Separation of psychology into an independent science. Separation of psychology into an independent science and its development Separation of psychology into an independent

Prerequisites for the separation of psychology into an independent experimental science:

1. Natural science prerequisites: (see previous question);
2. Theoretical background: the emergence of new philosophical ideas - Herbert Spencer ("social Darwinism"); the development of the associationist concept in the works of James Mill and John Stuart Mill (“mental chemistry”); a firm establishment in the science of that time of the principle of empiricism.

Experimental psychology originated in Germany, and not in another European country, because German science gave priority to a thorough and complete collection of researched facts, relied on the inductive path of knowledge, while in France and England preference was given to deductive and mathematical approaches, due to which even biology in these countries was recognized as a science late. In 1877, Cambridge (England) vetoed a request for the teaching of experimental psychology because it was "an insult to religion to put the soul of a man on the scales". In Germany there were many state-funded universities, while in other countries one had to be wealthy to practice science. For the first time an experimental study of the psyche was applied by four German scientists: Hermann von Helmholtz, Ernst Weber, Gustav Theodor Fechner and Wilhelm Wundt. Each of them experimentally carried out important scientific research in the field of mental processes. But one of these scientists, W. Wundt (1832-1920), was not only a theoretical, but also an organizational founder of the design of psychology as a formal academic discipline “When all the main ideas were already born , a certain person undertakes to organize them, supplements them with what seems essential to him, publishes and advertises them, insistently affirms them and soon "establishes" a scientific direction. Wundt's contribution to the founding of modern psychology lies not so much in his unique scientific discoveries as in his "heroic propaganda of experientialism."

3. Organizational prerequisites for the separation of psychology into an independent science: the creation of the first laboratory by Wundt in 1879. in Leipzig (later a research institute), the opening of a department at the university, the establishment of a journal. The program for building psychology as an independent science by W. Wundt (set out in the books "Materials for the Theory of Sensory Perception" 1862, "Lectures on the Soul of Man and Animals" 1863, "Fundamentals of Physiological Psychology" 1874).
1. Simple mental processes, such as sensations, perceptions, emotions, must be studied experimentally using introspection (subjects report on their mental experiences);
2. Higher mental functions, for example, thinking, cannot be studied by experiment; the method of analyzing activity products is suitable for them.

Wundt called the subject of psychology "direct experience" - consciousness. He believed that consciousness consists of separate elements (sensations and emotions), which, when combined with each other, form more complex mental phenomena. Wundt saw the tasks of psychology in: A) through analysis highlight the initial elements in the field of consciousness; B) establish the nature of the relationship between them; C) find the laws of this connection. The psychological trend that developed Wundt's approach to the study of the psyche was called "structural psychology" (structuralism). Wundt at the beginning of his scientific career developed the "first branch of psychology" - the experimental one, and at the end of his scientific path (1900-1920) he carried out his plan of work on the "second branch" - he traced the stages of development of human mental processes in the cultural and historical aspect, analyzing such "products of activity" as language, myths, art, social principles, laws, morality The value of Wundt's theoretical and experimental heritage in modern science is not highly valued. But Wundt was the teacher of very many prominent psychologists who came to him in Leipzig from all over the world, including from America and Russia.

In Russia, simultaneously with Wundt in the 60-70s. 19 in the program for building psychology on an empirical basis was created by I. M. Sechenov (“Reflexes of the brain”, 1863, “To whom and how to develop psychology”, 1873, “Elements of thought”, 1878).

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Highlighting psychologyinto independent science

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) - famous German scientist, organizer of science. A key moment in the development of psychology is associated with his name, since it was he who organized the first Laboratory for the Experimental Study of Consciousness in Leipzig in 1879 and the first training center where one could get a psychological education - the Institute of Experimental Psychology.

Wundt was the second son in a pastor's family. Many representatives of the Wundt family became famous in various fields of science. Initially, he studied medicine at two German universities (Heidelberg and Tübengen), then studied physiology at the University of Berlin for a year, and later, having already received his doctorate, worked as a laboratory assistant with Helmholtz, famous for his work on the physiology of the propagation of excitation in a nerve fiber and studies of space perception (Schultz D., Schultz S., 1998).

At an organized institute, Wundt lectured on logic, psychology, the psychology of language, cosmology, mathematical logic, the psychology of peoples, the physiology of the nervous system and the brain, and the basics of ethics and law (Zhdan A.N., 1997). His lectures were attended by up to 600 people. Leipzig became a place of pilgrimage for those who were interested in the problems of psychology. The Americans Stanley Hall (the founder of pedology), Hugo Müpsterberg (the founder of industrial psychology) were among those who studied, trained, or simply visited the Wundt Institute and Laboratory; German psychiatrist, one of the founders of modern psychiatry, Emil Kraepelin; the only true student of Wundt was the Englishman Edward Titchener (the founder of the school of structural psychology); Oswald Külpe, founder of the Würzburg School for the Experimental Study of Thinking, and his collaborator Karl Marbe; Russian scientists - psychiatrist, neurologist Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev, psychiatrist Vladimir Fedorovich Chizh, psychologist Nikolai Nikolaevich Lange (creator of one of the first experimental psychology laboratories in Odessa) and many others.

Wundt formulated his ideas regarding the applicability of the experiment in psychology in the work "Essays on the Theory of Perception" (1862), and in the work "Lectures on the Soul of Man and Animals" (1863) he substantiated his conviction about the impossibility of applying the experimental method to the analysis of the products of the human spirit - language , myths, beliefs. By the mid 60s. 19th century Wundt formed an idea about the subject matter of psychology as a science, about its methods and immediate tasks of development.

The subject of psychology. Criticizing the notion that psychology is the science of the soul or inner experience, Wundt defined psychology as the science of direct experience of consciousness nia, where subject and object are inextricably linked. The direct experience of consciousness consists of two series of factors - the objective content of the experience, which reflects the objectively existing external world, and the subjective experience of the subject perceiving the world. In this regard, psychology deals with two types of mental elements. Elements of objective content are sensations (heat, light, tone, hardness, taste, smell, etc.). The elements of the subjective series can be described with the help of elementary emotions experienced by the subject who perceives the world (in the range of pleasure-unpleasure), and the level of activation of the subject (excitation-sedation, tension-relaxation). According to Wundt, the diversity of the subjective world is higher than the diversity of the objective world.

Thus, the elementary components of the immediate current experience of the subject are three phenomena - sensations, feelings tivation. The task of psychology is to exhaustively describe the components of the direct experience of the subject's consciousness. At the same time, Wundt believed that the elements of consciousness (“brain atoms”) are not static and their connections are not mechanical, and consciousness has the function apperception, or "creative synthesis" and integration with respect to elemental phenomena.

In the later period of his scientific activity (the 80s, known as the philosophical decade), Wundt came to understand that in addition to the immediate experience of the consciousness of an individual subject, there is also a huge layer cultural and historical experience of all mankind, which psychology cannot ignore: it is language, myths, beliefs, ie. what Wundt called "the highest products of the human spirit". This line of development of psychology is presented in the 10-volume edition "Psychology of Peoples" (1900-1920). Methods of psychology. An important consequence follows from such an understanding of the subject of psychology: in order to measure the elements of the direct experience of consciousness, it is necessary to apply to an objective series of data experiment, to the second, subjective row - introspection method, for this phenomenology is open only to the experiencing subject and to no one else.

For mental phenomena associated with the cultural and historical past of mankind, as Wundt believed, only descriptive me tod research.

Topics of laboratory research at schoolWundt. In the laboratory of Wundt, the following characteristics of sensations (and perceptions) were experimentally studied: the volume of the visual field and the effects of binocular and monocular vision, color perception, sequential images, visual adaptation and light contrast. In the 90s. work began on the study of other modalities - auditory sensations (Kruger), skin and tactile sensations (Blix, Frey), olfactory and taste sensations. A division into contact and distant sense organs appeared, and hypotheses arose about phylogenetically older (contact) and "younger" (distant) sense organs. In addition, attempts were made to study the duration of elementary mental acts - sensations by measuring the reaction time. Among the scientific topics of Wundt's laboratory was a topic related to the study of not simple reaction time to physical stimuli, but reactions to speech signals, experiments that were also carried out by other researchers (F: Galton). This type of experiment is called the association experiment. Wundt classified a variety of speech responses into the following classes: a) verbal associations that arise as a result of connections established in culture (table-chair, water-river); b) external associations based on the name of objects that fall into the field of view of the subject at the time of the experiment; c) internal associations based on logical relationships of meanings (genus-species, species-species, etc.).

If we talk about the Wundt school itself, then it ceased to exist, since “he was able to attract many, but retained a few” (Yaroshevsky M. G., 1976, p. 309). Many of his students (with the exception of E. Titchener) abandoned the teacher's ideas and stood at the head of individual psychological schools and trends of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Psychology began to develop according to the laws of small groups: a group (school) was formed with an ideological leader, rigid boundaries of membership, opposed to representatives of other schools, with its own publication and organizational structure (Yaroshevsky M. G., 1976). This period of the development of psychology in Russian literature was called a crisis, but looking ahead and analyzing the development of psychology in the 20th century, we can say that this crisis has become chronic. If by the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. in psychology, there were 5 major theoretical areas (behaviorism, psychoanalysis, structural psychology, functional psychology, Gestalt psychology), then by the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. N. Smith (2003) describes 16 psychological systems that include schools as smaller units.

By the middle of the 19th century, an objective need arose for the knowledge of the psyche and consciousness to be integrated into an independent scientific discipline. In 1879, T. Ribot wrote in the book "Modern German Psychology": "We see how the time is approaching when psychology will require all the strength of a person, when people will be only psychologists, as they are only physicists, only chemists, physiologists."

In various areas research work there were ideas about special laws and factors, different from both physiological and those that related to psychology as a branch of philosophy, which has as its subject the phenomena of consciousness. Together with physiologists' laboratory work on sense organs and movements, advances in evolutionary biology and medical practice prepared the way for a new psychology. A whole world of psychic phenomena was opened up, accessible to the same objective study as any other natural facts. It has been found that the psychic world has its own laws and causes. All this created the ground for the self-determination of psychology, its separation from both physiology and philosophy. Thus, the time has come to determine the status of psychology as an independent science. At the same time, several programs for its development developed, which differently defined the subject, method and tasks of psychology, the direction of its development.

The greatest success in establishing the new science was achieved by the famous German psychologist and philosopher Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). He came to psychology from physiology (at one time he was Helmholtz's assistant) and was the first to collect and combine the achievements of various researchers into a new discipline. Calling this discipline "physiological psychology", he sought to part with the speculative and speculative past of psychology. "Fundamentals of physiological psychology" (1873-1874) - this was the name of his work, perceived as a body of knowledge about the new science. He also wrote "Materials for the theory of sensory perception" (1862), "Lectures on the soul of man and animals" (1863), a ten-volume "Psychology of peoples" (1900-1920).

Young people from many countries began to flock to Wundt. Returning home, they created laboratories there similar to those in Leipzig. Historians of psychology have calculated that 136 Germans, 14 Americans, 10 Englishmen, 6 Poles, 3 Russians, 2 Frenchmen went through Wundt's school. It became the school of the first generation of experimental psychologists.

special subject of psychology, not studied by any other discipline, was recognized as "direct experience"; the main method of psychology - introspection - observation of the subject of the processes in his mind. Introspection was understood as a special procedure requiring a special long-term training. According to Wundt, psychology "belongs to the empirical direction, ... this science must investigate the facts of consciousness, their connections and relationships, in order to discover as a result the laws that govern these relationships."

In ordinary self-observation, inherent in every person, it is difficult to separate perception as a mental process from the perceived real or imagined object. At the same time, it was believed that this object was given in external experience. The subjects were required to be distracted from everything external in order to find the initial elements of inner experience, to get to the primary elements of consciousness. When the question arose of more complex mental phenomena, where thinking and will came into play, problems in Wundt's program were immediately revealed.

In his introductory lecture to the course "On the Problems of Modern Philosophy" in 1874, Wundt put forward a program for the development of physiological psychology as an experimental science. Psychology, according to him, “belongs to the empirical direction. This science must investigate the facts of consciousness, their connections and relationships, with the aim of discovering as a result the laws that govern these relationships. Psychology studies the entire content of our experience in its relation to the subject and in the properties directly introduced into this experience by the latter.

home purpose of psychology- analysis, reconstruction (decomposed description) in exact scientific terms of the structure of consciousness (“architectonics”, “sensory mosaic”) of an individual. The methodological task of psychology is to dismember consciousness into its constituent elements and to find out the regular connections between them. The main directions of experimental research: physiological study of the sense organs, sensations and perceptions; psychophysics - determination of the thresholds of sensations and their distinction; reaction time; associations; feelings and emotions.

The result of Wundt's scientific research was a new understanding consciousness as “the ability to see one's sensations and images based on inner experience. Nowhere... do the facts of the reality of psychic life need for their explanation any other substratum than that which is given in them, and the unity of this life does not gain in the slightest if a substance is added to its own coherence, which... turns out to be only an abstract repetition of itself in self-founded spiritual life.” Thus, consciousness is “a combination of mental processes, from which separate formations stand out as closer connections. The state in which this combination is interrupted, such as the state of deep sleep, fainting, we call unconscious.

“Because every mental education consists of many elementary processes that usually do not begin and end at the same time at the same moment, then the connection that connects these elements into one whole ... always goes beyond its limits, so that simultaneous and successive formations ... connect with each other different, albeit less closely. We call this combination of psychic formations consciousness.” Types of consciousness according to Wundt: individual, group, national, etc.

To properties of consciousness Wundt attributed: phenomenalism; “volume of consciousness”; combination, limits of perception; voltage; intensity; clarity and distinctness of impressions (like that of light); "threshold of consciousness". The simplest elements - “atoms of consciousness” (“indecomposable components”) sensations (“sensory content of experience”, insufficiently distinct “perceptions”) are primary, complex ones are formed from them.

Affect Wundt defines it as “a process of changing and at the same time connected feelings and ideas that flows in time.” The mood appears "with less intensity and longer duration of feelings." Feelings are momentary states of affect. Affects are components of volitional processes. Volitional process- a complete process, which includes all parts.

Phenomena of Consciousness formed by association and by apperception. Apperception is a special function of consciousness (“the center of the sphere of consciousness”, “internal power of consciousness”), which manifests itself in the mental activity of the subject (“thinking is the logical connection of phenomena with the help of apperception”) and is externally expressed in attention. Apperception determines the volitional behavior of a person, obeying the “law of creative synthesis”, i.e. apperception synthesizes individual elements, “atoms” of consciousness into a single integrity.

Thus, according to the proposed program in Wundt's laboratory, sensations, reaction time to various stimuli, associations, attention, and the simplest human feelings were studied. Based on them, Wundt formulated the laws of mental life, which he sometimes called principles. This is principles: mental resultants; creative synthesis - mental is not just a sum; mental relations; mental contrasts (grouping of mental elements according to opposites); intensifying contrasts.

According to Wundt, higher mental processes(speech, thinking, will) are inaccessible to experiment and therefore must be studied by the cultural-historical method. Wundt undertook the experience of psychological interpretation of myth, religion, art and other cultural phenomena in his work “Psychology of Peoples”: “Since individual psychology has as its subject the connection of mental processes in a single consciousness, it uses abstraction ... Individual psychology is only taken together with collective forms the whole of psychology...”.

The forms of human society, according to Wundt, are “continuous historical development, leading the spiritual joint life of individuals beyond the boundaries of direct coexistence in time and space. The result of this development is... the idea of humanity as a worldwide spiritual society, divided... into specific groups: nations, states,... tribes and families.”

Thanks to the scientific research of W. Wundt, by the beginning of the 20th century, dozens of experimental psychology laboratories operated in higher educational institutions in Europe and America, dealing with a wide range of problems: from the analysis of sensations and the organization of an associative experiment to psychometric measurements and psychophysiological research. The modest results of a huge number of experiments and experiments, lacking heuristic ideas, did not always correspond to the funds and efforts spent. Against this research background, a whole group of scientists stood out, as it turned out later, which significantly influenced the progress of psychology. She outlined her concept in several publications of the magazine “Archive general psychology". The authorship of the works came from young experimenters who practiced with Professor O. Külpe in Würzburg (Bavaria).

Wundt's student Oswald Kulpe (1862-1915), having moved to the city of Würzburg, he created his own there, the so-called Würzburg School. Her program was a development of Wundt's. Moreover, O.Kulpe himself did not offer either a new program or a new theoretical concept. But he was an "idea generator", a participant in experiments and a test subject. Nevertheless, it was Külpe who managed to consolidate the group of experimental psychologists.

Initially, the range of experimental schemes of the laboratory did not differ from others: sensitivity thresholds were determined, reaction time was measured, associative experiments were carried out. But some, at first glance, insignificant changes in the instructions to the subject determined a further turn in the method and, as a result, the innovative style of the school.

In the laboratory, higher mental processes were studied by the method of "experimental observation", in which the subject carefully observed the dynamics of the states experienced by him. The emphasis was shifted from observing the effects of the subject's behavior on the actions he performs, to the process itself that occurs in the mind when solving some experimental problem. This made it possible to reveal the impossibility for the subjects to describe the emerging states in the categories of sensory elements - images.

It was concluded that there are not only sensory components in consciousness, but also “non-sensory components”. Moreover, the dependence of the process of solving the problem on the preliminarily emerging state, called by Külpe the “setting of consciousness”, was observed. (M. Mayer, I. Ort and K. Marbe called non-sensory elements “states of consciousness”, N. Ah singled out a special group of experiences from them, which he called “awareness”).

Thus, new variables were introduced into psychological thinking: installation- motivational variable that arises when accepting a task; task- the goal from which the determining tendencies come; process as a change of search operations, sometimes acquiring affective intensity; non-touch components as part of consciousness (mental, not sensory images).

This scheme opposed traditional models, according to which an external stimulus served as a determinant of a mental phenomenon, and the process itself was the “weaving” of associative networks, the knots of which were sensory images: primary - sensations, secondary - representations. Novelty of the method and approaches The Würzburg school was to change the direction of the psychological vision of processes:

Transferring the emphasis from the effects of the subject's inner world, presented in the form of sensations, images, ideas, etc., to the actions he performs - operations, exercises, acts;

Fixing not the result, but tracking the process, describing the events that occur in the mind when solving any experimental problem;

A new variable was introduced into the experimental model - “the state in which the subject is before the perception of the stimulus”;

The appearance of the term “setting of consciousness” (instead of Muller's “motor setting”) as a preset for a stimulus and for a certain type of reaction;

When solving a research problem, the subject had an act of judgment (the level of rationality), and not just a sense of identity or difference;

- “elementary psychophysical experience” was transferred to the category of methodological means for studying higher mental processes;

The developed methodology implied both the improvement and complication of the means used, as well as an in-depth interpretation of the results.

The latter provision was reflected in the creation by the laboratory of the method “ systematic experimental introspection". The content of the method included the following requirements: the progress of the task was divided into intervals (using a chronoscope); each of the “fractions” (the preparatory period, the perception of the stimulus, the search for an answer, the reaction) was carefully traced through the “inner vision” in order to reveal its composition. The task became more complicated, acquiring a logical character, which led to extraordinary results: a) the opportunity to follow the path of one's thoughts when solving these problems; b) the emergence of the installation - focus on solving the problem; c) unconscious regulation by the installation of the process of solving the problem; d) the absence of significant significance of sensory images in this process or their ignoring in solving the problem.

The process of developing a new methodology did not escape the flaws inherent in the introspective approach, in which, when trying to reveal the dynamics of thinking, only its final result was revealed. For this reason, some of O. Külpe's colleagues resorted to another means - to reconstruction of the mental activity itself according to the retrospective report of the subjects. N.Akh conducted a series of experiments with hypnotized subjects who, in accordance with the instructions, without remembering its content upon exiting the state of hypnosis, solved problems in accordance with it. These experiments revealed the unconscious direction and selectivity of the thought process. The results obtained prompted the researcher to introduce the concept of “determining tendency” into psychology, which indicated that, unlike association, the course of mental processes is directed by a task that gives it a purposeful character.

The concept of "ugly thinking", which served as the subject of a dispute among her contemporaries about the priority of “discovery”. Within its framework, the category of action is introduced as an act that has its own determination (motive and purpose), operational-affective dynamics and composition-structure; this category was introduced “from above” (from higher forms of intellectual behavior).

The achievements of the Würzburg school should also include the following: 1) the study of thinking began to acquire psychological contours: the presence of regularities and specific properties of thinking (and not just the laws of logic and rules of associations) became obvious; 2) a number of important problems have been posed regarding the qualitative, essential differences between thinking and other cognitive processes; 3) the limitations of the associative concept, its inability to explain the selectivity and direction of acts of consciousness, are revealed.

The subject of psychology in the Würzburg school was the content of consciousness, and the method - introspection. The subjects were instructed to solve mental problems while observing what was happening in the mind. But introspection could not find those sensory elements of which, according to Wundt's forecast, the "matter" of consciousness should consist. Wundt tried to save his program by clarifying that mental actions are, in principle, not subject to experiment and therefore should be studied according to cultural monuments - language, myth, art, etc. psychology, which, instead of this method, interprets the manifestations of the human spirit.

Almost simultaneously with Wundt, the philosopher Franz Brentano (1838-1917) proposed his own program for the construction of psychology. It was presented in his work "Psychology from an empirical point of view" (1874). A former Catholic priest, later a professor of philosophy at the University of Vienna, he was the author of the works "Studies in the Psychology of the Sense Organs" (1907), "On the Classification of Psychic Phenomena" (1911).

The scientist as the subject of psychology asserted the activity of the human psyche, his mental acts, which are the basic units of the psyche: not the actual image or result, but the mental process, not the content of consciousness or its elements, but acts. Therefore, if Wundt can be conditionally called a structuralist, then Brentano is a functionalist.

The field of psychology, according to Brentano, is not in itself separate sensations or representations, but those acts - “actions” that the subject performs (acts of representation, judgment, emotional evaluation) when he turns something into an object of awareness. Outside the act, the object does not exist. When it comes to phenomenal objects, they have existence only in mental acts. Real objects have only potential being. Therefore, "we can define psychic phenomena by saying that they are such phenomena that intentionally contain an object in themselves." According to Brentano, psychology should study the inner experience of the subject in its real and natural composition, including the actions he performs - acts.

According to Brentano, the mental process is characterized by the fact that its object always coexists in it. This coexistence is expressed in three types of acts: a) ideation - representation of an object in the form of an image (“emergence of an object as a pure act of perception”); b) a judgment about it as true or false; c) emotional evaluation of it as desirable or rejected.

So Franz Brentano subject of psychology, like Wundt, consciousness was considered. However, its nature was thought to be different: the field of psychology is not the content of consciousness (sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings), but its acts, mental actions, due to which these contents appear. One thing is the color or image of an object, the other is the act of seeing a color or judging about an object. The study of acts is a unique sphere, unknown to physiology. The specificity of the same act - in its intention, focus on any object.

The theoretical views and approaches of Brentano became the source of several branches of Western psychology. They gave impetus to the development of the concept of mental function as a special activity of consciousness, which was not limited to elements and processes, but was considered initially active and objective.

In an Austrian school, a student of Brentano A. Meinong (1853-1920) created the "theory of objects", which became the theoretical basis of the problem of integrity in the Graz school. It should be noted that this theory made up for the well-known one-sidedness of Brentano's psychology, from which the analysis of the content side of consciousness was excluded. Another Austrian psychologist H. Ehrenfels (1859-1932) experimentally established the fact of integral formations - gestalts, which are the product of the activity of consciousness, thus confirming Brentano's theoretical ideas about acts.

Experimental and theoretical development of the teachings of Brentano received in the psychology of functions Carl Stumpf (1848-1936), a prominent German psychologist, founder of psychological institutes at Munich (1889) and Berlin (1893) universities. K. Stumpf's students different time were E. Husserl, as well as K. Koffka, W. Koehler, M. Wertheimer, K. Levin, later the founders of Gestalt psychology.

The basic concept of Stumpf's psychology is the concept of function, which corresponds to the concept of Brentano's act. In his concept, Stumpf distinguishes:

a) the phenomena of consciousness (“phenomena”) are the primary given of our experience; sensory content of “my” consciousness; they are the subject of phenomenology, being neutral for both physiology and psychology;

b) mental functions - the main subject of psychology, which should study the relationship between mental functions and phenomena;

c) relations - in their pure form, the subject of study of logology;

d) eidos as immanent objects (phenomenal according to Brentano) - the subject of eidology. They have an independent existence as a certain stage of reality, arising due to the directed activity of the subject.

In this case, it is the functions that constitute the most essential thing in mental life and represent the task of research. Phenomena are only material for the work of the soul organism. It is depending on the function that we notice in the integral phenomenon of its part, for example, a certain tone in a chord. Stumpf makes a classification of functions. Their experimental study was carried out on the material of auditory perceptions, in particular music.

Edward Titchener(1867-1927) - the creator of the largest psychological school at Cornell University, was one of the largest psychologists in the first quarter of the 20th century. He became the leader of the structural school, which considers the subject of psychology to be consciousness, which is studied by dividing into elements what is given to the subject in his introspection. The purpose of psychology is to find out the universal laws according to which the structure is formed - the “matter of consciousness”. The subject of psychology for Titchener is the elements of consciousness that are given to a person in his self-observation. Titchener repeatedly refers to the concept, conditions, reliability of self-observation in his works. The main works of the scientist include: "Essays in Psychology" (1898), "Experimental Psychology" (1901-1905), "Textbook of Psychology" (1909), "Scheme of Introspection" (1912).

The main questions of science according to Titchener: what?, how? and why? In this regard, the purpose of psychology is: a) to analyze a given concrete state of mind, decomposing it into its simplest constituent parts; b) find how these constituent parts are connected, the laws that govern their combination; c) bring these laws into connection with the physiological organization. He firmly believed in Wundt's program, while almost everyone lost faith in the possibilities of introspection and in the possibility of finding the "primary elements of consciousness."

Consciousness, according to Titchener, has its own structure and material hidden behind the surface of its phenomena (as in chemists, atoms and molecules are hidden behind “substance”). To reflect this system, a language is needed that would allow one to speak about mental “matter” in its immediate givenness and would not use terms related to information about events and objects of the external world (i.e., it is necessary to overcome the persistent “stimulus error”, get rid of objectivity). All this is achieved by long training in introspection and reporting on it.

In mental matter, Titchener distinguished three categories of elements: sensations - the simplest processes that have quality, intensity, distinctness and duration; images - traces of previous sensations (elements of representations of memory and imagination); feelings - experiences of a certain quality, intensity, duration.

According to the “contextual theory of meaning” put forward by him, the idea of an object is built from a set of sensory elements, some of which can leave consciousness, forming a context, and the “sensory core” remaining in consciousness, where muscle sensations play a large role, is sufficient to reproduce the totality of these elements.

Titchener defines research rules: “It is necessary to become in such conditions that the experience produced is as little as possible accessible to external influence; one must direct one's attention to the stimulus and, having removed it, again call up in the soul the memory of the sensation. Then you need to put into words the processes that make up your consciousness of the stimulus. Thus, defining the requirements for introspection, the researcher indicates that it should not be direct.

Titchener identifies and substantiates the following requirements for introspection: 1) impartiality (otherwise the observation may be false); 2) “We have to manage our attention. Attention should neither be scattered nor wander. This takes practice; 3) "In self-observation, the body and soul must be fresh." Fatigue, physical fatigue interfere with concentration; 4) the presence of a favorable general condition. “We must feel good, pleasant, be in a good mood and be interested in our subject.”

In addition to meeting these conditions, it is necessary to use the “method of averages”. When considering affects, a combination of the method of self-observation and the physiological method is necessary. By the latter, Titchener means recording and evaluating four "major bodily effects": changes in body volume, respiration, pulse, and muscle strength.

Titchener formulates the real law of associations. In an early interpretation, it sounds like this: “One idea causes another when it contains elements that are common to it and another idea. Once formed compounds tend to persist even when the conditions for their formation are not available. Later, Titchener gives a somewhat different definition: “Whenever a process of sensation or image appears in consciousness, all those processes of sensation and image that met with it before in some modernity tend to appear with it (naturally, in the form of images). consciousness."

Thus, in his works, Titchener, among the important structural elements of the psyche, singled out and studied the association as a phenomenon and the principle of combining ideas. From the study of the features of associations, Titchener proceeds to their experimental study, and from it to the establishment of a connection with mental phenomena. In the field of evidence of psychological hypotheses and conjectures, throughout his scientific activity, Titchener remained faithful to considering them through the prism of the method of self-observation.

Titchener raises the question: what was the nature of the very first movements of the organism? Answering, he gives two points of view: 1) consciousness is as old as animal life, the first movements were conscious; 2) consciousness appeared later than life, the first movements are unconscious, by nature - physiological reflexes. In the alternatives: movement accompanied by consciousness - movement not accompanied by consciousness, Titchener takes the first position: "All unconscious movements of the human body, even automatic movements of the heart and viscera, are descended from former conscious movements." The scientist explains his statement:

a) first we learn consciously (to swim, ride a bike, etc.), then we do it all supposedly unconsciously. Physiological reflexes have their "conscious ancestors in the history of the race";

b) we can do everything: hold our breath, change the pulse, dilate the pupils, etc. The realization of these skills is all a return to one's previous conscious state;

c) certain reflex movements of expressive emotional states of mind would be completely inexplicable if it were not possible for them to assume distant conscious ancestors. The sneer, the grunt of the beast, the display of the front teeth, the offensive movements of the lips.

Through his scientific work, Titchener made a significant contribution to the development of the structural school of psychology. Together with like-minded people, he collected, researched, and systematized extensive material used by modern areas of psychological science.

Functionalism as one of the main trends in American psychology in the late 19th - early 20th century was the result of bringing the scientific system of knowledge into line with the objective needs of the development of a person and his social environment, that is, the result of the interaction of the logic of the development of psychology with real social practice. Heightened sensitivity to the possibility of using the achievements of psychology in various socio-cultural and economic spheres of the life of the individual and society served as an essential prerequisite for distinguishing functionalism from the emerging system of psychological knowledge.

This direction developed against a contradictory background: the cult of practicality and entrepreneurship created by the industrial machine that was gaining momentum was reflected in American psychological functionalism. At its origins was William James (1842-1910) - American psychologist and philosopher, creator of the first psychological laboratory in the United States. The main emphasis in his concept of the phenomena of consciousness of W. James is transferred from the image to the action, which led to his leadership in pragmatism, a significant influence on the birth and development of functionalism and behaviorism in psychology.

Psychology was presented to them as a natural biological science, subject which are “mental (mental) phenomena and their conditions”. When analyzing the conditions, the interrelation of the mental and the bodily is especially emphasized, the importance of turning the researcher of consciousness to the conclusions of physiology. Consciousness James considered on the basis of evolutionary theory, as a means of adaptation to the environment. Consciousness "enters" the game when difficulties arise in adaptation (problem situation), and by regulating the individual's behavior in a new situation (filters and selects stimuli, regulates the individual's actions in unusual conditions). He rejected the division of consciousness into elements. According to him, there is a “stream of consciousness”, which is as senseless to divide as “to cut water with scissors”. Thus, a position was put forward about the integrity and dynamics of consciousness, realizing the needs of the individual. James correlated consciousness not only with bodily adaptive actions, but also with the nature (structure) of the personality.

In the theory of personality, James singles out four forms of "I": 1) "I" material: body, clothes, property; 2) Social "I": everything connected with a person's claims to prestige, friendship, a positive evaluation from others; 3) "I" spiritual: processes of consciousness, mental abilities; 4) "I" pure: a sense of personal identity, the basis of which are organic sensations. The social “I”, according to James, is determined by the conscious reactions of others to my person and indicates the inclusion of the individual in the network. interpersonal relationships. Each person has several social “I”, which occupies a middle position in the designated hierarchy.

Raising the question of self-esteem of the individual, satisfaction (dissatisfaction) of a person with life, James proposed a formula: self-esteem is equal to success divided by claims. This implied the growth of self-esteem of the individual both with real success and with the rejection of striving for it. Based on the indicated attitudes, the source of the true values of the individual is in religion: the empirical social “I” is opposed to the “special potential social” “I”, which is realized only in the “social mind of the ideal world” in communication with the Almighty - the Absolute Mind.

W. James takes a step forward from a purely epistemological "I" to its systemic psychological interpretation, to its level-by-level analysis. In his teaching, he put forward a number of provisions that anticipated modern ideas about the level of claims, the motive for achieving success, self-esteem and its dynamics, the reference group, and others.

AT teaching about emotions James suggested considering emotion not as the root cause of physiological changes in the body, not as a source of physiological changes in various systems (muscular, vascular, etc.), but as a result of these changes. An external stimulus causes in the body (muscle and internal organs) movements that are experienced by the subject in the form of emotional states: "We are saddened because we cry, enraged because we beat another." In search of the bodily mechanism of "human passions," emotions were deprived by James of the role of a powerful stimulus of behavior that had long been recognized for them. Emotions were derived from the class of phenomena to which motivation belongs.

AT the doctrine of the ideomotor act the scientist claims: any thought turns into movement, if this is not prevented by another thought; volitional effort is the reason why one of several ideas pushes aside others and thereby takes possession of the muscular apparatus. The subject says: "Let it be!" - and the "machine of the body" obeys him.

The action of an interested subject is the supporting link of the entire psychological system of W. James and his concept of emotions, considered in the context of the possibility of controlling the internal through the external: in case of undesirable emotional manifestations, the subject is able to suppress them by performing external actions that have the opposite direction. As the final causal factor in the new physiological scheme, which affirms the feedback between the motor act and emotion, was “willpower”, which has no basis in anything but itself. One of the goals of the study of emotional states was to turn them into an object accessible to natural science experiment and analysis. The solution to this problem was carried out by transferring the subjectively experienced to the bodily.

Another talented representative of functionalism was John Dewey (1859-1952) - a well-known psychologist, later a philosopher and teacher of the early twentieth century. His book Psychology (1886) is the first American textbook on the subject. But his article “The Concept of the Reflex Act in Psychology” (1896), in which he opposed the idea that reflex arcs serve as the basic units of behavior, had a greater influence on psychological views. Dewey justified the need to move to a new understanding subject of psychology- a whole organism in its restless, adaptive activity in relation to the environment.

Consciousness according to Dewey - one of the moments of this activity, occurs when the coordination between the organism and the environment is disturbed and the organism, in order to survive, seeks to adapt to new conditions. In 1894, Dewey was invited to the University of Chicago, where, under his influence, a group of psychologists formed who declared themselves functionalists. Their theoretical credo was outlined James Angel (1849-1949).

In his presidential address to the American Psychological Association “The Field of Functional Psychology” (1906), it was emphasized that psychology is the doctrine of mental (mental) operations; it cannot confine itself to the doctrine of consciousness, it should study the diversity of the individual's connections with the real world in cooperation and convergence with neurology, sociology, pedagogy, anthropology; operations act as intermediaries between the needs of the organism and the environment; the purpose of consciousness is “accommodation to the new”; the organism acts as a psychophysical whole.

Formed on a functionalist basis, the Chicago School attracted many psychologists into its ranks. After D. Angel, it was headed by Harvey Carr (1873-1954), who reflected his positions in the book "Psychology" (1925). This science was defined in it as the study of mental activity (mental activity): perception, memory, imagination, thinking, feelings, will. “Mental activity consists,” G. Kerr wrote, “in the acquisition, imprinting, preservation, organization and evaluation of experience and its subsequent use to guide behavior.” The Chicago School strengthened the influence of the objective method in psychology. It was considered expedient to use both introspection and objective observation (the experiment was interpreted as controlled observation), and analysis of the products of activity (language, art).

The functional direction rightfully includes the Colombian school, which was headed by Robert Woodworth (1869-1962). His main works: Dynamic Psychology (1918), Dynamics of Behavior (1958). The novelty of his psychological concepts was that an important variable, the organism: S - O - R, was introduced into the formula "stimulus - reaction" popular in the 1920s. Thus, he shares the motivation and the mechanism of behavior. This mechanism consists of two parts: preparatory (installation); "consummatory" (the final reaction, due to which the goal is achieved). Motivation, in his opinion, activates the mechanism and puts it into action. Once the need is satisfied, the application of the mechanism can acquire a motivational force. Reflected approaches turned means into an end, which led from an indefinite interpretation of action as a function of consciousness to a concrete scientific development of this category.

Thus, functionalism sought to consider all mental processes from the point of view of their adaptive - adaptive nature. This required determining their relationship to environmental conditions and the needs of the organism. The understanding of mental life on the model of biological life as a set of functions, actions, and operations was directed against the mechanical scheme of structural psychology. Hence, functional psychology is interpreted as the theory of the “stream of consciousness”.

Proponents of this direction have made a significant contribution to experimental psychology. The natural-scientific interpretation of mental functions was supported by well-known psychologists I. Ribot (France), N. Lange (Russia), E. Claparede (Switzerland), idealistic - K. Stumpf (Germany), representatives of the Würzburg school. The conditionality of the mental act, its relation to the nervous system, and the ability to regulate behavior remained undefined in functionalism.

Developing psychology borrowed its methods from physiology. She did not have original ones until the German psychologist Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) did not take up the experimental study of associations. In the book "On Memory" (1885), he outlined the results of experiments conducted on himself in order to derive the laws by which the learned material is preserved and reproduced. Solving this problem, he invented a special object - meaningless syllables (each syllable consisted of two consonants and a vowel between them, for example, “lok”, “sim”, etc.).

To study associations, Ebbinghaus first selected stimuli that did not evoke any associations. Over a list of 2,300 meaningless syllables, he experimented for two years. Various options were tried and carefully calculated regarding the number of syllables, the time of memorization, the number of repetitions and the interval between them. The “forgetting curve” gained a reputation as a classic, showing that about half of what was forgotten falls within the first half hour after memorization.

In many variants, results were obtained regarding the number of repetitions needed for subsequent reproduction of material of various sizes, forgetting various fragments of this material, the effect of overlearning (repeating a list more times than is required for its successful reproduction), etc. The laws of association appeared in a new light . Ebbinghaus did not turn to physiologists for their explanation, but he was not interested in the role of consciousness either. After all, any element of consciousness (be it a mental image or an act) was initially meaningful, and the semantic content was seen as an obstacle to the study of the mechanisms of pure memory.

Thus, the methods of memorization and saving were used, which made it possible to estimate: a) the number of repetitions necessary for the subject to accurately reproduce the proposed sequence; b) the level of increase in the speed of relearning supposedly completely forgotten material.

Ebbinghaus formulated the experimental data in several laws of memory: the amount of memory after a single presentation is 6-8 meaningless syllables; with a slight increase in the material, the number of repetitions for memorization increases many times over. Therefore, an increase in memory load leads to a decrease in performance; the time required to memorize the material should be distributed over several periods separated by intervals (for example, if the material requires 30 repetitions, then 3 days 10 times is better than 30 times in one day); an older association is more strengthened by repetition and is better actualized than a newly formed one; after the material is learned, it must be repeated; forgetting immediately goes quickly, then the process slows down and stops after a certain time (“forgetting curve”); “edge factor or effect” - at the beginning and at the end, the material is remembered better than in the middle of the presentation; the difference between the memorization of meaningless and meaningful material was fixed: for memorization, it is not the number of elements that matters, but the number of independent semantic units (that is, memory is a meaningful process); training in the memorization of one material leads to an improvement in memorization of material of another kind.

Ebbinghaus wrote a new chapter in psychology not only because he was the first to venture into the experimental study of mnemonic processes, more complex than sensory ones. His unique contribution was determined by the fact that for the first time in science, through experiments and a quantitative analysis of their results, psychological patterns were discovered that act independently of consciousness, in other words, objectively. The equality of the psyche and consciousness, accepted in that era as an axiom - a stereotype, was crossed out.

What in European psychology was designated as association processes soon becomes one of the main objects of American psychology under the name of "learning". This brought to psychology the explanatory principles of Darwin's teachings, where a new understanding of the determination of the behavior of the whole organism and, therefore, all its functions, including mental ones, was established. New explanatory principles were affirmed: the probabilistic nature of reactions as a principle of natural selection and the adaptation of the organism to the environment in order to survive in it. These principles formed the outlines of a new deterministic scheme. The old mechanical determinism has given way to biological determinism. At this turning point in the history of scientific knowledge, the concept of association acquired a special status. Previously, it meant the connection of ideas in consciousness, but now it means the connection between the movements of the organism and the configuration of external stimuli, on adaptation to which the solution of vital tasks for the organism depends.

The association acted as a means of acquiring new actions, and, according to the terminology adopted soon, of learning. The first significant success in transforming the concept of association came from experiments on animals. Edward Thorndike (1874 - 1949), American psychologist, researcher of the problems of learning and the laws of adaptation of the organism. In experiments, he used the so-called problem boxes.

An animal placed in a box could get out of it and receive top dressing only by activating a special device - by pressing a lever, pulling a loop, etc. The animals made many movements, rushed in different directions, scratched the box, etc., until one of the movements accidentally turned out to be successful. “Trial, error and random success” is the formula adopted for all types of behavior, both animals and humans. Thorndike explained his experiments with several laws of learning. First of all, by the law of exercise (a motor reaction to a situation is associated with this situation in proportion to the frequency, strength and duration of the repetition of connections). It was joined by the law of effect, which stated that of several reactions, those that are most strongly associated with the situation are those that are accompanied by a sense of satisfaction.

Thorndike suggested that connections between movement and situation correspond to connections in the nervous system, and connections are fixed through feeling. But neither the physiological nor the psychological components added anything to Thorndike's independently drawn "learning curve."

Thorndike's main book was called Animal Intelligence. Study of associative processes in animals” (1898). Before Thorndike, the originality of intellectual processes was attributed to ideas, thoughts, mental operations - acts of consciousness. In Thorndike they appeared as motor reactions of the organism independent of consciousness. Previously, these reactions belonged to the category of reflexes - automatic standard responses to external stimulation, predetermined by the very "device" of the nervous system. According to Thorndike, they are intellectual, because they are aimed at solving a problem that the organism, using the available stock of associations, is powerless to cope with. The way out is to develop new associations, new motor responses to an unusual for him - and therefore problematic situation.

Thorndike's discoveries have been interpreted as laws of habit formation. Meanwhile, he believed that he was exploring the intellect. To the question: “Do animals have a mind?”, they were given a positive answer. But behind this was a new understanding of the mind that did not need to refer to the internal processes of consciousness. By intelligence was meant the development by the body of a “formula” of real actions that allow it to successfully cope with a problem situation. Success came about by accident. Such a view captured a new understanding of the determination of life phenomena, which came to psychology with the triumph of Darwin's teachings. It introduced a probabilistic style of thinking. In the organic world, only the one who succeeds, “trial and error”, selects the most favorable variant of reaction to the environment from many possible ones survives. This style of thinking opened up broad prospects for introduction into psychology. statistical methods.

A number of achievements in the development of these methods in relation to psychology have been associated with creativity. Francis Galton (1822-1911). Being deeply impressed by the ideas of his cousin Charles Darwin, he gave decisive importance not to the phenomenon of adaptation of an organism to the environment, but to the factor of heredity, according to which the adaptation of a species is achieved through genetically determined variations of individual forms that form a specific species. Based on this postulate, Galton became a pioneer in the development of behavioral genetics.

Thanks to his energy, the study of individual differences was widely developed. These differences made themselves felt in experiments to determine the thresholds of sensitivity, reaction time, the dynamics of associations and other mental phenomena. But since the main goal was the discovery of general laws, the differences in the reactions of the subjects were neglected. Galton, on the other hand, made the main emphasis on differences, believing that they are genetically predetermined. In the book "Hereditary Genius" (1869), he argued that outstanding abilities are transmitted only by inheritance. Using the existing experimental psychological methods, adding to them those invented by himself, he put them at the service of the study of individual variations. This applied to both bodily and mental signs. The latter were considered no less dependent on genetic determinants than, say, eye or skin color. In his laboratory in London, anyone could, for a small fee, determine their physical and mental abilities, between which, according to Galton, there are correlations. About 9000 people passed through this anthropological laboratory. But Galton, who is called the first practicing psychologist, had a more global plan. He expected to cover the entire population of England in order to determine the level of the country's mental resources.

He designated his research-tests with the word "test", which is widely included in the psychological lexicon. This allowed Galton to become the founder of the transformation of experimental psychology into a differential psychology that studies the differences between individuals and groups of people. The merit of the scientist was also the in-depth development of variational statistics, which changed the face of psychology as a science that widely uses quantitative methods.

Francis Galton developed and applied tests to study the functioning of the sense organs, reaction time, figurative memory and other mental phenomena. However, the practice required the study of higher functions in order to diagnose individual differences between people regarding the acquisition of knowledge and the performance of complex activities.

The first solution to this problem belonged to the French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857-1911) - the founder of the first psychological laboratory in France at the Sorbonne (1889). He began with experimental studies of thinking. On instructions from government agencies, he began to look for psychological means by which he could separate children who were capable of learning, but lazy, from those who suffered from birth defects. Studies on the study of attention, memory, thinking were carried out on many subjects of different ages. Binet turned experimental tasks into tests by establishing a scale, each division of which contained tasks that could be performed by normal children of a certain age. Subsequently, this scale has gained immense popularity among psychologists in many countries.

By developing the indicated methods in Germany, William Stern introduced the concept of "intelligence quotient" - IQ. This coefficient correlated “mental age” (determined on the Binet scale) with chronological - passport. Their discrepancy was considered an indicator of either mental retardation (if the “mental” age is below the chronological one) or giftedness (if the “mental” age is greater than the chronological one). This direction is named testology became the most important channel for bringing psychology closer to practice. The methodology for measuring intelligence made it possible, on the basis of objective data from psychology, to solve issues of training, education, selection of personnel, professional suitability, etc.

Achievements in the differential and experimental directions significantly expanded and enriched the subject area of psychology. These were other areas of knowledge than those outlined in the theoretical schemes from which psychology began its journey as a science. Its subject was no longer the elements and acts of consciousness, unknown to anyone except the subject, who had refined his inner vision. Mental reactions studied by an objective method became such. It turned out that their connections, which in the past bore the name of associations, arise and are transformed according to special psychological laws, which are discovered by experiment in combination with quantitative methods. The explanatory principles of directions were no longer sought in mechanics, which provided psychological thought for three centuries with the principles of determinism and causality, but in the Darwinian evolutionary doctrine, which transformed the picture of the development of the organism and its functions.

The rapid development of experimental psychology at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries resolved many theoretical and methodological problems of the new science. The "collapse" and "disappearance" of the subject of psychology, obvious to many researchers, turned into its development, enrichment with new content. The "vagueness" and "uncertainty" of the terms and concepts of psychology are replaced by the improvement of its categorical-conceptual apparatus, the establishment of new means of psychological knowledge.

Psychology and esotericism

Separation of psychology into an independent science Socio-economic prerequisites for the separation of psychology into an independent science: the development of industry and the complication of socio-economic relations, the influence of pedagogical and clinical practice. Oleinik The second half of the 19th century plays a special role in the history of not only psychology, but also of all European science. Darwin and its influence on the development of psychology. Significance of Darwin's ideas for psychology: 1.

8. Separation of psychology into an independent science

Socio-economic prerequisites for the separation of psychology into an independent science: the development of industry and the complication of socio-economic relations, the influence of pedagogical and clinical practice.

(Oleynik)

The second half of the 19th century plays a special role in the history not only of psychology, but of all European science.

1. growing interest in natural science problems.

2. development of technology and production - showed the need for all knowledge related to the material world, the growth of industrial production,

3. An increase in the public need for scientific knowledge, the integration of the efforts of scientists from different specialties in a comprehensive solution of specific problems contributed to the widespread development of the natural sciences.

4. development of chemistry, biology, physics - contributed to the progress of medicine, psychiatry

Political changes: By the middle of the XIX century. France has lost its leading position in Europe. Germany becomes the main industrial, economic and military force in Europe. A natural consequence of the strengthening of Germany was that German science and education also developed at a rapid pace and, in turn, exerted an ever greater influence on the development of European science.

Natural science concepts and methods, progress in related fields have led to the fact thatpsychology began to stand out as an independent science in line with natural science, h which allowed us to solve the following problem:

Studying the mental manifestations of a person based on experimental methodology in planning and conducting research;

Use in psychological research of instrumental (hardware) techniques and experimental procedures, allowing quantitative measure mental phenomena;

Applications of mathematical methodswhen processing the obtained empirical data;

Using the achievements of related scientific disciplines (primarily physiology) in interpreting the results obtained.

The main provisions of the evolutionary theory of Ch. Darwin and its influence on the development of psychology.

Evolution factors:Variation, heredity and natural selection-> reasons for the diversity of plant and animal species, their unity and genetic connection. His teaching was rejected the theory of the constancy of species and the point of view of the divine origin of animals and man.

Significance of Darwin's ideas for psychology:

1. genetic principle- allows you to explain the development of the psyche from lower forms to higher

2. psyche began to act as a necessary side of life, providing adaptation to external conditions -\u003eFunction of the psyche- adaptation to the environment,The ability to observe external behavioral signs

3. continuity of the mental organization of animals-> connection between the psyche of animals and humans

In "Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals","The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection"showed the presence of common genetic roots in the mental abilities of humans and animals (grin, clenched fists - rudiments). Darwin believed that feelings and impressions, various emotions and abilities: love, attention, imitation in its infancy, and sometimes in a developed formcan be found in animals.

4. The birth of comparative psychology -Disclosure of the characteristics of the psyche of animals and humans

5. Development of problems of anthropogenesis - The primary role in the formation of man belongs to language, thinking, tools -> anthropomorphism(Darwin did not single out qualitative differences between the psyche of animals and humans, but this served as the basis for the fight against theology)

6. The birth of child psychology -"Biographical Sketch of an Infant" - observation of his son Francis

7. The birth of differential psychology- genetic factors determine differences between people

8. Defended an objective approach to the study of mental phenomena (observation, experiment)

Findings:

Thanks to the spread of evolutionary teachings, the view of the human psyche has changed. Psychology began to be based not on the ideas of mechanics, buton the objective data of evolutionary biology.
What contributed to the formulation and attempts to solvesuch problems as: adaptation to the environment, individual differences, heredity, continuity between the psyche of animals and human consciousness.
Introduction to psychology of objective, genetic and statistical methods
The emergence of the category of behavior

Achievements in the physiology of the nervous system and sensory organs. The emergence of psychophysics (G. Fechner), psychometry (F. Donders), psychophysiology (G. Helmholtz).

Fechner - psychophysics.Fechner is the creator of the law establishing the connection between the brain and the body.This law represents the quantitative relationship between mental sensation and physical stimulus.

Experiments: The ringing of a bell in addition to one bell already ringing has a different effect than its addition to 10 bells ->the amount of sensation depends on the amount of stimulus.This law has overcome the barrier between mental and physical. But: the stimulus is easy to measure (the weight of the load, the brightness level, etc.) but how to measure the subjective sensation?

Fechner proposed two ways to measure sensation:

1) absolute threshold- that point in the intensity of the stimulus, below which no sensations are recorded, and above which the subject experiences sensations.

2) differential threshold- the smallest difference between two stimuli that causes a change in sensation.

THEN. sensation (thought, mental quality) and stimulus (body, material quality) are quantifiable.

Weber-Fechner Law: If the strength of the stimulus increases exponentially, then the intensity of the sensation increases exponentially.So, a chandelier with 8 lights seems to us as much brighter than a 4-light chandelier as a 4-light chandelier is brighter than a 2-light chandelier. That is, the number of light bulbs should increase several times, so that it seems to us that the increase in brightness is constant.

Fechner also conducted experiments: on the lifting of various loads, the sensation of lighting, tactile sensations. The result of his research wasdirection occurrence: Psychophysics – scientific study of the relationship between mental and physical processes

Findings: Thanks to Fechner's research, the possibility of a quantitative assessment of mental processes was discovered, which was the foundation for the creation of experimental psychology, using convenient and accurate measurement methods.

Donders - psychometry.Francis Donders, Sigmund Exner (coined the term reaction time)

Mental reactions were measured using a chronoscope - auditory, visual, skin.

Used a laboratory experiment: studied reactions of varying complexity, if you compare them -By subtracting the time of the simpler reaction from the time of the more complex one,measure the duration of the processes of perception and thinking. Conclusion: mental processes can be quantitatively analyzed in the same way as the processes studied by the natural sciences.

Chronometric method: Chronoscope -ordinary clock, distinguishing thousandths of a second and driven by electric current.The use of the chronometric method in psychology.

Eg. a sound is given and the subject must press the lever. F. Galton compiled a list of words and opened it in turn, as soon as the subject responded to the stimulus, the stopwatch turned off (you can measure the reaction time)

Helmholtz - psychophysiology

For psychologists, the works of Helmholtz on the study of the speed of passage of a nerve impulse, and the psychophysiology of vision and hearing are of the greatest importance.

1. Nerve impulse speed - first measured on frogs.He also conducted similar experiments on people, but the data even for one person turned out to be different and he abandoned this idea.His research paved the way for experiments to determine the quantitative characteristics of psychophysiological processes..

2. Physiology of vision- studies of the external and internal muscles of the eye, itexpanded the theory of color vision(red, green, purple are the primary colors).He experimentally studied such phenomena as the perception of contrast, the eye, illusions, binocular vision and came to the conclusion that all these functionsare not innate, but are the result of experience and practice.

3. Physiology of hearing -experiments on the study of the tonal composition of vowel sounds.His experiments gave the impression of a talking machine.« The miracle" consisted in the fact that with the simultaneous action of many individual resonator tubes, with the supply of air, the value of a certain vowel sound was achieved.Helmholtz comes to the conclusion about the resonant nature of the sound and auditory apparatus in humans.

Findings:

Helmholtz's experiments in the study of human sensations contributed to the strengthening of the experimental approach in the study of psychological problems.

Development of own thesaurus and explanatory principles of psychology.

MAIN CONCLUSIONS:

The emergence of evolutionary theory, the development of physiology and psychophysiology, contributed to the formation of psychology as an independent science, which has its own categorical apparatus, subject, and most importantly objective methods for studying the psyche, psychology becomes an experimental science
In the 19th century, many different directions emerged within the framework of psychology: animal psychology, comparative psychology, differential psychology, and others. Psychology is an interdisciplinary science.

The second half of the 19th century is the period of separation of psychology from philosophy and natural science, its transition to an independent path of development, the formation of psychology as an experimental science. The transformation of psychology into an independent experimental discipline found its expression in the development of theoretical programs, the opening of the first experimental laboratories in various countries of the world, the formation of national psychological societies, the founding of special journals, the organization of world psychological congresses, the conduct of psychological research itself and the creation of special instruments and experimental equipment.

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	Another path is similar to the split section of the microprocessor on other functional blocks and skin modules for some of its own operations: the operating block, the block of microcommand keruvannya, the block of memory of microcommands, and so on. The same command system may be as a whole with the MP80 command system and it will be more than dekilcom with additional commands about the same language. In the hardware version of the MP85, it is possible to eliminate all the same blocks that and the MP80, but moreover: the block of repair by rearranging which expands the possibility of the attack to ...

By the 70s of the XIX century, there was a need to combine disparate knowledge about the psyche into a scientific discipline different from others. In various areas of experimental work, Weber Fechner Donders Helmholtz Pfluger and many others developed ideas about special patterns and factors different from both physiological and those that belonged to psychology as a branch of philosophy ...

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The plan of the lecture and the content of the theoretical lesson

Lesson plan

1. Separation of psychology into an independent science.

2. Formation of the main psychological schools.

3. Evolution of schools and directions of psychology.

1. SELECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY INTO AN INDEPENDENT SCIENCE

By the 70s of the 19th century, there was a need to combine disparate knowledge about the psyche into a scientific discipline that was different from others. In various areas of experimental work (Weber, Fechner, Donders, Helmholtz, Pfluger and many others), ideas were formed about special patterns and factors that differ both from physiological ones and from those that belonged to psychology as a branch of philosophy that has phenomena as its subject. consciousness, studied by inner experience. Along with the laboratory work of physiologists in the study of the sense organs and movements, the advances in evolutionary biology and medical practice (using hypnosis in the treatment of neuroses) were preparing a new psychology. A whole world of psychic phenomena was opened up, accessible to the same objective study as any other natural facts. It has been established, based on experimental and quantitative methods, that this mental world has its own laws and causes. This set the stage for the separation of psychology from both physiology and philosophy.

When the time is ripe, Goethe said, apples fall simultaneously in different orchards. The time was ripe for determining the status of psychology as an independent science, and then, almost simultaneously, several programs for its development were formed. They defined the subject/method and tasks of psychology, the vector of its development in different ways.

The greatest success fell to the famous German psychologist, physiologist, philosopher Wilhelm Wundt (1832 - 1920). He came to psychology from physiology (at one time he was Helmholtz's assistant) and was the first to collect and combine into a new discipline created by various researchers. Calling this discipline "physiological psychology", he sought to part with the speculative past of psychology. "Fundamentals of Physiological Psychology" (1873 -1874) - this was the name of his monumental work, perceived as a body of knowledge about the new science.

Wilhelm Wundt developed a program of psychology as an independent science. He wrote “Materials for the theory of sensory perception” (1862), “Lectures on the soul of man and animals” (1863), ten volumes “Psychology of peoples” (1900-1920).

Having organized the first laboratory of experimental psychology in Leipzig (1879), and later - the first special psychological institute, he took up topics borrowed from physiologists - the study of sensations, reaction time, associations, psychophysics. To undertake the analysis of a vast field of mental phenomena with the help of instruments and experiments. Young people from many countries began to flock to Wundt. Returning home, they created laboratories there similar to those in Leipzig.

According to Wundt, higher mental processes (speech, thinking, will) are inaccessible to experiment and therefore must be studied by the cultural-historical method. Wundt undertook the experience of psychological interpretation of myth, religion, art and other cultural phenomena in his work “Psychology of Peoples”: “Since individual psychology has as its subject the connection of mental processes in a single consciousness, it uses abstraction ... Individual psychology is only taken together with collective forms the whole of psychology...”.

Brentano's concept became the source of several areas of Western psychology, It gave impetus to the development of the concept of mental function as a special activity of consciousness, which was not limited to either elements or processes, but was considered initially active and objective.

From the level of theoretical ideas about the subject of psychology, one should distinguish the level of specific empirical work, where an ever wider range of phenomena fell under the power of experiment. Long ago, since Plato's times, the "guest" of psychology was the idea of association, It received various interpretations. In some philosophical systems (Descartes, Hobbes, Spinoza, Locke, Hartley), the association was considered as a connection and order of bodily impressions, the appearance of one of which, according to the law of nature, causes those adjacent to it. In other systems (Berkeley, Hume, Thomas Brown, James Mill, etc.), association meant a connection of sensations in the subject's internal experience, which had nothing to do with the organism or the order of external influences experienced by it. With the birth of experimental psychology, the study of associations becomes its favorite topic, which has been developed in several directions.

Edward Titchener (1867-1927), the founder of the largest psychological school at Cornell University, was one of the most important psychologists of the first quarter of the 20th century. He became the leader of the structural school, which considers the subject of psychology to be consciousness, which is studied by dividing into elements what is given to the subject in his introspection, in order to subsequently find out the universal laws according to which the structure, the “matter of consciousness” is formed from them. The subject of psychology for Titchener is the elements of consciousness that are given to a person in his self-observation. Titchener repeatedly returns to the concept, conditions, reliability of self-observation in his works.

Consciousness, according to Titchener, has its own structure and material hidden behind the surface of its phenomena (as in chemists molecules are hidden behind “substance”). In order to highlight this system, a language is needed that would allow one to speak about mental “matter” in its immediate givenness and would not use terms related to information about events and objects of the external world (i.e., it is necessary to overcome the persistent “stimulus error”, clear of objectivity.) All this is achieved by long training in introspection and reporting on it.

Through his scientific work, Titchener made a significant contribution to the development of the structural school of psychology. And, despite the fact that with the course of scientific progress this direction of psychology became a dead end branch, Titchener and his like-minded people collected, researched, systematized extensive material used by modern areas of psychological science.

Functionalism as one of the main currents of American psychology in the late 19th - early 20th century was the result of bringing the scientific system of knowledge into line with the objective needs of the development of man and his social environment, that is, the result of the interaction of the logic of the development of science with real social practice. The heightened sensitivity of time to the possibility of using the achievements of psychology in various sociocultural spheres of human life and society served as an essential prerequisite for distinguishing functionalism from the emerging system of psychological knowledge.

This direction developed against a rather contradictory background: the cult of practicality and entrepreneurship created by the growing capitalist state machine was reflected in American psychological functionalism. At its origins was William James (1842-1910) - American psychologist and philosopher, popularizer of psychology as a science, creator of the first psychological laboratory in the United States. The main emphasis in the concept of the phenomena of consciousness of W. James is transferred from the image to the action, which led to his leadership in pragmatism, a significant influence on the birth and development of functionalism and behaviorism in psychology.

Psychology was presented to them as a natural biological science, the subject of which is "mental (mental) phenomena and their conditions." When analyzing the conditions, the interrelation of the mental and the bodily is emphasized, the importance of turning the researcher of consciousness to the conclusions of physiology. Consciousness James considered on the basis of evolutionary theory, as a means of adaptation to the environment. Consciousness "enters" the game when adaptation difficulties arise (problem situation), and regulates the individual's behavior in a new situation (filters and selects stimuli, regulates the individual's actions in unusual conditions). He rejected the division of consciousness into elements. There is a “stream of consciousness”, which is as senseless to divide as “to cut water with scissors”. Thus, a position was put forward about the integrity and dynamics of consciousness, realizing the needs of the individual. James correlated consciousness not only with bodily adaptive actions, but also with the nature (structure) of the personality.

Formed on the functionalist tradition, the Chicago School attracted dozens of psychologists into its ranks, it was headed by Harvey Carr (1873-1954), who reflected his positions in the book "Psychology" (1925). This science was defined in it as the study of mental activity (mental activity): perception, memory, imagination, thinking, feelings, will. “Mental activity consists, wrote G. Carr, in the acquisition, imprinting, preservation, organization and evaluation of experience and its subsequent use to guide behavior.” The Chicago school strengthened the influence of the objective method in psychology. It was considered appropriate to use both introspection and objective observation ( the experiment was interpreted as a controlled observation), and analysis of the products of activity (language, art).

Supporters of the direction have made a significant contribution to experimental psychology. The natural-scientific interpretation of mental functions was supported by well-known psychologists I. Ribot (France), N. Lange (Russia), E. Claparede (Switzerland), idealistic - K. Stumpf (Germany), representatives of the Würzburg school. The determination of the mental act, its relation to the nervous system, and the ability to regulate external behavior remained indeterminate in functionalism. The very concept of “function” was neither theoretically nor experimentally substantiated and tended to merge with ancient teleologism.

To study associations, Ebbinghaus first selected stimuli that do not cause any associations. Over a list of 2,300 meaningless syllables, he experimented for two years. Various options were tried and carefully calculated regarding the number of syllables, the time of memorization, the number of repetitions, the interval between them, the dynamics of forgetting (the “forgetting curve” gained a reputation as a classic, showing that about half of what was forgotten falls in the first half hour after memorization) and other variables.

Ebbinghaus opened a new chapter in psychology not only because he was the first to venture into the experimental study of mnemonic processes, more complex than sensory ones. His unique contribution was determined by the fact that for the first time in the history of science, through experiments and a quantitative analysis of their results, psychological laws proper were discovered that act independently of consciousness, in other words, objectively. The equality of the psyche and consciousness (taken as an axiom in that era) was crossed out.

Thorndike assumed that the connections between movement and situation correspond to connections in the nervous system (i.e., the physiological mechanism), and connections are fixed due to the feeling (i.e., the subjective state). But neither the physiological nor the psychological components added anything to the “learning curve” drawn by Thorndike independently, where repeated trials were marked on the abscissa, and the elapsed time (in minutes) was marked on the y-axis.

Thorndike's main book was The Intelligence of Animals, A Study of Associative Processes in Animals (1898).

Before Thorndike, the originality of intellectual processes was related to ideas, thoughts, mental operations (as acts of consciousness). In Thorndike, however, they appeared in the form of motor reactions of the organism independent of consciousness. In former times, these reactions belonged to the category of reflexes - automatic standard responses to external stimulation, predetermined by the very structure of the nervous system. According to Thorndike, they are intellectual, because they are aimed at solving a problem that the organism, using the available stock of associations, is powerless to cope with. The way out is to develop new associations, new motor responses to an unusual for him - and therefore problematic - situation.

Psychology attributed the strengthening of associations to the processes of memory. When it came to actions that became automated through repetition, they were called skills.

Thorndike's discoveries were interpreted as the laws of skill formation. Meanwhile, he believed that he was exploring the intellect. To the question: “Do animals have a mind?” was given a positive answer. But behind this was a new understanding of the mind that did not need to refer to the internal processes of consciousness. By intelligence was meant the development by the body of a “formula” of real actions that allow it to successfully cope with a problem situation. Success came by accident. Such a view captured a new understanding of the determination of life phenomena, which came to psychology with the triumph of Darwin's teachings. It introduced a probabilistic style of thinking. In the organic world, only those who succeed, “trial and error”, select the most favorable variant of reaction to the environment from many possible ones survive. This style of thinking opened up broad prospects for introducing statistical methods into psychology.

In Germany, William Stern introduced the concept of “intelligence quotient” (English IQ). This coefficient correlated the “mental” age (determined by the Binet scale) with the chronological (“passport”) age. Their discrepancy was considered an indicator of either mental retardation (when the “mental” age is lower than the chronological one) or giftedness (when the “mental” age exceeds the chronological one). This direction, under the name of testology, has become the most important channel for bringing psychology closer to practice.The technique of measuring intelligence made it possible, on the basis of psychological data (and not purely empirically), to solve issues of training, selection of personnel, professional suitability, etc.

The achievements of the experimental and differential directions, most clearly embodied in the work of these researchers, but made possible thanks to the work of the entire generation of young professionals, implicitly and inevitably changed the subject area of psychology. This was a different area than that outlined in the theoretical schemes from which psychology began its journey as a science proud of its originality. The subject of analysis was not the elements and acts of consciousness, unknown to anyone, except for the subject, who has refined his inner vision. They became bodily reactions studied by an objective method. It turned out that their connections, which in the past bore the name of associations, arise and are transformed according to special psychological laws. They are opened by experiment in combination with quantitative methods. For this, there is no need to turn to either physiology or self-observation evidence.

As for the explanatory principles, they were drawn not from mechanics, which supplied psychological thought for three centuries with the principle of causality, but from Darwin's teaching, which transformed the picture of the organism and its functions.

2. FORMATION OF WORLD SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

In the early 1910s, psychology entered a period of open crisis that lasted until the mid-1930s. At the rate L.S. Vygotsky , it was a crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology and it is an expression of the fact that psychology as a science, in its practical progress in tearing the demands placed on it by practice, has outgrown the possibilities allowed by those methodological foundations on which psychology began to be built at the end of the 16th century! - early XIX century. The way out of the crisis was determined by the search for both new theoretical approaches to understanding the subject of psychology, and new experimental methods psychic research.

The radical change in orientation in psychological science reflected both the demands of the logic of scientific knowledge (transition to biological causality) and actual social needs. This was clearly manifested in the search for factors that teach the body effective adaptive actions, and in the success of psychodiagnostics.

Under the influence of their ideas, a powerful direction arises, which has approved behavior as this subject, understood as a set of reactions of the body, due to the influence of stimuli from the environment to which it adapts. The credo of the direction captured the term "behavior" (eng. behavior ), and it has been called behaviorism. His "father" is considered to be J. Watson (1878-1958), in whose article “Psychology as the Behaviorist Sees It” (1913), a manifesto was set forth new school. It was required to “throw overboard” as a relic of alchemy and astrology all the concepts of the subjective psychology of consciousness and translate them into the language of objectively observed reactions of living beings to stimuli. Neither Pavlov nor Bekhterev, on whose concepts Watson relied, adhered to such a radical point of view. They hoped that an objective study of behavior would eventually, as Pavlov put it, shed light on the "torments of the mind."

Behaviorism began to be called "psychology without the psyche." This turn assumed that the psyche is identical to consciousness. Meanwhile, by demanding the elimination of consciousness, the behaviorists did not at all turn the body into a device devoid of mental qualities. They changed the idea of these qualities.

Behaviorism was the largest trend in American psychology of the 20th century, denying consciousness as a subject of scientific research and reducing the psyche to various forms of behavior, understood as a set of body reactions to environmental stimuli. Proponents of this direction expected that, based on experimental data, it would be possible to explain any natural forms of human behavior, such as building a skyscraper or playing tennis. The basis of everything is the laws of learning.

In psychological science, a new view was affirmed, according to which: the subject of psychology (behaviorism) is human behavior as any external -: the observed reaction of a person to an external stimulus; 2) behavior is the result of learning; 3) the main psychological problem is the formation of the skill of learning; 4) man "is an animal distinguished by verbal behavior."

Along with behaviorism and in the same period, psychoanalysis undermined the psychology of consciousness to the ground. It exposed behind the cover of consciousness powerful layers of mental forces, processes and mechanisms unconscious to the subject. he is able to give an account of what was expressed even before psychology acquired the status of an experimental science.

Psychoanalysis turned the area of the unconscious into the subject of science. Tat the Austrian doctor called his teaching Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939). Like many other classics of modern psychology, he studied the central nervous system for many years, gaining a solid reputation as a specialist in this field.

Having become a doctor, taking up the treatment of patients with mental disorders, at first he tried to explain their symptoms by the dynamics of nervous processes (using, in particular, Sechenov's concept of inhibition). However, the more he delved into this area, the more he felt dissatisfaction. Neither in neurophysiology, nor in the then prevailing psychology, the scientist saw the means to explain the causes of pathological changes in the psyche of his patients. And, not knowing the reasons, it was necessary to act blindly, because only by eliminating them, one could hope for a therapeutic effect.

From the beginning of the 20s (after the end of the First World War), Freud singled out the following instances in the structure of mental life: a) “I” (ego) - regulates the actions of the body in the interests of its self-preservation; b) "it" (id) - the focus of blind instincts (sexual, aggressive), striving for immediate satisfaction; c) "super-I" (super-ego) - includes moral standards and prohibitions, assimilated by a person unconsciously as a product of the influence of society ( manifests itself in the form of conscience). Since the demands of the id, superego and external reality are incompatible with the ego, the person is constantly in a state of conflict that creates unbearable tension.

The task of psychoanalysis is to free the “I” from various forms of pressure on it. A person acquires this opportunity through the action of “defense mechanisms”: repressions - unpleasant thoughts and feelings are expelled into the sphere of the unconscious; rationalization - hiding from consciousness the true motives of actions, thoughts and feelings and attributing others - socially approved; regression - leaving (slipping) in one's behavior to an earlier, primitive level; sublimation - the transformation of the instinctive energy of the psyche (sexual, etc.) into a more acceptable type of activity for the individual and society (a special case: creativity, manifestation of wit).

The psychoanalytic movement has spread widely in various countries. There were new options for explaining and treating neuroses by the dynamics of unconscious drives, complexes, and mental trauma. Freud's own ideas about the structure and dynamics of personality also changed. Her organization acted as a model, the components of which are: It (blind irrational drives), I (ego) and Super-I (the level of moral norms and prohibitions that arise due to the fact that in the very first years of life the child identifies himself with his parents) .

From the tension under which the Self finds itself due to pressure on it, on the one hand, blind inclinations, on the other hand, moral prohibitions, a person is saved by protective mechanisms: repression (elimination of thoughts and feelings into the unconscious), sublimation (switching sexual energy to creativity ) etc.

Psychoanalysis was built on the postulate that man and his social world are in a state of secret, eternal enmity. A different understanding of the relationship between the individual and the social environment was established in French psychology. The personality, its actions and functions were explained by the social context that creates them, the interaction of people in which inner world the subject with all its unique attributes and which the former psychology of consciousness took as initially given.

This line of thought, popular among French researchers, was most consistently developed by Pierre Janet (1859-1947). The first period of his work is associated with the study of mental illness: neurosis, psychasthenia, traumatic reminiscence, etc. In the future, Janet takes communication as cooperation as a key explanatory principle of human behavior. In its depths, various mental functions are born: will, memory, thinking, etc.

In the integral process of cooperation, a division of acts takes place: one individual performs the first part of the action, the second - the other part. One commands, the other obeys. Then the subject performs in relation to himself the action to which he previously forced the other. He learns to cooperate with himself, to obey his own commands, acting as the author of the action, as a person with his own will.

Many concepts took the will as a special force rooted in the mind of the subject. Now, however, its secondary nature, its derivativeness from an objective process, in which another person is necessarily represented, was proved. The same applies to memory, which was originally intended to transfer instructions to other people, to those who are absent.

As for mental operations, they are also initially real bodily actions (in particular, speech) that people exchange while jointly solving their life tasks.

The main mechanism for the emergence of intrapsychic processes is internalization. Social actions from external, objectively observable become internal, invisible to others. It is precisely because of this that the illusion of their incorporeality arises, generated by the “pure I”, and not by networks of interpersonal connections.

German psychologist Max Wertheimer - one of the founders of Gestalt Peihology - studied visual perception. As the main principle of the formation of the psyche, he asserted the principle of integrity. He formulated the basic postulates of Gestalt psychology.

The main postulate of Gestalt psychology stated that the primary data of psychology are integral structures - gestalts, which in principle cannot be derived from the components that form them. The properties of parts are determined by the structure they are part of.

Gestalts have their own characteristics and laws: figures and background (the dependence of the image of an object (figure) on its environment, background); transpositions (reaction not to individual stimuli, but to their ratio); pregnancy (the tendency of every psychological phenomenon to take on a more definite, distinct, complete form); constancy (the constancy of the image of a thing when the conditions for its perception change); proximity (the tendency to combine elements that are adjacent in time and space); closures (the tendency to fill gaps in the perceived figure); attraction of parts to form a symmetrical whole, etc.

So, consciousness was presented in Gestalt theory as an integrity created by the dynamics of cognitive (cognitive) structures, which are transformed according to psychological laws.

A theory close to Gestaltism, but in relation to behavioral motives? - and not to mental images (sensual and mental) was developed by a famous German psychologist Kurt Lewin (1890 - 1947). He called it "field theory".

The concept of "field" was borrowed by him, like other Gestaltists, from physics and used as an analogue of Gestalt. Kurt Lewin, shared the approaches of Gestalt psychology, studied the socio-psychological problems of personality, group differentiation, typology of communication style. He is the author of Field Theory and Learning (1942),

Conclusions obtained from the experiments of K. Levin: 1) for each task there is a hierarchy of goals, which is determined by the ratio of real and ideal goals; 2) to discharge the quasi-need, the achievement of the internal goal, and not the objective goal of the task, is decisive; 3) changes in the level of aspirations are associated with the conflict between the tendency to approach the ideal goal and the fear of failure, and not with the fixation of success or failure.

Personality, according to K. Levin, exists in a “system of stresses”. It moves in the environment (living space), some areas of which attract it, others repel it. Following this model, Levin, together with his students, conducted many experiments to study the dynamics of motives. One of them was performed by B.V. Zeigarnik, who came with her husband from Russia. The subjects were given a series of tasks. They completed some tasks, while others were interrupted under various pretexts. Then the subjects were asked to remember what they did during the experiments. It turned out that the memory for an interrupted action is much better than for a completed one. This phenomenon, called the “Zeigarnik effect”, said that the energy of the motive created by the task, without exhausting itself (due to the fact that it was interrupted), was preserved and passed into the memory of it.

3. EVOLUTION OF SCHOOLS AND TRENDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

An analysis of the development paths of the main psychological schools reveals a common trend for them: they changed in the direction of enriching their categorical basis with the theoretical orientations of other schools.

The direction in American psychology that arose in the 30s of the XX century supplemented traditional behaviorism with the introduction of the concept of “intermediate variables” (i.e., factors that serve as a mediating link between the impact of stimuli and response muscle movements). Representatives of neobehaviorism believed that the content of this concept is revealed in laboratory experiments on signs determined by the operations of the researcher.

The principles of the activity of a psychologist in this regard were outlined by the American scientist S.Stevens ; a) all statements about phenomena are reduced to such simple terms with respect to which a general agreement is achievable (social criterion); b) the experience of an individual is excluded; c) someone else is being studied, but not the experimenter himself; d) the experimenter can analyze events occurring in himself, but in this case he analyzes them as if they were committed by another person; e) only such proposals (judgments) are recognized, the truth or falsity of which can be verified on demand by applying specific operations; f) the main operation is discrimination; g) there is a clear distinction between formal and empirical sentences to avoid endless confusion.

The formula of behaviorism was clear and unambiguous: “stimulus - reaction”. The question of the processes that occur in the body and its mental structure between stimulus and reaction was removed from the agenda. This position followed from the philosophy of positivism; the belief that a scientific fact is distinguished by its direct observability. Both the external stimulus and the reaction (response movement) are open to observation by everyone, regardless of their theoretical position. Therefore, the link "stimulus - reaction" serves, according to radical behaviorism, as an unshakable support of psychology as an exact science.

The essence of the concept operant learning” is as follows. There are two types of conditioned reflexes: S when a response occurs in response to a stimulus, such as R when the first reaction occurs. If this reaction is reinforced, then it is then produced with greater ease and consistency. At the same time, the learning process occurs automatically: reinforcement leads to “fixing” of connections in the nervous system and strengthening of reactions, regardless of the will and desire of the subject. From this, Skinner concludes that with the help of the action of incentives it is possible to “sculpt” any human behavior. Skinner , considering the basic scheme of behaviorism “ S-R ”limited, proposed a new formula for the interaction of the organism with the environment, including 3 factors: 1) the event about which the reaction occurs, 2) the reaction itself, 3) reinforcing consequences. Thus, reinforcement acted as a feedback, selecting and modifying muscle movements.

Skinner's work, like that of other behaviorists, has enriched knowledge about the general rules for developing skills, about the role of reinforcement (which serves as an indispensable motive for these skills), the dynamics of transition from one form of behavior to another, and so on. But behaviorists were not limited to issues related to learning from animals.

The Swiss Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980) became the creator of the most profound and influential theory of the development of intelligence. He developed a method of clinical conversation, a theory of the development of children's thinking. In 1951 he wrote An Introduction to Genetic Epistemology.

J, Piaget transformed the basic concepts of other schools: behaviorism (instead of the concept of reaction, he put forward the concept of operation), Gestaltism (Gestalt gave way to the concept of structure) and Jean (taking over from him the principle of internalization, which, as we already know, goes back to Sechenov).

Piaget built his new theoretical ideas on a solid empirical foundation - on the material of the development of thinking and speech in a child. : Why do clouds, water, wind move? Where do dreams come from? Why does a boat float?, etc.), concluded that if an adult thinks socially (i.e. mentally addressing other people), even when he remains alone, the child thinks self-centeredly, even when he is in the company of others. (He speaks aloud to no one. This speech of his was called egocentric.)

The principle of egocentrism (from the Latin “ego” - I and “centrum” - the center of the circle) reigns over the thought of a preschooler. He is focused on his position (interests, inclinations) and is not able to take the position of another (“de-centered” to take a critical look at his judgments from the outside. These judgments are ruled by the “logic of a dream”, taking away from reality.

By the end of the 19th century, the enthusiasm once aroused by Wundt's program had dried up. Its understanding of the subject of psychology, studied using the subjective method using experiment, lost all credibility forever. Many of Wundt's students broke with him and took a different path. The work done by Wundt's school laid the foundations of experimental psychology. scientific knowledge develops by not only confirming hypotheses and facts, but also by refuting them. Wundt's critics were able to acquire new knowledge by overcoming what he had acquired.

A prominent representative of neo-Freudianism is Karen Horney (1885 - 1953). Influenced by Marxism, she argued in the theory on which she relied in her psychoanalytic practice that all conflicts that arise in childhood are generated by the relationship of the child with his parents. It is because of the nature of this relationship that he develops a sense of anxiety that reflects the helplessness of the child in a potentially hostile world. Neurosis is nothing more than a reaction to anxiety. The perversions and aggressive tendencies described by Freud are not the cause of neurosis, but its result. Neurotic motivation takes on three directions: movement towards people as a need for love, movement away from people as a need for independence, and movement against people as a need for power (generating hatred, protest and aggression).

Another representative of the psychoanalytic movement - Erich Fromm (1900-1980) - rejected the biological determinism of the behavior of the individual, arguing that the nature of the individual in ethical terms is neutral (“neither good nor evil”). The famous psychologist was the most socially oriented of all psychoanalysts. His writings are Escape from Freedom (1941), Man as He Is (1947), Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (1973), To Have or Be (1976).

In the first half of the 20th century, social psychology began to develop actively. A powerful trend in modern social psychology is psychoanalytically oriented social psychology. The interpretation of social relations in it is based on psychological

relationships in the family as in the primary group.

W. Bennis and I G. Shepard distinguish the following phases of group development:

1) addressing the issue of leadership. Includes three phases: a) tension due to the uncertainty of the situation (why are we here?); b) the division of participants into supporters of a “strong leadership structure” and supporters of less rigid forms of group management; c) resolving the issue of a leader (may be delayed and the group breaks up);

2) the phase of establishing interpersonal relationships (“solving the problem of interdependence”): a) the charm of flight (people open up to each other, retire in microgroups); b) disappointment - “fight” (revealed, and what next?); c) agreed validity (assessment of the results, what happened to the group during this time, with the participants).

Cognitive theories in social psychology include: 1) the theory of cognitive correspondence: structural balance (F. Haider); communicative acts (T. Newcom); cognitive dissonance (L. Festinger); congruence (Ch. Osgood P. Tannenbaum). Common to these theories: the individual seeks to remove the internal imbalance, and the group - to maximize the internal compliance of interpersonal relationships; 2) S.Ash's cognitive approach. D. Krech, R. Cruchfield.

A number of other concepts, in particular, the concepts of A. Maslow (1908-1970) and V. Frankl (b. 1905), are usually attributed to the movement called humanistic psychology. Maslow developed a holistic dynamic theory of motivation. An American psychologist, the creator of the concept of humanistic psychology, developed the idea of a hierarchy of human needs, “self-actualization of the personality.” He was one of the first to draw attention to the positive aspects of personal development. He is the author of the book “On the Psychology of Being” (1968).

In Europe, Frankl is close to the supporters of humanistic psychology, but in a special, different from the American version, who called his concept logotherapy (from the Greek “logos” - meaning). Unlike Maslow, Frankl believes that a person has freedom in relation to his needs and is able to “go beyond himself” in search of meaning. Not the principle of pleasure (Freud) and not the will to power (Adler), but the will to meaning - such, according to Frankl, is the truly human principle of behavior

Thus, various branches of humanistic psychology have developed, overcoming the limitations of theories that have left without attention the originality of the mental structure of a person as a holistic person capable of self-awareness, the realization of his unique potential.

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	Identification and analysis of the main Russian economic schools Since the beginning of market reforms in our country, despite a number of positive trends, the task of modernizing and building a developed market economy has not been solved. Of particular interest to us is the following type of interest groups - modern Russian economic schools. In principle, the very fact of the existence of economic schools in modern Russia is a moot point.
10521.		Introduction to economics as a science	16.71KB
	Economic laws and economic categories. Economic relations and their types. The scientific and cognitive function is to comprehensively study the economic processes and phenomena of the production activity of the economy. On the basis of theoretical generalizations of the real factors of the economic life of the economy, the scientific and cognitive function reveals the patterns and principles of the economy and makes it possible to discover the economic laws by which human society develops.
3152.		Identification of the leading group of equipment in the area under consideration according to typical features when calculating production capacity	33.66KB
	The production capacity of an enterprise is the maximum possible output for a certain period in certain quantitative ratios and nomenclature with the most efficient use of a certain set of production resources of production equipment and areas. The unit of measurement pm is the total value of man hours of machine hours or the number of units of production. The theoretical maximum possible output of which can be achieved if all machines and equipment operate in the optimal mode without ...
9817.		Formation of views about living things into a special science	24.16KB
	The creators of the theory of catastrophism proceeded from worldview ideas about the unity of the geological and biological aspects of evolution; consistency of scientific and religious ideas up to the subordination of tasks scientific research substantiation of religious dogmas. In 1859, Darwin created the theory of evolution. In this theory, Darwin generalized all the existing theories and ideas of evolution and resolved the existing differences. In the teachings of Darwin, the basis of evolution ...
8571.		Vidatki to the budget for the economic activity of the state and science	24.64KB
	The main minds have seen the costs of DB ce їх tsіl's directives for the financing of priority directions: agro-industrial complex; vugіlna promyslovіst; atomic energy; transport; Zhytlovo-communal statehood; protection of nature; industry and capital investment. In the rest of the world, most of the money was directed to the capital investment in front of the social development of the village, the improvement of the material and technical base of the agro-industrial complex, the capital investment in the social sphere, the financing of especially important objects of industrial recognition ....
2518.		Understanding microbiology as a science. Morphology and systematics of microorganism	39.75KB
	Navchalna meta: Describe the essence of the main processes of life and life of bacteria. Morphology of bacteria. Fundamentals of taxonomy and classification of bacteria. Morphology of bacteria.
1855.		The contribution of the outstanding folklorist V.F. Miller to domestic science	18.75KB
	Among his many works, the most famous are: “Echoes of the Apocrypha in Caucasian folk tales”; "Abstract on the origin of the Caucasian Jews"; "Materials for the study of the Jewish-Tat language" - texts, a dictionary with an introduction about the history and origin of the Mountain Jews, a general description of their spoken language (Tat) and determining its place among the New Persian dialects.
674.		Branches of psychology	309.34KB
	Psychology studies the regularities of the emergence of the development and functioning of mental processes of the states of the properties of a person engaged in a particular activity, the regularities of the development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life. Features of psychology: psychology is the science of the most complex concept that is known to mankind so far. It deals with the property of a highly organized...

Separation of psychology into an independent science. Separation of psychology into an independent science and its development Separation of psychology into an independent

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