physiology was taught here by N.P. Kravkov, A.A. Walter, P.P. Rostovtsev, V.Ya. Chagovets, A.G. Ginetsinsky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, L.A. Orbeli, I.S. Beritov, A.N. Krestovnikov, G.V. Folbort and others.
The rapid development of physiology and the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in the country led to the emergence in the 30s of the XX century of a new independent section of human physiology - the physiology of sports, although individual works devoted to the study of body functions during physical activity were published back in late XIX century (I. O. Rozanov, S. S. Gruzdev, Yu. V. Blazhevich, P. K. Gorbachev and others). At the same time, it should be emphasized that systematic research and teaching of the physiology of sports began in our country earlier than abroad, and were more targeted. By the way, we note that only in 1989 the General Assembly of the International Union of Physiological Sciences decided to create a commission "Physiology of Sports" under it, although similar commissions and sections in the system of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the All-Union Physiological Society. I.P. Pavlov State Committee for Sports of the USSR existed in our country since the 1960s.
The theoretical prerequisites for the emergence and development of the physiology of sports were created by the fundamental works of I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlova, N.E. Vvedensky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, I.S. Beritashvili, K.M. Bykov and others. However, the systematic study of the physiological foundations of physical culture and sports began much later. Especially great merit in the creation of this branch of physiology belongs to L.A. Orbeli and his student A.N. Krestovnikov, and it is inextricably linked with the formation and development of the University of Physical Culture. P.F. Lesgaft and his department of physiology - the first such department among sports universities in the country and in the world.
After the creation in 1919 of the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Physical Education. P.F. Lesgaft, the teaching of this subject was carried out by L.A. Orbeli, A.N. Krestovnikov, V.V. Vasilyeva, A.B. Gandelsman, E.K. Zhukov, N.V. Zimkin, A.S. Mozzhukhin, E.B. Sologub, A.S. Solodkov and others. In 1938, A.N. Kreetovnikov published the first in our country and in the world "Textbook of Physiology" for the institutes of physical culture, and in 1939 - the monograph "Physiology of Sports". An important role in the further development of the teaching of the discipline was played by three editions of the Textbook of Human Physiology, edited by N.V. Zimkin (1964, 1970, 1975).
The formation of the physiology of sports was largely due to the wide conduct of fundamental and applied research on the subject. The development of any science poses more and more new practical problems for representatives of many specialties, to which theory cannot always and immediately give an unambiguous answer. However, as D. Crowcroft (1970) wittily remarked, “... Scientific research have one strange feature: they have a habit, sooner or later, of being useful to someone or something. Analysis of the development of educational and scientific directions The physiology of sports clearly confirms this position.
Requests for the theory and practice of physical education and training require physiological science to reveal the features of the functioning of the body, taking into account the age of people and the patterns of their adaptation to muscle activity. The scientific principles of physical education of children and adolescents are based on the physiological patterns of human growth and development at different stages of ontogenesis. In the process of physical education, it is necessary not only to increase motor fitness, but also to form the necessary psycho-physiological properties and qualities of a person, ensuring her readiness for work, for vigorous activity in the conditions of the modern world.
The formation of various organs and systems, motor qualities and skills, their improvement in the process of physical education can be successful if scientifically based use of various means and methods of physical culture, as well as, if necessary, intensification or reduction of muscle loads. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the age-sex and individual characteristics of children, adolescents, mature and elderly people, as well as the reserve capabilities of their body at different stages of individual development. Knowledge of such patterns by specialists will protect the practice of physical education from the use of both insufficient and excessive muscle loads that are dangerous to people's health.
To date, significant factual materials on sports and age physiology have been accumulated, set forth in the relevant textbooks and study guides X. However, in last years in some sections of the subject, new data appeared that were not included in previous editions. In addition, due to the constantly changing and expanding curriculum the content of previously published sections of the discipline does not correspond to modern thematic plans, according to which teaching is conducted in physical education universities in Russia. In view of the foregoing, the proposed textbook contains systematized, supplemented and, in some cases, new materials within the framework of today's educational and scientific information on the subject. The corresponding sections of the textbook also include the results of the authors' own research.
In 1998–2000 A.S. Solodkov and E.B. Sologub published three textbooks on general, sports and developmental physiology, which were widely demanded by students, approved by teachers and served as the basis for the preparation of a modern textbook. The textbook published by them in 2001 corresponds new program by discipline, requirements of the State Standard of Higher Professional Education Russian Federation and includes three parts - general, sports and age physiology.
Despite the large circulation of the first edition (10,000 copies), two years later the textbook was out of stock. Therefore, after making some corrections and additions, in 2005 the textbook was republished in the same edition. However, by the end of 2007, it was impossible to buy it anywhere. At the same time, from various regions of the Russian Federation, CIS countries, the Department of Physiology regularly receives proposals on the need for the next reprint of the textbook. In addition, some new materials have appeared at the disposal of the authors that meet the requirements of the Bologna process for specialists in physical culture and sports.
The prepared third edition of the textbook, along with taking into account and implementing individual comments and suggestions from readers, also includes two new chapters: "The functional state of athletes" and "Influence of the genome on the functional state, performance and health of athletes." For the last chapter, some materials were presented by N.M. Koneva-Hanson, for which the authors are sincerely grateful to Natalya Mikhailovna.
All comments and suggestions on the fifth edition, aimed at improving the quality of the textbook, will be accepted by the authors with gratitude.
Part I
General physiology
Any coach and teacher for successful professional activity knowledge of the functions of the human body. Only taking into account the characteristics of his life can help to properly manage the growth and development of the human body, maintain the health of children and adults, maintain efficiency even in old age, rational use of muscle loads in the process of physical education and sports training.
1. Introduction. History of physiology
The date of the formation of modern physiology is 1628, when the English physician and physiologist William Harvey published the results of his research on blood circulation in animals.
Physiology the science of the functions and mechanisms of activity of cells, tissues, organs, systems and the whole organism as a whole. The physiological function is a manifestation of the vital activity of the organism, which has an adaptive value.
1.1. The subject of physiology, its connection with other sciences and its significance for physical culture and sports
Physiology as a science is inextricably linked with other disciplines. It is based on the knowledge of physics, biophysics and biomechanics, chemistry and biochemistry, general biology, genetics, histology, cybernetics, anatomy. In turn, physiology is the basis of medicine, psychology, pedagogy, sociology, theory and methodology of physical education. In the process of development of physiological science from general physiology different private sections: physiology of labor, physiology ...
Textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture. 7th edition
Approved by the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Physical Culture and Sports as a textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture
The publication was prepared at the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health. P. F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg
Reviewers:
V. I. Kuleshov, doctor med. sciences, prof. (VmedA named after S. M. Kirov)
I. M. Kozlov, doctor of biol. and doctor ped. sciences, prof. (NSU named after P. F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg)
© Solodkov A. S., Sologub E. B., 2001, 2005, 2008, 2015, 2017
© Edition, Sport Publishing House LLC, 2017
Solodkov Aleksey Sergeevich – Professor of the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health. P. F. Lesgaft (for 25 years, head of the department 1986–2012).
Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Academician of the Petrovsky Academy of Sciences and Arts, Honorary Worker of Higher Professional Education of the Russian Federation, Chairman of the Sports Physiology Section and Member of the Board of the St. Petersburg Physiological Society. I. M. Sechenov.
Sologub Elena Borisovna – Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor. Since 2002 lives in New York (USA).
At the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health. P. F. Lesgafta worked since 1956, from 1986 to 2002 - as a professor of the department. Was elected an academician Russian Academy Medical and Technical Sciences, Honorary Worker higher education of Russia, a member of the Board of the St. Petersburg Society of Physiologists, Biochemists and Pharmacologists. I. M. Sechenov.
Foreword
Human physiology is the theoretical basis for a number of practical disciplines (medicine, psychology, pedagogy, biomechanics, biochemistry, etc.). Without understanding the normal course of physiological processes and the constants characterizing them, various specialists cannot correctly assess the functional state of the human body and its performance in various conditions of activity. Knowledge of the physiological mechanisms of regulation of various functions of the body is important in understanding the course of recovery processes during and after intense muscular labor.
By revealing the main mechanisms that ensure the existence of an integral organism and its interaction with the environment, physiology makes it possible to clarify and study the conditions and nature of changes in the activity of various organs and systems in the process of human ontogenesis. Physiology is a science that carries out systems approach in the study and analysis of the diverse intra- and intersystem relationships of a complex human organism and their reduction into specific functional formations and a single theoretical picture.
It is important to emphasize that domestic researchers play a significant role in the development of modern scientific physiological concepts. Knowledge of the history of any science is a necessary prerequisite for a correct understanding of the place, role and significance of the discipline in the content of the socio-political status of society, its influence on this science, as well as the influence of science and its representatives on the development of society. Therefore, considering the historical path of development of individual sections of physiology, mentioning its most prominent representatives and analyzing the natural science base on which the basic concepts and ideas of this discipline were formed, make it possible to assess the current state of the subject and determine its further promising directions.
Physiological science in Russia in the XVIII-XIX centuries is represented by a galaxy of brilliant scientists - I. M. Sechenov, F. V. Ovsyannikov, A. Ya. Danilevsky, A. F. Samoilov, I. R. Tarkhanov, N. E. Vvedensky and etc. But only I. M. Sechenov and I. P. Pavlov have the merit of creating new directions not only in Russian, but also in world physiology.
Physiology as an independent discipline began to be taught in 1738 at the Academic (later St. Petersburg) University. Moscow University, founded in 1755, also plays a significant role in the development of physiology, where in 1776 a department of physiology was opened in its composition.
In 1798, the Medico-Surgical (Military Medical) Academy was founded in St. Petersburg, which played an exceptional role in the development of human physiology. The department of physiology created under her supervision was successively headed by P. A. Zagorsky, D. M. Vellansky, N. M. Yakubovich, I. M. Sechenov, I. F. Zion, F. V. Ovsyannikov, I. R. Tarkhanov, I. P. Pavlov, L. A. Orbeli, A. V. Lebedinsky, M.P. Brestkin and other prominent representatives of physiological science. Behind each named name are discoveries in physiology of world significance.
Physiology was included in the training program in physical education universities from the first days of their organization. At the Higher Courses of Physical Education created by P.F. Lesgaft in 1896, a physiology cabinet was immediately opened, the first head of which was Academician I.R. Tarkhanov. In subsequent years, physiology was taught here by N. P. Kravkov, A. A. Walter, P. P. Rostovtsev, V. Ya. Chagovets, A. G. Ginetsinsky, A. A. Ukhtomsky, L. A. Orbeli, I. S. Beritov, A. N. Krestovnikov, G. V. Folbort, etc.
The rapid development of physiology and the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in the country led to the emergence in the 30s of the 20th century of a new independent section of human physiology - the physiology of sports, although individual works devoted to the study of body functions during physical activity were published at the end of the 19th century (And O. Rozanov, S. S. Gruzdev, Yu. V. Blazhevich, P. K. Gorbachev, etc.). At the same time, it should be emphasized that systematic research and teaching of the physiology of sports began in our country earlier than abroad, and were more targeted. By the way, we note that only in 1989 the General Assembly of the International Union of Physiological Sciences decided to create a commission "Physiology of Sports" under it, although similar commissions and sections in the system of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the All-Union Physiological Society. I. P. Pavlov of the State Committee for Sports of the USSR existed in our country since the 1960s.
The theoretical prerequisites for the emergence and development of the physiology of sports were created by the fundamental works of I. M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov, N. E. Vvedensky, A. A. Ukhtomsky, I. S. Beritashvili, K. M. Bykov and others. However, the systematic study of the physiological foundations of physical culture and sports began much later. Especially great merit in the creation of this section of physiology belongs to L. A. Orbeli and his student A. N. Krestovnikov, and it is inextricably linked with the formation and development of the University of Physical Culture. P. F. Lesgaft and his department of physiology - the first such department among sports universities in the country and in the world.
After the creation in 1919 of the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Physical Education. P. F. Lesgaft teaching this subject carried out by L. A. Orbeli, A. N. Krestovnikov, V. V. Vasilyeva, A. B. Gandelsman, E. K. Zhukov, N. V. Zimkin, A. S. Mozzhukhin, E. B. Sologub, A S. Solodkov and others In 1938, A. N. Krestovnikov published the first in our country and in the world "Textbook of Physiology" for institutes of physical culture, and in 1939 - the monograph "Physiology of Sports". An important role in the further development of the teaching of the discipline was played by three editions of the Textbook of Human Physiology, edited by N.V. Zimkin (1964, 1970, 1975).
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Alexey Solodkov, Elena Sologub
Human physiology. General. Sports. Age
Textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture
Edition 6, corrected and enlarged
Approved by the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Physical Culture and Sports as a textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture
The publication was prepared at the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health named after P.F. Lesgafta, St. Petersburg
Reviewers:
IN AND. Kuleshov, doctor med. sciences, prof. (VmedA named after S.M. Kirov)
THEM. Kozlov, doctor biol, and doctor ped. sciences, prof.
(NSU named after P.F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg)
Foreword
Human physiology is the theoretical basis of a number of practical disciplines (medicine, psychology, pedagogy, biomechanics, biochemistry, etc.) Without understanding the normal course of physiological processes and the constants characterizing them, various specialists cannot correctly assess the functional state of the human body and its performance in various conditions activities. Knowledge of the physiological mechanisms of regulation of various functions of the body is important in understanding the course of recovery processes during and after intense muscular labor.
By revealing the main mechanisms that ensure the existence of an integral organism and its interaction with the environment, physiology makes it possible to clarify and study the conditions and nature of changes in the activity of various organs and systems in the process of human ontogenesis. Physiology is a science that carries out systems approach in the study and analysis of the diverse intra- and intersystem relationships of a complex human organism and their reduction into specific functional formations and a single theoretical picture.
It is important to emphasize that domestic researchers play a significant role in the development of modern scientific physiological concepts. Knowledge of the history of any science is a necessary prerequisite for a correct understanding of the place, role and significance of the discipline in the content of the socio-political status of society, its influence on this science, as well as the influence of science and its representatives on the development of society. Therefore, consideration of the historical path of development of individual sections of physiology, the mention of its most prominent representatives and the analysis of the natural scientific base on which the basic concepts and ideas of this discipline were formed, make it possible to assess the current state of the subject and determine its further promising directions.
Physiological science in Russia in the XVIII-XIX centuries is represented by a galaxy of brilliant scientists - I.M. Sechenov, F.V. Ovsyannikov, A.Ya. Danilevsky, A.F. Samoilov, I.R. Tarkhanov, N.E. Vvedensky and others. But only I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov is credited with creating new directions not only in Russian but also in world physiology.
Physiology as an independent discipline began to be taught in 1738 at the Academic (later St. Petersburg) University. Moscow University, founded in 1755, also plays a significant role in the development of physiology, where in 1776 a department of physiology was opened in its composition.
In 1798, the Medico-Surgical (Military Medical) Academy was founded in St. Petersburg, which played an exceptional role in the development of human physiology. The department of physiology created under her supervision was successively headed by P.A. Zagorsky, D.M. Vellansky, N.M. Yakubovich, I.M. Sechenov, I.F. Zion, F.V. Ovsyannikov, I.R. Tarkhanov, I.P. Pavlov, L.A. Orbeli, A.V. Lebedinsky, M.P. Brestkin and other prominent representatives of physiological science. Behind each named name are discoveries in physiology of world significance.
Physiology was included in the training program in physical education universities from the first days of their organization. On the created P.F. Lesgaft in 1896 at the Higher Courses of Physical Education immediately opened a cabinet of physiology, the first head of which was Academician I.R. Tarkhanov. In subsequent years, physiology was taught here by N.P. Kravkov, A.A. Walter, P.P. Rostovtsev, V.Ya. Chagovets, A.G. Ginetsinsky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, L.A. Orbeli, I.S. Beritov, A.N. Krestovnikov, G.V. Folbort and others.
The rapid development of physiology and the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in the country led to the emergence in the 30s of the 20th century of a new independent section of human physiology - the physiology of sports, although individual works devoted to the study of body functions during physical activity were published at the end of the 19th century (And (O. Rozanov, S. S. Gruzdev, Yu. V. Blazhevich, P. K. Gorbachev, etc.). At the same time, it should be emphasized that systematic research and teaching of the physiology of sports began in our country earlier than abroad, and were more targeted. By the way, we note that only in 1989 the General Assembly of the International Union of Physiological Sciences decided to create a commission "Physiology of Sports" under it, although similar commissions and sections in the system of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the All-Union Physiological Society. I.P. Pavlov State Committee for Sports of the USSR existed in our country since the 1960s.
The theoretical prerequisites for the emergence and development of the physiology of sports were created by the fundamental works of I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlova, N.E. Vvedensky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, I.S. Beritashvili, K.M. Bykov and others. However, the systematic study of the physiological foundations of physical culture and sports began much later. Especially great merit in the creation of this branch of physiology belongs to L.A. Orbeli and his student A.N. Krestovnikov, and it is inextricably linked with the formation and development of the University of Physical Culture. P.F. Lesgaft and his department of physiology - the first such department among sports universities in the country and in the world.
After the creation in 1919 of the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Physical Education. P.F. Lesgaft teaching this subject carried out by L.A. Orbeli, A.N. Krestovnikov, V.V. Vasilyeva, A.B. Gandelsman, E.K. Zhukov, N.V. Zimkin, A.S. Mozzhukhin, E.B. Sologub, A.S. Solodkov and others. In 1938, A.N. Kreetovnikov published the first in our country and in the world "Textbook of Physiology" for the institutes of physical culture, and in 1939 - the monograph "Physiology of Sports". An important role in the further development of the teaching of the discipline was played by three editions of the Textbook of Human Physiology, edited by N.V. Zimkin (1964, 1970, 1975).
The formation of the physiology of sports was largely due to the wide conduct of fundamental and applied research on the subject. The development of any science poses more and more new practical problems for representatives of many specialties, to which theory cannot always and immediately give an unambiguous answer. However, as D. Crowcroft (1970) wittily noted, “... scientific research has one strange feature: it has a habit of sooner or later being useful for someone or for something.” An analysis of the development of educational and scientific areas of sports physiology clearly confirms this position.
Requests for the theory and practice of physical education and training require physiological science to reveal the features of the functioning of the body, taking into account the age of people and the patterns of their adaptation to muscle activity. The scientific principles of physical education of children and adolescents are based on the physiological patterns of human growth and development at different stages of ontogenesis. In the process of physical education, it is necessary not only to increase motor fitness, but also to form the necessary psycho-physiological properties and qualities of a person, ensuring her readiness for work, for vigorous activity in the conditions of the modern world.
The formation of various organs and systems, motor qualities and skills, their improvement in the process of physical education can be successful if scientifically based use of various means and methods of physical culture, as well as, if necessary, intensification or reduction of muscle loads. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the age-sex and individual characteristics of children, adolescents, mature and elderly people, as well as the reserve capabilities of their body at different stages of individual development. Knowledge of such patterns by specialists will protect the practice of physical education from the use of both insufficient and excessive muscle loads that are dangerous to people's health.
To date, significant factual materials on sports and age physiology have been accumulated, which are presented in the relevant textbooks and manuals. However, in recent years, new data have appeared on some sections of the subject that were not included in previous editions. In addition, due to the constantly changing and supplemented curriculum, the content of previously published sections of the discipline does not correspond to modern thematic plans, according to which teaching is carried out in physical education universities in Russia. In view of the foregoing, the proposed textbook contains systematized, supplemented and, in some cases, new materials within the framework of today's educational and scientific information on the subject. The corresponding sections of the textbook also include the results of the authors' own research.
In 1998–2000 A.S. Solodkov and E.B. Sologub published three textbooks on general, sports and developmental physiology, which were widely demanded by students, approved by teachers and served as the basis for the preparation of a modern textbook. The textbook published by them in 2001 corresponds to the new program in the discipline, the requirements of the State Standard of Higher Professional Education of the Russian Federation and includes three parts - general, sports and age physiology.
Despite the large circulation of the first edition (10,000 copies), two years later the textbook was out of stock. Therefore, after making some corrections and additions, in 2005 the textbook was republished in the same edition. However, by the end of 2007, it was impossible to buy it anywhere. At the same time, from various regions of the Russian Federation, CIS countries, the Department of Physiology regularly receives proposals on the need for the next reprint of the textbook. In addition, some new materials have appeared at the disposal of the authors that meet the requirements of the Bologna process for specialists in physical culture and sports.
The prepared third edition of the textbook, along with taking into account and implementing individual comments and suggestions from readers, also includes two new chapters: "The functional state of athletes" and "Influence of the genome on the functional state, performance and health of athletes." For the last chapter, some materials were presented by N.M. Koneva-Hanson, for which the authors are sincerely grateful to Natalya Mikhailovna.
All comments and suggestions on the fifth edition, aimed at improving the quality of the textbook, will be accepted by the authors with gratitude.
Part I
General physiology
Any coach and teacher for successful professional activity needs to know the functions of the human body. Only taking into account the characteristics of his life can help to properly manage the growth and development of the human body, maintain the health of children and adults, maintain efficiency even in old age, rational use of muscle loads in the process of physical education and sports training.
1. Introduction. History of physiology
The date of the formation of modern physiology is 1628, when the English physician and physiologist William Harvey published the results of his research on blood circulation in animals.
Physiology the science of the functions and mechanisms of activity of cells, tissues, organs, systems and the whole organism as a whole. The physiological function is a manifestation of the vital activity of the organism, which has an adaptive value.
1.1. The subject of physiology, its connection with other sciences and its significance for physical culture and sportsPhysiology as a science is inextricably linked with other disciplines. It is based on the knowledge of physics, biophysics and biomechanics, chemistry and biochemistry, general biology, genetics, histology, cybernetics, anatomy. In turn, physiology is the basis of medicine, psychology, pedagogy, sociology, theory and methodology of physical education. In the process of development of physiological science from general physiology different private sections: physiology of labor, physiology of sports, aerospace physiology, physiology of underwater labor, age physiology, psychophysiology, etc.
General physiology is theoretical basis physiology of sports. It describes the basic regularities of the activity of the body of people of different ages and gender, various functional states, the mechanisms of operation of individual organs and systems of the body and their interaction. Her practical value consists in the scientific substantiation of the age stages of development of the human body, individual features individual people, the mechanisms of manifestation of their physical and mental abilities, the features of control and the ability to control the functional state of the body. Physiology reveals the consequences of bad habits in humans, substantiates ways to prevent functional disorders and maintain health. Knowledge of physiology helps the teacher and coach in the processes of sports selection and sports orientation, in predicting the success of the competitive activity of an athlete, in the rational construction of the training process, in ensuring the individualization of physical activity and open up the possibility of using the functional reserves of the body.
1.2. Methods of physiological researchPhysiology is an experimental science. Knowledge about the functions and mechanisms of the body's activity is based on experiments conducted on animals, clinical observations, and examinations of healthy people under various experimental conditions. At the same time, in relation to a healthy person, methods are required that are not associated with damage to his tissues and penetration into the body - the so-called non-invasive methods.
In a general form, physiology uses three methodological methods of research: surveillance, or the black box method, sharp experience And chronic experience.
Classical research methods were removal methods and irritation methods individual parts or whole organs, mainly used in experiments on animals or during operations in the clinic. They gave an approximate idea of the functions of removed or irritated organs and tissues of the body. In this regard, a progressive method for studying the whole organism has become conditional reflex method, developed by I.P. Pavlov.
IN modern conditions most common electro-physiological methods, allowing to record electrical processes without changing the current activity of the organs under study and without damaging the integumentary tissues - for example, electrocardiography, electromyography, electroencephalography (registration of the electrical activity of the heart, muscles and brain). Development radio telemetry allows these received recordings to be transmitted over considerable distances, and computer technology and special programs provide fine-grained analysis of physiological data. Using infrared photography (thermal imaging) allows you to identify the hottest or coldest areas of the body observed at rest or as a result of activity. With the help of the so-called computed tomography, without opening the brain, one can see its morphological and functional changes at various depths. New data on the functioning of the brain and individual parts of the body are provided by the study magnetic fluctuations.
1.3. Brief history of physiologyObservations of the vital activity of the organism have been made since time immemorial. In the XIV-XV centuries BC. e. in Ancient Egypt in the manufacture of mummies, people were well acquainted with the internal organs of a person. In the tomb of the pharaoh Unas, ancient medical instruments are depicted. IN Ancient China up to 400 diseases were surprisingly subtly distinguished only by the pulse. In the IV-V century BC. e. there, the doctrine of functionally important points of the body was developed, which at present became the basis for modern developments in reflexology and acupuncture, Su-Jok therapy, testing the functional state of the athlete's skeletal muscles by the magnitude of the electric field strength of the skin in bioelectrically active points above them. ancient india became famous for its special herbal recipes, the impact on the body of yoga exercises and breathing exercises. IN Ancient Greece the first ideas about the functions of the brain and heart were expressed in the 4th-5th century BC. e. Hippocrates (460-377 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC), and in Ancient Rome in the 2nd century BC. e. - physician Galen (201-131 BC).
How did the experimental science of physiology originate in XVII century, when the English doctor W. Harvey discovered the circles of blood circulation. In the same period, the French scientist R. Descartes introduced the concept of reflex (reflection), describing the path of external information to the brain and the return path of the motor response. The works of the brilliant Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov and the German physicist G. Helmholtz on the three-component nature of color vision, the treatise of the Czech G. Prochazka on the functions of the nervous system, and the observations of the Italian L. Galvani on animal electricity in nerves and muscles were noted XVIII century. IN 19th century developed the ideas of the English physiologist Ch. Sherrington about integrative processes in nervous system, set out in his famous monograph in 1906. The first studies of fatigue were carried out by the Italian A. Mosso. Found changes in the constant potentials of the skin during irritation in humans I.R. Tarkhanov (Tarkhanov phenomenon).
In the 19th century works of the "father of Russian physiology" THEM. Sechenov (1829-1905) laid the foundations for the development of many areas of physiology - the study of blood gases, the processes of fatigue and "active rest", and most importantly - the discovery in 1862 of inhibition in the central nervous system ("Sechenov inhibition") and the development of physiological foundations mental processes man, who showed the reflex nature of human behavioral reactions ("Reflexes of the brain", 1863). Further development of the ideas of I.M. Sechenov followed two paths. On the one hand, the study of the subtle mechanisms of excitation and inhibition was carried out at St. Petersburg University I.E. Vvedensky (1852–1922). He created the idea of physiological lability as a speed characteristic of excitation and the doctrine of parabiosis as a general reaction of neuromuscular tissue to irritation. In the future, this direction was continued by his student A.A. Ukhtomsky (1875-1942), who, studying the processes of coordination in the nervous system, discovered the phenomenon of the dominant (the dominant focus of excitation) and the role in these processes of assimilation of the rhythm of stimuli. On the other hand, under the conditions of a chronic experiment on a whole organism I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936) first created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes and developed a new chapter of physiology - the physiology of higher nervous activity. In addition, in 1904, for his work in the field of digestion, I.P. Pavlov, one of the first Russian scientists, was noted Nobel Prize. The physiological foundations of human behavior, the role of combined reflexes were developed V.M. Bekhterev.
A major contribution to the development of physiology was made by other outstanding Russian physiologists: the founder of evolutionary physiology and adaptology, Academician L.A. Orbeli; who studied the conditioned reflex influences of the cortex on internal organs acad. K.M. Bykov; creator of the doctrine of the functional system acad. PC. Anokhin; founder of Russian electroencephalography acad. M.N. Livanov; developer of space physiology - acad. V. V. Pariah; founder of the physiology of activity N.A. Bernstein and many others.
In the field of physiology of muscular activity, it should be noted the founder of the national physiology of sports - prof. A.N. Krestovnikova (1885-1955), who wrote the first textbook on human physiology for the country's physical education universities (1938) and the first monograph on the physiology of sports (1939), as well as well-known scientists - prof. E.K. Zhukova, V.S. Farfel, N.V. Zimkina, A.S. Mozzhukhin and many others, and among foreign scientists - P.O. Astranda, A. Hilla, R. Granita, R. Margaria and others.
2. General laws of physiology and its basic concepts
Living organisms are the so-called open systems (i.e., not closed in themselves, but inextricably linked with the external environment). They are consist of proteins and nucleic acids and are characterized by the ability to autoregulate and self-reproduce. The main properties of a living organism are metabolism, irritability (excitability), mobility, self-reproduction (reproduction, heredity) and self-regulation (maintenance of homeostasis, adaptability).
