Dictionary of ecological terms and concepts. Dictionary of environmental terms material on the surrounding world on the topic Ecology dictionary

Abiotic factors – impact on the body of components of inanimate nature.

Autotrophs – organisms that use carbon dioxide as a source of carbon, that is, organisms capable of creating organic substances from inorganic substances - carbon dioxide, water, mineral salts (plants and some bacteria). These include phototrophs and chemotrophs.

Agroecosystems (agricultural ecosystems, agrocenoses) – artificial ecosystems, arising from human agricultural activities (arable land, hayfields, pastures).

Morphological adaptations – changes in the structure of organisms. For example, leaf modification in desert plants.

Physiological adaptations – changes in the physiology of organisms. For example, the ability of a camel to provide the body with moisture by oxidizing fat reserves.

Ethological adaptations – changes in the behavior of organisms. For example, seasonal migrations of mammals and birds, hibernation in winter.

Adaptation – adaptation to the environment developed by organisms in the process of evolution.

allelopathy(antibiosis) is a special case of amensalism, in which the waste products of one organism are released into the external environment, poisoning it and making it unsuitable for the life of another. Common in plants, fungi, bacteria.

Allergens – factors that can cause allergy. Allergens can be pathogenic and non-pathogenic microbes, house dust, animal hair, plant pollen, drugs, gasoline, chloramine, meat, vegetables, fruits, berries, etc.

Allergy – perverse sensitivity or reactivity of the organism to a particular substance, the so-called allergen.

Amensalism – relationships in which one organism affects another and suppresses its vital activity, and itself does not experience any negative influences from the suppressed. For example, spruce and plants of the lower tier.

Anabiosis - complete suspension of life. In a state of anabiosis, organisms become resistant to various influences (rotifers, tardigrades, small nematodes, seeds and spores of plants, spores of bacteria and fungi). Anabiosis is a rather rare phenomenon and is an extreme state of rest in wildlife, the state of anabiosis is possible only with almost complete dehydration of organisms. Cm. Hypobiosis and Cryptobiosis.

Anaerobes obligate – organisms that are unable to live in an oxygen environment (some bacteria).

Anaerobes are facultative- organisms that can live both in the presence of oxygen and without it (some bacteria and fungi).

Anemophilia - wind pollination method. Anemophilous plants include all gymnosperms and about 10% of angiosperms (beech, birch, walnut, hemp, casuarina, haze, sedge, cereals, etc.).

Anemochory - settlement by means of air currents. Anemochory is characteristic of spores, seeds and fruits of plants, protozoan cysts, small insects, spiders, etc.

Antibiosis – cm. Allelopathy.

Anthropogenesis – the origin of man, his formation as a species.

Anthropogenic factors – impact on the body of human activity.

Anthropogenic circulation (metabolism) of substances – circulation (metabolism) of substances, driving force which is human activity. Due to the openness of the anthropogenic cycle, it is often called an exchange.

anthroposphere – the sphere of the Earth where humanity lives and where it temporarily penetrates (with the help of satellites, etc.). The concept of "anthroposphere" is used to characterize the spatial position of mankind and its economic activity.

anthropocentrism – a type of social consciousness based on the idea of ​​"human exclusivity", the opposition of man to nature.

Upwelling - the rise of cold waters from the depths of the ocean, when winds move water from a steep continental slope, and in return for it, water enriched with water rises from the depths biogenic elements.

area – the space on which population or view generally occurs throughout its life.

Atmosphere – a continuous air shell of the Earth, consisting of a mixture of gases, water vapor and dust particles.

Outwelling – brought nutrients from land to coastal waters, which are ecotones between freshwater and marine ecosystems(estuaries, estuaries, river mouths, coastal bays, etc.).

autecology(ecology of individuals, factorial ecology) - a branch of ecology that studies the relationship of individuals (organism) with the environment.

acidophiles – plants that live in soils with a pH<6,7.

Aerobes – organisms that can live only in an oxygen environment (animals, plants, some bacteria and fungi).

Basiphylls – plants living on soils with pH> 7.0.

Bental – the bottom of the ocean or sea as a habitat for bottom organisms - benthos.

Benthos – organisms living on the bottom and in the ground (attached algae and higher plants, crustaceans, mollusks, sea ​​stars and etc.). Allocate phytobenthos and zoobenthos.

Nutrient – inanimate bodies formed as a result of the vital activity of living organisms (some sedimentary rocks: limestone, chalk, etc., as well as oil, gas, coal, atmospheric oxygen, etc.).

Biogenic elements – chemical elements that are

into the composition of living organisms and at the same time perform biological functions.

Biogeochemical cycle (biogeochemical cycles) – part biological cycle, composed of exchange cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur and others biogenic elements.

Biogeocenosis – homogeneous area of ​​the earth's surface with a certain composition of living (biocenosis) and inert (biotope) components united by the metabolism and energy into a single natural complex.

Bioindicators – living organisms, by the presence, condition and behavior of which one can judge changes in the environment.

Bioindication – detection and determination of biologically and ecologically significant anthropogenic loads based on the response of living organisms and their communities to them.

Bio-inert substance – bio-inert bodies, which are the result of joint activities living organisms and geological processes (soils, silts, weathering crust, etc.).

Biological products (productivity) – growth biomass in an ecosystem created in a unit of time. It is divided into primary and secondary products.

biological rhythms – periodically recurring changes in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena. For example, rhythm in cell division, DNA and RNA synthesis, secretion of hormones, daily movement of leaves and petals towards the Sun, autumn leaf fall, seasonal lignification of wintering shoots, seasonal migrations of birds and mammals, etc.

biological clock of the body- endogenous biological rhythms, giving the body the opportunity to navigate in time and prepare in advance for the upcoming changes in the environment.

Biological (biotic) cycle- circulation of matter the driving force of which is the activity of living organisms. The main energy source of the cycle is solar radiation, which generates photosynthesis.

Biome – a set of various groups of organisms and their habitat in a certain landscape-geographical zone (for example, in the tundra, taiga, steppe, etc.).

Biomass – mass of organisms of a certain group (producers, consumers, decomposers) or the community as a whole.

Biosphere – the shell of the Earth, the composition, structure and properties of which are to one degree or another determined by the present or past activities of living organisms.

biosphere reserves – constituent parts of a series state natural reserves, used for background monitoring of biospheric processes.

biota – a historically established set of living organisms united by a common area of ​​​​distribution. For example, tundra biota, soil biota, etc.

Biotic factors – impact on other living organisms.

Biotope – a certain territory with its own abiotic environmental factors habitat (climate, soil).

Biotrophs – heterotrophic organisms that use other living organisms as food. These include zoophagous and phytophages.

Biocenosis – totality populations different species, living in a certain area.

Gross primary production – general biomass, created by plants during photosynthesis. Part of it is spent on maintaining the life of plants - spending on respiration (40–70%). The rest is called net primary production.

"Explosion" demographic – a sharp increase in population, resulting in a decrease in mortality against a background of high birth rates. Its causes are associated with changes in socio-economic or general environmental conditions of life (including the level of health care).

Type biological – a set of individuals with a hereditary similarity of morphological, physiological and biochemical features, capable of crossing with the formation of fertile offspring, adapted to certain living conditions and occupying a certain area in nature (range).

Species structure of biocenosis – the number of species that make up a given biocenosis, and the ratio of their number or mass.

Species diversity of biocenosis – the number of species in a given community. There are α-diversity - species diversity in a given habitat, and β-diversity - the sum of all species of all habitats in a given area.

Vicarious (replacement) species – Ecologically similar but not related species that can occupy the same ecological niches.

Violenti(siloviki) - species that suppress all competitors (for example, trees that form primary forests).

Renewable natural resources which are constantly restored as they are used ( animal world, vegetation, soil).

Age structure (age composition) of the population – ratio in populations individuals of different age groups.

"Second Nature" – changes natural environment, artificially caused by people and characterized by a lack of self-maintenance, that is, gradually collapsing without the supporting influence of a person (arable land, forest plantations, artificial reservoirs, etc.).

secondary production– biomass, consumers.

"Minor" types - few and rare in biocenosis kinds.

Survival – the absolute number of individuals (or the percentage of the original number of individuals) surviving in populations for a certain period of time.

Altitudinal zonality – a natural change in the natural environment with an ascent to the mountains from their foot to the top.

Halophiles – saline soil animals. halophytes – plants in saline soils.

Heliophytes obligate (light-loving plants) – plants growing in good light conditions.

Heliophytes facultative (shade-tolerant plants) – plants that can live in both good light conditions and shading conditions.

Helophytes – variety hydrophytes - plants that live in swamps and marshy meadows.

Hemicryptophytes – plants whose renewal buds are at the level of the soil surface, or in its most superficial layer, often covered with litter (most perennial grasses).

Genetic structure of the population – ratio in populations different genotypes and alleles.

gene pool – the totality of the genes of all individuals populations.

Geobionts – animals that live permanently in the soil, the entire development cycle of which takes place in the soil environment.

geoxenes – animals that occasionally visit the soil for temporary shelter or shelter.

geological cycle – cycle of substances, the driving force of which is exogenous and endogenous geological processes.

Geophiles - animals, part of the development cycle of which (more often one of the phases) necessarily passes in the soil.

geophytes – a variety of cryptophytes.

Heterothermic organisms – Group homoiothermic organisms, in which periods of maintaining a constantly high body temperature are replaced by periods of its decrease when falling into hibernation during an unfavorable period of the year (ground squirrels, marmots, hedgehogs, bats, etc.).

Heterotrophs – organisms that use organic compounds as a carbon source, that is, organisms that feed on ready-made organic matter (animals, fungi and most bacteria).

hygrophiles – moisture-loving organisms.

Hygrophytes – plants of moist habitats that do not tolerate water deficiency. These include, in particular, aquatic, plants - hydrophytes and hydatophytes.

Hydatophytes – aquatic plants, wholly or mostly immersed in water (for example, pondweed, water lily).

Hydrosphere – discontinuous water shell of the Earth, located between atmosphere and lithosphere and includes everything: oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, as well as groundwater, ice, snow of polar and high mountain regions.

Hydrophytes - aquatic plants attached to the ground and immersed in water only with their lower parts (for example, reeds).

Guilds – groups of species in a community that have similar functions and niches of the same size, that is, the role of which in the community is the same or comparable (for example, rainforest lianas are represented by many plant species).

Hypobiosis ( compelled rest) - inhibition of activity, or torpor, occurs under the direct pressure of adverse conditions (with a lack of heat, water, oxygen, etc.) and stops almost immediately after these conditions return to normal (some species of arthropods, such as springtails, a number of flies , ground beetles, etc.). Cm. Anabiosis and Cryptobiosis.

Global Simulation – predicting the future of the whole world based on mathematical models and computer technology.

Homeostasis - dynamic balance of processes occurring in the body, population, biocenosis, ecosystem.

homeothermic organisms – organisms capable of maintaining core body temperature at a relatively constant level regardless of ambient temperature (birds and mammals).

Horizontal zoning – a regular change in the natural environment in the direction from the equator to the poles.

State natural reserves – territories and water areas that are completely withdrawn from normal economic use in order to preserve the natural complex in a natural state.

State standard (GOST) - normative and technical document that establishes a set of norms, rules, requirements, mandatory for execution.

Humus – the bulk of organic matter soil, completely lost the features of the anatomical structure.

Soil degradation – quality degradation soil as a result of the decline fertility.

Demecology(population ecology, population ecology) - a branch of ecology that studies the relationship of a population, species with the environment.

Dendrological parks and botanical gardens – collections of trees, shrubs and herbs created by man in order to preserve biodiversity and enrich the plant world, as well as for scientific, educational, cultural and educational purposes.

Detritus - small particles of the remains of organisms and their excretion.

Detrital food chains (decomposition chains)- food chains starting from the dead remains of plants, corpses and excrement of animals. For example, detritus → detritivores → predators → microphages → predators → macrophages.

Detritophages - organisms that feed on detritus. Saprotrophs.

Jute - mass loss of livestock as a result of ice, depriving the animals of food.

Dominant species - species that dominate biocenosis by number.

Medium capacity – quantitative characteristic of the set of conditions that limit the growth of the population.

Hard control – direct, immediate impact on nature, grossly violating natural processes with the help of technical means, a radical transformation of the very mechanisms and systems of nature. For example, plowing land, building dams on rivers.

Living matter – living organisms that inhabit the Earth.

life form of an organism – morphological type of adaptation of a plant or animal to certain living conditions and a certain way of life.

Pollution – bringing in environment or the emergence in it of new (usually not characteristic of it) harmful chemical, physical, biological, informational agents. Pollution can occur as a result of natural causes (natural) or under the influence of human activities (anthropogenic pollution).

pollutant – any natural or anthropogenic agent that enters the environment or occurs in it in quantities beyond the natural background. A pollutant is also called an object that serves as a source of environmental pollution. The English word "pollutant" is also used.

Pollutant – chemical that causes pollution.

Reserves – territories created for a certain period (in some cases permanently) to preserve or restore natural complexes or their components and maintain the ecological balance. Preserves preserve and restore population densities of one or more species of animals or plants, as well as natural landscapes, water bodies, etc.

Replaceable Natural Resources- Natural resources, which can be replaced by others now or in the foreseeable future (all minerals, energy resources).

tolerance zone – interval of quantitative values environmental factor between the upper and lower endurance limits.

zoobenthos – animal component of benthos (crustaceans, mollusks, starfish, etc.). Zooplankton – animal component of plankton (single-celled animals, crustaceans, jellyfish, etc.).

Zoophages – heterotrophic organisms that use live animals as food. Cm. Biotrophs.

Zoocenosis – animal component biocenosis.

Invasion - the penetration of dispersing individuals into territories not yet occupied by the species, their settlement and the formation of new populations.

Exhaustible natural resources- Natural resources, the number of which is limited both absolutely and relatively (minerals, soils, biological resources). They are divided into non-renewable and renewable natural resources.

Cadastres of natural resources – this is a set of economic, environmental, organizational and technical indicators that characterizes the quantity and quality of a natural resource, as well as the composition and categories of users of this resource.

Cannibalism – a special case of predation, when killing and eating their own kind occurs.

Carcinogens – factors that can cause malignant and benign neoplasms (ultraviolet, x-ray and gamma rays, benzpyrene, some viruses, etc.).

Environmental quality – a set of indicators characterizing the state environment, the degree of conformity of the environment of a person's life to his needs.

lodging – cm. Sinoikia.

Acid rain - rain or snow acidified to pH< 5,6 из-за растворения в атмосферной влаге антропогенных выбросов (диоксид серы, оксиды азота, хлороводород и пр.).

climax community – community in balance with the environment.

Climate – multi-year regime weather.

The colony – group settlement of sedentary animals, both long-term and arising only for the breeding season (loons, bees, ants, etc.).

Command and Administration – management of nature users, based on the establishment of norms, standards, rules for nature management and relevant targets for environmental protection enterprises and punishments from reprimand to imprisonment or dismissal and payment of fines to enterprises and their management.

Commensalism – a relationship in which one of the partners benefits from cohabitation, while the other is indifferent to the presence of the first. Cm. Trophobiosis and Sinoikia.

Convergence – external similarity that occurs in representatives of different unrelated groups and species as a result of a similar lifestyle.

Competition – relationships in which organisms compete with each other for the same environmental resources with a lack of them. Competition happens indirect (passive)– consumption of environmental resources necessary for both species, and direct (active)- suppression of one species by another; intraspecific– rivalry between individuals of the same species, and interspecific- rivalry between individuals different types.

consortium – structural unit biocenosis, uniting autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms on the basis of spatial (topical) and nutritional (trophic) links around the central member (nucleus). For example, a single tree or a group of trees (an edificator plant) and organisms associated with it.

constructive impact – human activity aimed at restoring the natural environment, disturbed as a result of human economic activity or natural processes. For example, reclamation of landscapes, restoration of the number of rare species of animals and plants, etc.

Consumers(macroconsumers, phagotrophs) - heterotrophic organisms that consume organic matter producers or other consumers (animals, heterotrophic plants, some microorganisms). Consumers are of the first order (herbivorous animals), second order (primary predators that feed on herbivores), third order (secondary predators that feed on carnivores), etc.

Environmental monitoring – checking the compliance of indicators environmental quality(water, atmospheric air, soils, etc.) established norms and requirements (maximum concentration limit, VAT, maximum allowable income, maximum allowance, etc.).

coprophages – organisms that feed on excrement, mainly mammals. Cm. Saprotrophs.

Indirect (indirect) impact – change in nature as a result of chain reactions or secondary phenomena associated with human economic activity.

Cosmopolitans – species of plants and animals that are found in most of the inhabited areas of the Earth (for example, houseflies, gray rats).

Inert substance - inanimate bodies formed as a result of processes not related to the activity of living organisms (rocks of igneous and metamorphic origin, some sedimentary rocks).

Co-evolution of society and nature – joint, interconnected evolution of society and nature.

edge effect – increase in species diversity in transition zones between communities (ecotones).

"Red Tides" – mass development of pyrophytic algae associated with excessive discharge of organic matter into the ocean. Were recorded off the coast of Florida, India, Australia, Japan, the Black Sea, etc.

Survival Curves – curves reflecting how, with aging, the number of individuals of the same age decreases in populations.

Cryophiles – organisms that live at low temperatures.

Cryptobiosis ( physiological rest) – a state of reduced vital activity as a result of partial inhibition of metabolism, is associated with a complex of physiological changes in the body that occur in advance, before the onset of adverse seasonal changes (plant seeds, cysts and spores of various microorganisms, fungi, algae, hibernation of mammals, deep dormancy of plants). Cm. Anabiosis and Hypobiosis.

Cryptophytes – plants whose renewal buds are hidden in the soil (geophytes) or underwater (hydrophytes)(bulbous, tuberous and rhizomatous plants).

Circulation of substances – multiple participation of substances in the processes occurring in atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, including those layers that are part of the Earth's biosphere.

Xenobiotics – pollutants environment from any class of chemical compounds that do not occur naturally ecosystems.

Xerophiles – dry organisms.

Xerophytes – dry habitat plants that can tolerate overheating and dehydration. These include succulents and sclerophytes.

K-strategists (K-species, K-populations) – populations of slowly reproducing, but more competitive individuals (humans, trees, etc.)

Limitation of nature use – the payment for the overlimit use of natural resources and environmental pollution is several times higher than the payment for the use and pollution within the limits of the standards (limits) established by the enterprise.

Limiting (limiting) factor- environmental factor, the quantitative value of which goes beyond endurance limits kind.

Limnic zone – the water column to a depth where only 1% of the sunlight penetrates and where it fades photosynthesis.

Littoral zone - the water column where sunlight reaches the bottom.

Lithosphere – the outer hard shell of the Earth, including the earth's crust and the upper solid layer of the mantle.

Lithophytes (petrophytes) – plants that settle on stones, rocks or in their cracks.

Maximum Lifespan (MPL) – this is lifespan, to which only a small fraction of individuals can survive in real environmental conditions.

Low Waste Technology – a method of production that ensures the most efficient use of raw materials and energy, with a minimum of waste and energy loss.

Material incentives for environmental protection activities – ensuring the profitability of nature protection activities for nature users.

mesotrophs – plants requiring a moderate amount of ash elements.

Mesophiles - organisms that live in both wet and dry habitats.

Mesophytes – plants of moderately humid habitats;

intermediate group between hydrophytes and xerophytes.

habitat – is the territory or water area occupied by population (species) with a complex of environmental factors inherent in it.

Microbocenosis – microbial component biocenosis.

Mixotrophs – organisms that can both synthesize organic substances from inorganic ones and feed on ready-made organic compounds (insectivorous plants, representatives of the euglenoid algae department, some bacteria, etc.). Cm. Autotrophs and Heterotrophs.

Mineralization – conversion of organic residues into inorganic substances.

Mosaic – horizontal structure biocenosis.

Environmental monitoring (environmental monitoring) – a system for monitoring, evaluating and predicting the state of the natural environment surrounding a person. Monitoring happens background (base)- monitoring of natural phenomena and processes occurring in a natural setting, without anthropogenic influence (carried out on the basis of biosphere reserves); impact– monitoring of anthropogenic impacts in especially dangerous areas, global– tracking the development of global biospheric processes and phenomena (for example, the state of the ozone layer, climate change), regional– monitoring of natural and anthropogenic processes and phenomena within a certain region (for example, the state of Lake Baikal), local– monitoring within a small area (for example, monitoring the air quality in a city).

Mutagens – factors that can cause mutations (ultraviolet, x-ray and gamma rays, high or low temperature, benzpyrene, nitrous acid, some viruses, etc.).

Mutualism(obligate symbiosis) - mutually beneficial cohabitation, when either one of the partners, or both cannot exist without a cohabitant. For example, herbivorous ungulates and cellulose-destroying bacteria.

Soft control - mainly indirect, mediated impact on nature using natural mechanisms of self-regulation, that is, the ability of natural systems to restore their properties after anthropogenic interference. For example, agroforestry.

Freeloading – cm. Trophobiosis.

National parks – relatively large natural territories and water areas, where the fulfillment of three main goals is ensured: environmental (maintaining the ecological balance and preserving natural ecosystems), recreational (regulated tourism and recreation of people) and scientific (development and implementation of methods for preserving the natural complex in conditions of mass admission of visitors). In national parks there are zones of economic use.

Non-renewable natural resources- exhaustible natural resources, which are absolutely not restored (coal, oil and most other minerals) or are restored much more slowly than they are being used (peat bogs, many sedimentary rocks).

Irreplaceable Natural Resources- Natural resources, which cannot be replaced by other natural resources (atmospheric air, water, the genetic fund of living organisms).

Inexhaustible natural resources- Natural resources, the number of which is not limited, but not absolute, but relative to our needs and periods of existence (the waters of the oceans, fresh waters, atmospheric air, wind energy, solar radiation, the energy of sea tides).

Neuston – organisms that live near the surface of the water.

Neutralism – cohabitation of two species in the same territory, which has neither positive nor negative consequences for them. For example, squirrels and moose.

Neutrophils – plants living on soils with pH = 6.7–7.0.

Necrophages - heterotrophic organisms that use animal carcasses as food.

Necrophages(corpse eaters) - organisms that feed on the corpses of animals. Cm. Saprotrophs.

Nekton – animals actively moving in the water (fish, amphibians, cephalopods, turtles, cetaceans, etc.).

Unintended Impact is unconscious when a person does not anticipate the consequences of his activity.

Irrational nature management – human economic activity leading to depletion (and even extinction) natural resources, environmental pollution, disruption of the ecological balance of natural systems, that is, to ecological crisis or disaster.

Nitrophils – plants that prefer soils rich in nitrogen.

Noosphere – realm of the mind, the highest stage of development biosphere, when reasonable human activity becomes the main, determining factor in its development.

Regulation of environmental quality – establishment of a system of quantitative and qualitative indicators (standards) of the state environment(for air, water, soil, etc.), which provide favorable conditions for human life and sustainable functioning of natural, ecosystems.

The abundance of the species – the number or mass of individuals of a given species per unit area or volume of space it occupies.

"The ozone hole" – significant space in ozonosphere planets with a markedly reduced (up to 50% or more) ozone content.

Ozonosphere – layer atmosphere with the highest ozone concentration at an altitude of 20–25 (22–24) km.

Environment – natural habitat and activities of humans and other living organisms, including the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere and near-Earth space. Within the natural environment, natural resources and natural conditions.

Oligotrophs – plants content with a small amount of ash elements.

Optimum (optimum zone, zone of normal life activity) – such a number environmental factor, at which the intensity of life activity of organisms is maximum.

osmotrophy – heterotrophic organisms that absorb organic matter from solutions through cell membranes (fungi, most bacteria).

Specially Protected Natural Territories (PAs) – territories or water areas within which their economic use is prohibited and their natural state is maintained in order to maintain ecological balance, as well as for scientific, educational, cultural and aesthetic purposes.

Protection of nature (environment) – a system of international, state and public events aimed at the rational use, reproduction and protection of natural resources and the improvement of the state of the natural environment in order to meet the material and cultural needs of both existing and future generations of people. In other words, a system of measures to optimize the relationship between human society and nature.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) – type of activity to identify, analyze and account for direct, indirect and other consequences of impact on environment planned economic and other activities in order to make a decision on the possibility or impossibility of its implementation.

Risk assessment – scientific analysis the occurrence of a risk (possibility of a dangerous situation) in order to identify the danger, determine the degree of danger in specific conditions. Characterizes the probability of a negative event (accident, emission, epidemic, etc.).

monuments nature – unique, non-reproducible natural objects of scientific, ecological, cultural and aesthetic value (caves, ancient trees, rocks, waterfalls, etc.). On the territory where they are located, any activity that violates their safety is prohibited.

panmixia – free interbreeding between individuals of the same species.

Greenhouse (greenhouse, greenhouse) effect – warming up the lower layers atmosphere, due to the ability of the atmosphere to transmit short-wave solar radiation, but delay long-wave thermal radiation of the earth's surface. The greenhouse effect is facilitated by the entry into the atmosphere of anthropogenic impurities (carbon dioxide, dust, methane, freons, etc.).

Parcel – structural part in horizontal dismemberment biocenosis, different from other parts in the composition and properties of the components. For example, areas of broad-leaved trees in a coniferous forest.

Pasture food chains (grazing chains)- food chains starting with living photosynthetic organisms. For example, phytoplankton → zooplankton → microphage fish → macrophage fish → ichthyophage birds.

Patients – species that can survive in adverse conditions (“shade-loving”, “salt-loving”, etc.).

Pedosphere(soil cover) - the shell of the Earth formed by the soil cover; upper (day) part of the lithosphere on the land.

Pelagial – the water column in the ocean or sea as a habitat for pelagic organisms - plankton and nekton.

primary production– biomass, created per unit of time producers. It is divided into gross and clean products.

rifts – shallow sections of rivers with a fast current (the bottom is without silt, there are mainly attached forms periphyton and benthos).

Periphyton - organisms attached to the leaves and stems of aquatic plants or other protrusions above the bottom of a body of water.

Pessimum (zone of pessimum, zone of oppression) – such a number environmental factor, in which the vital activity of organisms is oppressed.

Biomass pyramid – graphic representation of the relationship between producers and consumers different orders, expressed in units of biomass. Shows the change in biomass at each next trophic level: for terrestrial ecosystems, the biomass pyramid narrows upwards, for the ocean ecosystem it has an inverted character.

Pyramid of numbers (Elton numbers)– graphic representation of the relationship between producers and consumers different orders, expressed in units of the number of individuals. Reflects the decrease in the number of organisms from producers to consumers.

Pyramid of energy (products) – graphic representation of the relationship between producers and consumers different orders, expressed in units of energy contained in the mass of living matter. It has a universal character and reflects a decrease in the amount of energy contained in products created at each next trophic level.

food web – intricate weave in the community food chains.

Food chain (trophic chain, food chain) – the sequence of organisms through which the energy contained in food is transferred from its original source.

Plankton – organisms, mainly passively moving due to the current (unicellular algae, unicellular animals, crustaceans, jellyfish, etc.). Allocate phytoplankton and zooplankton.

Payment for nature use – payment for the use of almost all natural resources, for environmental pollution, the placement of production waste in it and for other types of impact.

Plesy – deep-water sections of rivers with a slow current (soft silty substrate and burrowing animals at the bottom).

soil fertility – ability soil to satisfy the need of plants for nutrients and water, to provide their root systems with sufficient heat and air for normal activity and creation of a crop.

Density – number of individuals or biomass populations per unit area or volume.

Human behavior – a complex set of motor acts aimed at meeting the needs of the body.

Weather – the continuously changing state of the atmosphere near the earth's surface, up to about 20 km (troposphere boundary).

Poikilothermic organisms – organisms with a non-constant internal body temperature that varies depending on the temperature of the external environment (microorganisms, plants, invertebrates and lower vertebrates).

Sexual structure (sex composition) of the population – ratio in populations male and female individuals.

population – a collection of individuals of the same species capable of self-reproduction, which exists for a long time in a certain part range relatively isolated from other aggregates of the same species.

Threshold (minimum effective) concentration – the minimum concentration of a chemical that causes slight but significant changes in the body or in environment.

Potential natural resources -Natural resources, which are currently not used by man at all or are used insufficiently (the energy of the Sun, sea tides, wind, etc.).

human needs – a source of activity, a state that expresses a person's dependence on the conditions of existence.

The soil – this is the surface horizon earth's crust, forming a layer of small thickness, formed as a result of the interaction of soil formation factors: climate, organisms, soil-forming rocks, terrain, age of the country (time), human economic activity.

Endurance upper limit - maximum amount environmental factor,

Endurance limit lower – minimal amount environmental factor, in which the life of organisms is still possible.

Maximum permissible anthropogenic (environmental) load on the environment (maximum permissible harmful impact - MPE) - the maximum intensity of anthropogenic impact on the environment that does not lead to a violation of the sustainability of ecological systems (or, in other words, to the exit ecosystems beyond the ecological capacity).

Ultimately allowable concentration(amount) (MAC) – the amount of a pollutant in the environment (soil, air, water, food), which, under permanent or temporary exposure to a person, does not affect his health and does not cause adverse effects in his offspring. MPC is calculated per unit volume (for air, water), mass (for soil, food) or surface (for the skin of workers).

Maximum Permissible Harmful Effect (MAE)– see Maximum permissible anthropogenic (environmental) load on the environment.

Maximum Permissible Emission (MPE) or Discharge (MPD) – the maximum amount of pollutants that a given enterprise is allowed to emit into the atmosphere or discharge into a water body per unit of time without causing them to exceed the maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants and adverse environmental consequences.

Maximum Permissible Level (MPL) – this is the maximum level of exposure to radiation, noise, vibration, magnetic fields and other harmful physical effects, which does not pose a danger to human health, the condition of animals, plants, their genetic fund. MPC is the same as MPC, but for physical impacts.

Intentional exposure is conscious when a person expects certain results of his activity.

Natural resource potential – part natural resources, which can be involved in economic activity given the technical and socio-economic capabilities of the society with the condition of preserving the living environment of mankind. In a narrower economic sense, a set of natural resources available with given technologies and socio-economic relations.

natural parks – territories that are of particular ecological and aesthetic value, with a relatively mild protection regime and are used mainly for organized recreation of the population. In their structure, they are simpler than national natural parks.

Natural resources – elements of nature (objects and phenomena) necessary for man for his life support and involved in material production (atmospheric air, water, soil, solar radiation, minerals, climate, vegetation, wildlife, etc.). They are divided unreal and potential, replaceable and indispensable, exhaustible and inexhaustible natural resources.

natural conditions – elements of nature (objects and phenomena) that affect human life and activity, but are not involved in material production (certain gases of the atmosphere, species of animals and plants, etc.). With the development of science and technology, natural conditions become natural resources.

nature management – the use of natural resources in order to meet the material and cultural needs of society. Nature management (as a science) is a field of knowledge that develops the principles of rational (reasonable) nature management. Nature management can be rational and irrational.

Lifespan – the duration of an individual's existence. Distinguish physiological, maximum and average life expectancy.

Producers – autotrophic organisms capable of producing organic substances from inorganic substances using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis(plants and autotrophic bacteria).

Spatial structure of biocenosis – distribution of organisms of different species in space (vertically and horizontally).

Spatial and ethological structure of the population – the nature of the distribution of individuals populations within range.

Protocooperation(facultative symbiosis) - mutually beneficial, but not mandatory, coexistence of organisms, from which all participants benefit. For example, hermit crabs and sea anemones.

profundal zone – the bottom and column of water where sunlight does not penetrate.

Direct (immediate) impact – change in nature as a result of the direct impact of human economic activity on natural objects and phenomena.

Psammophytes – sand plants.

Destructive (destructive) impact – human activity leading to the loss by the natural environment of its qualities useful to man. For example, the reduction of rainforests to pastures or plantations, as a result of which the biogeochemical cycle of substances is disturbed, and the soil loses its fertility in 2-3 years.

Rational nature management – human economic activity that ensures economical use natural resources and natural conditions, their protection and reproduction, taking into account not only the present, but also the future interests of society.

Real natural resources- Natural resources, which are currently used by man in production activities.

decomposers(microconsumers, destructors, saprotrophs, osmotrophs) are heterotrophic organisms that feed on organic residues and decompose them into minerals (saprotrophic bacteria and fungi).

recycling – reuse of material resources, saving raw materials and energy, and reducing waste generation.

Fertility (birth rate) – the number of new individuals that appeared in populations per unit of time as a result of reproduction. .

r-strategists (r-species, r-populations) – populations of rapidly reproducing, but less competitive individuals (bacteria, aphids, annual plants, etc.).

Saprotrophs – heterotrophic organisms that use the organic matter of dead bodies or excreta (excrement) of animals as food. These include saprotrophic bacteria, fungi, plants (saprophytes), animals (saprophages). Among them there are detritivores(feed on detritus) necrophages(feeding on carcasses) coprophages(feed on excrement), etc.

Saprophages – saprotrophic animals. Cm. Saprotrophs.

Saprophytes – saprotrophic plants. Cm. Saprotrophs.

Sinoikia (lodging) – a form of commensalism where one species uses the body or dwelling of another species as shelter or habitation. For example, sea anemones and tropical fish.

Synusia – structural part in vertical dismemberment biocenosis, limited in space (or in time). For example, in a pine forest, one can distinguish pine synusia, lingonberry synusia, green moss synusia, etc.

synecology(ecology of communities, population ecology) - a branch of ecology that studies communities of organisms (biocenoses, ecosystems).

System of standards in the field of nature conservation (SSOP) – complex of interconnected standards aimed at the conservation, restoration and rational use of natural resources.

Sclerophytes – xerophytic plants with hard shoots, due to which, with a water deficit, they do not have an external wilting pattern (for example, feather grass, saxaul). Cm. Xerophytes.

population growth rate – change population size per unit of time. It depends on indicators fertility, mortality and migration (settlement - immigration and eviction - emigration).

Mortality (mortality rate) – the number of individuals who died in populations per unit of time (from predators, diseases, old age and other causes).

Smog- a poisonous mixture of smoke, fog and dust. There are two types of smog: London and Los Angeles.

Habitat – it is a part of nature that surrounds living organisms and has a certain effect on them.

Average life expectancy (ALE) – is the arithmetic mean life expectancy all individuals in the population.

The stabilizing effect human activity aimed at slowing down the destruction (destruction) of the natural environment as a result of both human economic activity and natural processes. For example, soil protection measures aimed at reducing soil erosion.

Herd - longer than a flock, or a permanent association of animals, in which, as a rule, all the vital functions of the species are performed: protection from enemies, obtaining food, migration, reproduction, raising young, etc. (deer, zebras, etc.).

Standards (norms, regulations) – legally permitted concentrations (contents) pollutants in objects environment or the magnitude of the impact.

Station - the habitat of any species (population) land animals.

flock – temporary association of animals, facilitating the performance of any function: protection from enemies, obtaining food, migration (wolves, herring, etc.).

Stenobionts – ecologically low-hardy species with a narrow zone of tolerance (ecological valence).

The degree of dominance - the ratio of the number of individuals of a given species to the total number of all individuals of the group under consideration.

Population structure – ratio in populations groups of individuals by sex, age, size, genotype, distribution of individuals over the territory, etc. (gender, age, size, genetic, spatial-ethological, etc.).

succulents – xerophytic plants with succulent, fleshy leaves (for example, aloe) or stems (for example, cacti) in which water storage tissue is developed. Cm. Xerophytes.

Successional series – successive succession of communities.

Succession - consecutive shift biocenoses (ecosystems), expressed in a change in the species composition and structure of the community. There are successions natural- occurring under the influence of natural causes not related to human activity, and anthropogenic- caused by human activity; autogenous(self-generated) - arising from internal causes (environment changes under the influence of the community) and allogeneic(generated from outside) - caused by external causes (for example, climate change); primary- developing on a substrate not occupied by living organisms (on rocks, cliffs, loose sands, in new reservoirs, etc.), and secondary- developing on the site of already existing biocenoses after their disturbance (as a result of felling, fire, plowing, volcanic eruption, etc.).

Sciophytes(shade-loving plants) - plants that do not tolerate direct sunlight.

Teratogens – factors that can cause deformities (ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma rays, benzpyrene, some viruses, etc.).

Thermophiles - organisms that live at high temperatures.

Terophytes - annual plants that do not have renewal buds; reproduce only by seeds.

Technogenesis – a set of geochemical processes caused by human production and economic activities.

Technosphere – part of the biosphere (over time, apparently, the whole biosphere), transformed by human technical activity. The concept of "technosphere" is used when they want to emphasize the material side of the relationship between man and nature, as well as the fact that at the present stage, the economic activity of people is not so reasonable as to talk about noosphere.

Toxicants – chemicals that have toxicity.

Toxicity – toxicity, that is, the ability to have a harmful or even deadly effect on a living organism.

Topical connections – communication between species, when one species changes the habitat of another species. For example, under a coniferous forest, as a rule, there is no grass cover.

"Third Nature" an artificial world created by man and not having a material-energy analogy in nature (cities, interior spaces, asphalt, concrete, synthetics, etc.).

Trophic connections – connections between species, when one species feeds on another: living individuals, dead remains, waste products.

Trophic level – link place in the food chain.

Trophobiosis (freeloading) – a form of commensalism where one species consumes the food leftovers of another species. For example, the relationship between large predators and scavengers.

Ubiquists- species of plants and animals with a wide ecological valence, able to exist in a variety of environmental conditions, have extensive areas (for example, common reed, wolf).

Natural systems management – measures, the implementation of which makes it possible to change natural phenomena and processes (strengthen or limit them) in the direction desired by a person. The management of natural systems is soft and hard.

Management of nature users(management of environmental protection and rationalization of the use of natural resources) - ensuring the norms and requirements that limit the harmful effects of production processes and products on the environment, and the rational use of natural resources, their restoration and reproduction. Management of nature users is command and control and economic.

Urbanization – this is a historical process of increasing the role of cities in the life of society, associated with the concentration and intensification of non-agricultural functions, the spread of an urban lifestyle, and the formation of specific socio-spatial forms of settlement.

Urban systems (urban systems) – artificial systems (ecosystems), arising from the development of cities and representing the focus of the population, residential buildings, industrial, domestic, cultural facilities, etc.

living conditions – a complex of environmental factors under the influence of which all the basic life processes of organisms are carried out, including normal development and reproduction.

factory connections – links between species, when one species uses excreta, dead remains, or even living individuals of another species for its structures. For example, when building nests, birds use tree branches, grass, down and feathers of other birds.

phagotrophs(holozoic) - heterotrophic organisms that swallow solid pieces of food (animals).

health factors- a set of factors that are not the direct cause of a particular disease (risk factors) and factors that are the direct cause of the disease.

Risk factors - factors that are not the direct cause of a particular disease, but increase the likelihood of its occurrence.

Phanerophytes – plants whose renewal buds are high above the ground (above 30 cm) (trees and shrubs).

PAR – photosynthetic activity of solar radiation.

Fauna – the totality of animal species that live in a given area.

Physiological life expectancy (FPL) – this is lifespan, which could be in an individual of this species if limiting factors did not influence it throughout its life.

Physiological rhythms -endogenous biological rhythms, supporting the uninterrupted vital activity of organisms (heartbeat, respiration, work of endocrine glands, etc.).

Financing of environmental measures – providing funds for environmental protection measures.

Phytobenthos – plant component of benthos (attached algae and higher plants).

Phytoplankton - plant component plankton(unicellular algae).

Phytophages – heterotrophic organisms that use living plants as food. Cm. Biotrophs.

Phytocenosis – plant component biocenosis.

Flora – the totality of plant species found in a given area.

Foric connections – relationships between species, when one species participates in the distribution of another species. For example, the transfer of seeds, spores, pollen by animals.

photoperiodism – response of organisms to daylight hours. For example, leaf fall, flights of birds.

Photosynthesis(photoautotrophy) - the synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic ones due to the energy of light.

Phototrophs – autotrophic organisms that use light energy for biosynthesis (plants, cyanobacteria). Cm. Autotrophs.

Freons (chlorofluorocarbons or FHU) – highly volatile, chemically inert substances near the earth's surface, widely used in production and everyday life as refrigerants (refrigerators, air conditioners, refrigerators), foaming agents and sprayers (aerosol packaging). Freons, rising into the upper layers of the atmosphere, undergo photochemical decomposition with the formation of chlorine oxide, which intensively destroys ozone.

Hamefites – plants, the renewal buds of which are located near the soil surface or not high (not higher than 20-30 cm), in winter may be under the snow (semi-shrubs and small shrubs).

Chemosynthesis(chemoautotrophy) - the process of synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic (CO 2, etc.) due to the chemical energy of oxidation inorganic substances(sulfur, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, iron, ammonia, nitrite, etc.).

Chemotrophs – autotrophic organisms that use the energy of chemical reactions of oxidation of inorganic compounds for biosynthesis (chemotrophic bacteria: hydrogen bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, iron bacteria, sulfur bacteria, etc.). Autotrophs.

Predation – a relationship in which one of the participants (the predator) kills the other (the prey) and uses it as food. For example, wolves and hares.

Water bloom – the massive development of phytoplankton, causing a change in the color of the water from green and yellow-brown to red. It is due to a significant intake of biogenic elements (phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, etc.) into water bodies.

Circadian (circadian) rhythms – recurring changes in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena with a period of 20 to 28 hours.

Circanian (circa-annual) rhythms – recurring changes in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena with a period of 10 to 13 months.

Frequency of occurrence – percentage of the number of samples or sites where the species occurs to the total number of samples or sites.

population – number of individuals in populations.

Net primary production– biomass, which is not spent on maintaining the life of plants and is subsequently used consumers and decomposers, or accumulate in the ecosystem.

emergency ecological situation – cm. Ecological crisis.

eurybionts – ecologically hardy species with wide zone of tolerance (ecological valence).

Eutrophication(eutrophication) - an increase in the biological productivity of water bodies as a result of the accumulation of biogenic elements (phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, etc.) under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors. The negative consequence of eutrophication is the deterioration of the physicochemical conditions of the habitat of fish and other hydrobionts due to the massive development of phytoplankton, the decomposition of dead organisms and the toxicity of their decay products. Cm. Blooming waters, Red tides.

Eutrophic – plants that need a large amount of ash elements.

Euphotic zone – the entire illuminated water column. It includes littoral and limnic zone.

Edifiers(builders) - species that determine the microenvironment (microclimate) of all biocenosis(usually plants).

Exogenous (external) rhythms- biological rhythms arising as a reaction to periodic changes in the environment (change of day and night, seasons, solar activity).

Exogenous processes (processes of external dynamics) - geological processes occurring under the influence of the external energy of the Sun. Exogenous processes include the geological activity of the atmosphere, hydrosphere (rivers, temporary streams, groundwater, seas and oceans, lakes and swamps, ice), as well as living organisms and humans.

Environmental Safety – a set of actions, states and processes that do not directly or indirectly lead to vital damage (or threats of such damage) inflicted on the natural environment, individuals and humanity.

Ecological valence (plasticity, tolerance, stability) – the degree of adaptability of the species to changes in environmental conditions; its ability to tolerate quantitative fluctuations in the action of the environmental factor to one degree or another.

Ecological catastrophe (environmental disaster) – ecological trouble, characterized by deep irreversible changes in the environment and a significant deterioration in the health of the population.

ecological niche – the totality of all environmental factors within which the existence of a species in nature is possible.

ecological pyramid – graphic representation of the relationship between producers and consumers different orders, expressed in units of biomass (pyramid of biomass), number of individuals (pyramid of numbers) or the energy contained in the mass of living matter (pyramid of energy).

Ecological Survival Strategy – set of properties populations aimed at increasing the likelihood of survival and leaving offspring. Cm. r-strategists and K-strategists.

Ecological structure of biocenosis – ratio in biocenosis organisms of different ecological groups.

Environmental assessment – assessment of the level of possible negative impacts of the planned economic and other activities on the environment, natural resources and human health.

Ecological rhythms- endogenous biological rhythms, arising as an adaptation of living organisms to periodic changes in the environment (daily, annual, tidal, lunar, etc.).

Environmental factors – these are individual elements of the habitat that affect organisms.

Environmental Equivalents – species that occupy the same niches in different geographical areas (for example, large kangaroos of Australia, bison of North America, zebras and antelopes of Africa, etc.).

Environmental audit - independent, comprehensive, documented assessment of compliance by a business entity and other activities with the requirements, including standards and regulations, in the field of environmental protection, requirements of international standards and preparing recommendations for improving such activities.

Environmental control - activities of state bodies, enterprises and citizens to comply with environmental standards and rules. There are state, industrial and public environmental control. Cm. Monitoring the state of the environment.

Ecological crisis (ecological emergency) – ecological trouble, characterized by persistent negative changes in the environment and posing a threat to human health.

Ecological passport of the enterprise – normative and technical document, including data on the use of resources by the enterprise (natural, secondary, etc.) and determining the impact of its production on environment. Includes a set of data and indicators according to GOST 17.0.0.04–90.

environmental risk – the probability of an event occurring that has adverse consequences for the natural environment and is caused by the negative impact of economic and other activities, natural and man-made emergencies.

environmental disaster – cm. Ecological catastrophy.

Ecological well-being of the ecosystem - condition ecosystems, which is characterized by the normal reproduction of its main links.

environmental law – a set of environmental legal norms (rules of conduct) that regulate social (environmental) relations in the field of interaction between society and nature in order to protect the environment, prevent harmful environmental consequences, improve and improve the quality of the natural environment.

Ecology – the science of the relationship of living organisms with each other and with their environment. The term "ecology" was first introduced by the German biologist E. Haeckel (1866). By ecology, he meant "the sum of knowledge relating to the economics of nature."

human ecology – chapter ecology, studying the patterns of interaction between a person and the human community with the surrounding natural, social, environmental, hygienic and other factors.

Environmental economics – a branch of economics that studies mainly the issues of economic (in some cases, non-economic) assessment of natural resources and damage from environmental pollution.

economic management – management of natural resources based on economic incentives, when, with the help of various levers (prices, payments, tax benefits and penalties), the state makes it more financially profitable for enterprises, that is, more profitable, to comply with environmental legislation than to violate it.

Ecosystem (ecological system) - a system of living organisms living together and the conditions for their existence, connected by the flow of energy and the circulation of substances.

Ecotones – transition zones between communities.

ecocentrism – a type of social consciousness based on the understanding of the need for co-evolution of man and the biosphere.

Explerents(filling) - species that can quickly appear where indigenous communities are disturbed - on clearings and burnt areas (aspens), on shallows, etc.

emergence – the system has special, qualitatively new properties that are not inherent in the sum of the properties of its individual elements. For example, one cannot predict the properties of water from the properties of oxygen and hydrogen.

Endemics – plant and animal species that have small limited ranges (often found on islands of oceanic origin, in mountainous regions and isolated water bodies).

Endogenous (internal) rhythms- biological rhythms generated by the organism itself (the rhythm of DNA, RNA and protein synthesis, cell division, heartbeats, respiration, etc.).

Endogenous processes (processes of internal dynamics) – geological processes occurring under the influence of the internal energy of the Earth: the energy of radioactive decay, chemical reactions of the formation of minerals, crystallization of rocks, etc. Endogenous processes include: tectonic movements, earthquakes, magmatism, metamorphism.

Epiphytes – plants living on other plants (on branches, tree trunks), without contact with the soil.

Ethology – the science of the behavior of organisms.

Aestivation(from lat. " aestes" - summer) – summer hibernation of small mammals (mouse-like rodents, some ground squirrels, insectivorous chanterelles, etc.) in deserts.

Ephemeroids – perennial herbaceous plants, which, like ephemera, has a very short growing season.

Ephemera – annual herbaceous plants that complete their full cycle of development in a very short and usually wet period.

The group effect optimization of physiological processes, leading to an increase in the viability of individuals in coexistence.

Layered – vertical structure biocenosis.

Dictionary environmental terms

Abiotic factors- all components of inanimate nature (light, temperature, humidity, etc.), as well as the composition of water, air and soil environments.

Anthropogenic factor- human activity, leading to a change in the habitat of living organisms.

Atmosphere - the gaseous shell of the Earth.

Biology - a science that studies the living world of the Earth and considers the laws of the structure and functioning of the living.

Bionics – scientific direction in biology and cybernetics, which studies the structure and vital activity of organisms in order to use the established patterns in the construction of technical systems similar in characteristics to living organisms and their parts.

Biotic factors– interactions between different individuals in populations, between populations in natural communities.

Biosphere - the largest (global) ecosystem of the Earth, a geological shell inhabited by living organisms. It covers the surface of the Earth, the upper part of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the lower part of the atmosphere - the troposphere.

Vegetative Pertaining to plants or organs associated with nutrition and growth.

Volcano - fire-breathing mountains. As a result of the eruption of underwater volcanoes, new islands can form and tsunami waves can occur.

Volcanologists - scientists who study volcanoes and predict their awakening.

Hydrosphere - the shell of the Earth formed by oceans, seas, lakes, rivers.

Rocks (or stones)are composed of two or more minerals. They can be igneous (granite, tuff, basalt), sedimentary (limestone, coal), etc.

Caterpillar - a worm-like larva of Lepidoptera, develops from an egg.

Trees - tall plants with one solid, woody, bark-covered trunk, branches grow at a considerable distance from the ground.

spruce forest - coniferous forest, in which it is dark, cool, humid; vegetation is represented by spruces, undersized shrubs, shade-tolerant herbs. Animals adapted to the change of seasons - squirrels, chipmunks, deer, hares, wild boars, moose.

live birth - a method of reproduction of offspring, in which the embryo develops from an egg, receiving nutrition from the mother's body, and is born in a more or less formed form (like a baby free from egg membranes).

Animals - a group of living beings, as a rule, capable of active movement; not forming, but eating the finished organic matter.

Law of ecological correlation- in an ecosystem, all the species included in it functionally correspond to each other, and the destruction of one species or their group always ultimately leads to the disappearance of interconnected other species of living things. With the complete extermination or extinction of a species, it never disappears alone, but always together with interconnected forms.

Reserve - a space specially protected by law or customs, completely excluded from any economic activity in order to preserve intact natural complexes, protect living species.

Human health- an objective state and a subjective feeling of complete physical, mental and social comfort.

Earth is one of the planets that orbit around the sun. These planets form the solar system. The earth is a huge ball. It consists of three parts: crust, mantle and core.

Zoocenosis - a set of interconnected and interdependent animal species that has developed in any space.

Variability - the existence of organisms in various forms and variants within a species; the ability of organisms to respond to the effects of environmental factors by morphophysiological changes; characterization of the degree of change in organisms of any group in the course of evolution.

Caviar - a set of eggs laid into the water by fish, amphibians and other animals.

Ecological catastrophe- a complete and irreversible violation in nature.

Environmental quality - conformity natural conditions the needs of living organisms. The environmental quality indicator can include both natural factors(temperature, amount of light, etc.), and anthropogenic (pollution, disturbance factor, etc.)

Climate - an annual recurring weather pattern characteristic of a given area.

Cocoon - a protective formation that protects eggs or embryos (in earthworms, spiders, etc.), or pupae of many insects.

Root - a plant organ that holds the plant in the soil, absorbing water and minerals dissolved in it.

Red Book - a list and description of rare and endangered animals, plants and fungi.

ecological crisis- a temporary tense state of the relationship between man and nature.

chrysalis - the phase of development of insects following the larva.

bushes - perennial plants that do not have a main stem; several stems, covered with bark, grow from the root, the branches are located close to the ground.

Landscape - a natural system homogeneous in terms of development.

Forest - a natural complex, which is dominated by trees of one or many species, growing close to each other and forming a more or less dense forest stand. Usually in the forest there are several tiers. Depending on the composition, forests are divided into coniferous, deciduous, tropical, etc.

Deciduous forest - a natural complex represented by deciduous plants, located in four tiers: 1 - large trees - oak, linden, ash; 2 - undersized trees - mountain ash, aspen, alder; 3 - shrubs - hazel, euonymus, wild rose, honeysuckle; 4 - herbs - oxalis, ferns, strawberries. Animals adapted to seasonal environmental changes - wild boars, elks, hares, birds, insects.

tropical forest - a natural complex, which is characterized by: a lot of heat (26° C) and moisture, a variety of plant species that grow, bloom and bear fruit all year round; variety of animals active throughout the year.

temperate forests- natural complexes, which are characterized by seasonal fluctuations in temperature and precipitation. Represented by broad-leaved and mixed forests.

Forest park - an extensive natural forest, usually not far from a large settlement or inside it, adapted for mass recreation.

forest-steppe - a natural zone of temperate and subtropical zones with alternating steppe and forest areas.

forest tundra - natural zone of the northern hemisphere, transitional between forest and tundra - a complex complex of light forests, tundra, swamps and meadows.

Sheet - plant organ, the function of which is photosynthesis, respiration, evaporation of moisture.

Lithosphere - the outer solid shell of the earth, covering its firmament to depths of 50 - 200 km and consisting of two layers: the upper - sedimentary rocks and the lower - basalt.

Larva - the actively feeding phase of development of some invertebrates, amphibians, and fish following the egg.

Minerals - homogeneous compounds that occur in nature in pure form. They differ in color, hardness, gloss, transparency, composition, structure.

Model - a system of objects or signs that reproduces some essential properties of the original system. The model is used as a proxy for the system under study. The model simplifies the structure of the original, abstracting from the irrelevant. It serves as a generalized reflection of the phenomenon. Models can be material objects or be mathematical, informational (visual-figurative, logical-symbolic).

Metabolism - consistent consumption, transformation, use, accumulation and loss of substances and energy in living organisms in the process of life.

Coloring is adaptive- a group of adaptations to environmental conditions, expressed in the appearance of shapes and colors in animals during natural selection, making them either invisible or especially noticeable against the background of the environment.

Organ A part of an organism that performs a specific function or group of functions.

organism – creature, the carrier of life, characterized by all its properties: metabolism, the ability to move, grow, reproduce, adapt to changes in the external environment.

food chain - a sequence of groups of organisms, each of which (food link) serves as food for the next one; a link in the food chain is the level of the ecological pyramid.

Planet - a huge ball of solid rocks or gases that revolves around a star.

Weather - the state of the lower layer of the atmosphere in a certain area and at a certain time.

Minerals- rocks and minerals used by man in the national economy.

Need - the need for something necessary to maintain the vital activity of the body, this is an internal stimulus of activity.

The soil - the top fertile layer of the earth. Soil composition: clay, sand, humus (humus).

Signs of living organisms- movement, nutrition, excretion, respiration, growth, development, reproduction, death.

Nature - 1) in a broad sense - everything that exists, the whole world in the variety of its forms; 2) in the narrow sense - the object of study of the science of natural science.

Desert - an area without continuous vegetation; a lot of heat (35 about C), little moisture, certain types of plants. Animals store water in the form of fat, many lead night image life, some fall into a long hibernation.

Plants - autotrophic living organisms (capable of producing organic matter from inorganic).

Symbiosis - joint mutually beneficial, often mandatory coexistence of two or more species.

System - a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other and form a certain integrity, unity. The concept of a system is organically connected with the concept of integrity, subsystem, connection, structure.

mixed forest - a natural complex represented by deciduous and coniferous trees.

solar system- The sun and all other space objects, for example, the planets that revolve around it: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto.

Sun - a giant star that radiates light and heat. Its diameter is 140,000 km, the temperature in the center is 16,000,000 about C, surface temperature - 5500 about C, the time it takes for sunlight to reach Earth is 8 minutes 20 seconds.

Pinery - coniferous forest, in which it is dry and a lot of light, from vegetation - mainly pines, solitary bushes, grasses, mosses. Animals adapted to the change of seasons - squirrels, chipmunks, deer, hares, wild boars, moose.

hibernation - a period of a sharp decrease in the intensity of metabolism, allowing an animal or plant to survive adverse conditions of existence.

Habitat - all bodies and phenomena (natural and anthropogenic), with which the organism is in direct or indirect relationship. The environment includes all environmental factors.

Stage (stage) of development- a certain stage, period, stage in the development of something that has clearly distinguishable qualitative features.

Stem - vegetative organ of a plant. Its functions are mechanical, conductive, sometimes storage.

Steppe - a treeless type of vegetation, which is characterized by: little precipitation, mainly in spring and summer, frequent droughts, sharp changes in temperature by season, cold winters; various herbs. Variety of herbivores.

succulents - perennial plants with succulent leaves or stems that easily tolerate high air temperatures, but cannot withstand dehydration.

Taiga - type of vegetation with a predominance of coniferous forests; there is little precipitation, mostly in summer; large temperature difference between winter and summer; evergreen forests, represented by coniferous trees, various mosses and lichens. Animals are adapted to harsh conditions.

Tornado - a huge vortex of destructive force.

Herbs - a life form of plants that has soft, succulent, grassy stems.

Tundra - type of vegetation characterized by treelessness, strong development of mosses and lichens, in some places perennial grasses, stunted bushes and shrubs; little precipitation, cold winters, short summers; the lower layers of the earth are permafrost; undersized dwarf plants, mosses, lichens, mushrooms. Poor fauna, many migratory birds, many stinging insects in summer.

Turgor - the elasticity of tissues and organs due to the pressure of the contents of the cells on their elastic walls.

Hurricanes - storms during which the winds blow along a giant circle. In the center of it is a windless area - the "eye" of the hurricane.

Environmental conditions (habitat)- a set of environmental factors: from cosmic - the impact of the Universe on the solar system - to the direct influence of the environment on an individual (community).

Ecosystem resilience- its ability to maintain its structure and functional features under the influence of external factors.

Fauna - the existing set of all animal species living in a given territory, water area.

Phytocenosis - a more or less stable natural grouping (community) of plant species in a relatively homogeneous area.

Flora - the established set of plant species living in a certain area or as part of a particular plant community.

Function - specific activity of the organism, its organs.

coniferous forest - the natural complex, represented by coniferous plants, does not have a second tier - undersized trees.

Chitin - external skeleton of arthropods.

Predator - an animal or plant that catches and eats other animals that serve as food objects.

Development cycle - the totality of all phases of the individual development of the organism, as a result of which it becomes able to give rise to a new generation.

Expediency- the correspondence of the process, phenomenon, structure of an organ or organism to the prevailing environmental conditions for better adaptation to them.

The integrity of nature- the internal unity of the object (organism, community, biosphere) as a system, which determines its essence and the possibility of normal functioning.

Human - a rational natural being, which differs from other living organisms in the strong development of the brain, the ability to think, use speech as a means of communication, the vertical position of the body and movement on two legs, the structure of the hand as a labor organ.

cuttings - separation from the plant of a part of its stem, root or leaf and engraftment of this fragment, followed by the restoration of the missing organs of the whole plant.

cutting - a fragment of a plant, most often a part of the stem, used for cuttings.

Flower An organ of a plant whose function is reproduction.

ecological niche- the totality of all factors in the environment, within which the existence of a species in nature (community, ecosystem) is possible.

Environmental monitoring – Information system, the main tasks of which are the observation, assessment and forecast of the state of the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic impact in order to warn about emerging critical situations that are harmful and dangerous to human health, the well-being of other living beings.

Environmental factor- any environmental condition that affects the state and properties of an organism, population, natural community.

Ecology The science that studies the relationship of organisms with the environment and with each other.

human ecology- a science that studies the general laws of the relationship between the biosphere and human society, the influence of the natural environment on a person.

ecological trail- a specially equipped and carefully studied path in places where the surrounding wildlife allows guides to transfer knowledge about natural phenomena and objects, create prerequisites for the development of environmental thinking, environmentally appropriate behavior in nature.

Ecosystem - a single natural or natural-anthropogenic complex formed by living organisms and their environment, in which all components are connected by metabolism. Important properties of an ecosystem are its stability and ability to self-regulate.

egg production - a method of reproduction by animals of offspring, in which the embryo develops in an egg under the protection of egg membranes outside the mother's body.

Ecology is the science of the relationship of living beings with each other and with the nature around them, the structure and functioning of superorganismal systems.
The term "ecology" was introduced in 1866 by the German evolutionist Ernst Haeckel. E. Haeckel believed that ecology should study various forms of the struggle for existence. In its primary meaning, ecology is the science of the relationship of organisms to the environment (from the Greek "oikos" - dwelling, residence, shelter).
Ecology, like any science, is characterized by the presence of its own object, subject, tasks and methods (an object is a part of the surrounding world that is studied by this science; the subject of science is the most important essential aspects of its object).
The object of ecology is biological systems of the supraorganismal level: populations, communities, ecosystems (Yu. Odum, 1986).
The subject of ecology is the relationship of organisms and superorganismal systems with their surrounding organic and inorganic environment (E. Haeckel, 1870; R. Whittaker, 1980; T. Fenchil, 1987).
All organisms on Earth exist in certain conditions. That part of nature that surrounds a living organism and with which it directly interacts is called the habitat. Separate properties or elements of the environment that affect the body are called environmental factors. Factors that are necessary for the existence of a particular species are called resource factors. Factors that lead to a decrease in the number of a species (to its elimination) are called elimination factors.
There are three main groups of environmental factors: abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic.

Abiotic factors

general characteristics actions of environmental factors

Any organism must be adapted in a certain way to the effects of specific environmental factors. Various adaptations of organisms are called adaptations. Due to the variety of adaptations, it is possible to distribute the survival of organisms depending on the intensity of the environmental factor.
The values ​​of the ecological factor that are most favorable for a given species are called optimal, or simply ecological optimum. The same factor values ​​that are unfavorable for a given species are called pessimal, or simply ecological pessimum. There is a law of ecological optimum, according to which the survival of organisms reaches a maximum when the values ​​of this ecological factor are close to its average value.
In the simplest case, the dependence of survival on the action of one factor is described by normal distribution equations, which correspond to bell-shaped normal distribution curves. These curves are otherwise called tolerance curves, or Shelford curves.
As an example, consider the dependence of the density (survival) of a certain plant population on soil acidity.
It can be seen that the populations of this plant species reach their maximum density at pH values ​​close to 6.5 (slightly acidic soils). pH values ​​from approximately 5.5 to 7.5 form for a given species an ecological optimum zone, or a zone of normal life activity. With a decrease or increase in pH, the population density gradually decreases. pH values ​​less than 5.5 and more than 7.5 form two zones of ecological pessimism, or zones of oppression. pH values ​​less than 3.5 and more than 9.5 form death zones in which organisms of this species cannot exist.
ecological niche

An ecological niche is the totality of all connections of a species with its environment, which ensure the existence and reproduction of individuals of a given species in nature.
The term ecological niche was proposed in 1917 by J. Grinnell to characterize the spatial distribution of intraspecific ecological groups.
Initially, the concept of an ecological niche was close to the concept of a habitat. But in 1927, C. Elton defined an ecological niche as the position of a species in a community, emphasizing the particular importance of trophic relationships. Domestic ecologist G.F. Gause expanded this definition: an ecological niche is the place of a species in an ecosystem.
In 1984, S. Spurr and B. Barnes identified three components of a niche: spatial (where), temporal (when) and functional (how). This concept of a niche emphasizes the importance of both the spatial and temporal components of the niche, including its seasonal and diurnal changes, taking into account circannian and circadian biorhythms.

A figurative definition of an ecological niche is often used: a habitat is the address of a species, and an ecological niche is its profession (Yu. Odum).

In 1957-1965. J. Hutchinson defined an ecological niche as a part of an ecological hyperspace in which the existence and reproduction of a species is possible. In ordinary physical space, the position of a point is described by its projection onto three mutually perpendicular coordinate axes. When adding a time coordinate axis, a four-dimensional space-time is formed, which can no longer be represented graphically. Ecological hyperspace is an n-dimensional space in which the coordinates of points are determined by projections on the gradation axis of a set of environmental factors: abiotic, biotic, anthropogenic. Ecological hyperspace differs from the ecological spectrum in that it takes into account the interaction of environmental factors with each other in space and time.
An ecosystem is any unity that includes all organisms and the whole complex of physico-chemical factors and interacts with the external environment. Ecosystems are the basic natural units on the Earth's surface.
The doctrine of ecosystems was created by the English botanist Arthur Tansley (1935).
Ecosystems are characterized by various kinds of metabolism not only between organisms, but also between their living and non-living components. When studying ecosystems, special attention is paid to the functional relationships between organisms, energy flows and the circulation of substances.
The spatial and temporal boundaries of ecosystems can be distinguished quite arbitrarily. An ecosystem can be both durable (for example, the Earth's biosphere) and short-lived (for example, ecosystems of temporary reservoirs). Ecosystems can be natural or artificial. From the point of view of thermodynamics, natural ecosystems are always open systems (they exchange matter and energy with the external environment); artificial ecosystems can be isolated (exchange only energy with the environment).
Biogeocenoses. In parallel with the doctrine of ecosystems, the doctrine of biogeocenoses, created by Vladimir Nikolaevich Sukachev (1942), also developed.
Biogeocenosis is a set of homogeneous natural phenomena (atmosphere, vegetation, wildlife and microorganisms, soil, rocks and hydrological conditions) over a known extent of the earth's surface, which has its own specific interactions of constituent components and a certain type of exchange of matter and energy between themselves and other phenomena nature and representing an internally contradictory unity, which is in constant motion, development.
Biogeocenoses are characterized by the following features:
- biogeocenosis is associated with a certain area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe earth's surface; unlike an ecosystem, the spatial boundaries of biogeocenoses cannot be drawn arbitrarily;
- biogeocenoses exist for a long time;
- biogeocenosis is a bio-inert system, which is a unity of animate and inanimate nature;
- biogeocenosis is an elementary biochorological cell of the biosphere (that is, a biological-spatial unit of the biosphere);
- biogeocenosis is an arena of primary evolutionary transformations (that is, the evolution of populations takes place in specific natural-historical conditions, in specific biogeocenoses).
Thus, like an ecosystem, a biogeocenosis is a unity of a biocenosis and its inanimate habitat; while the basis of biogeocenosis is biocenosis. The concepts of ecosystem and biogeocenosis are outwardly similar, but, in reality, they are different. In other words, any biogeocenosis is an ecosystem, but not any ecosystem is a biogeocenosis.

Productivity of trophic levels
The amount of energy passing through the trophic level per unit area per unit of time is called the productivity of the trophic level. Productivity is measured in kcal/ha·year or other units (in tons of dry matter per 1 ha per year; in milligrams of carbon per 1 sq. meter or 1 cubic meter per day, etc.).
The energy supplied to the trophic level is called gross primary productivity (for producers) or diet (for consumers). Part of this energy is spent on maintaining vital processes (metabolic costs, or breathing costs), part - on the formation of waste products (litter in plants, excrement, moulting skins and other waste in animals), part - on biomass growth. Part of the energy spent on biomass growth can be consumed by consumers of the next trophic level.
The energy balance of the trophic level can be written as the following equations:
(1) gross primary productivity = respiration + litter + biomass growth
(2) diet = respiration + waste products + biomass gain
The first equation is applied to producers, the second - to consumers and decomposers.
The difference between the gross primary productivity (ration) and the cost of respiration is called the net primary productivity of the trophic level. The energy that can be consumed by the consumers of the next trophic level is called the secondary productivity of the trophic level in question.
During the transition of energy from one level to another, part of it is irretrievably lost: in the form of thermal radiation (respiration costs), in the form of waste products. Therefore, the amount of highly organized energy is constantly decreasing during the transition from one trophic level to the next. On average, it enters a given trophic level. 10% of the energy received by the previous trophic level; this pattern is called the ten percent rule, or the ecological pyramid rule. Therefore, the number of trophic levels is always limited (4-5 links), for example, already only 1/1000 of the energy received at the first level enters the fourth level.

Ecosystem dynamics
In developing ecosystems, only a part of the biomass growth is spent on the formation of secondary products; in the ecosystem there is an accumulation of organic matter. Such ecosystems naturally give way to other types of ecosystems. The natural change of ecosystems in a certain area is called succession. Succession example: lake > overgrown lake > swamp > peat bog > forest.
There are the following forms of successions:
- primary - occur in previously uninhabited areas (for example, on unsodden sands, rocks); biocenoses that initially form under such conditions are called pioneer communities;
- secondary - occur in disturbed habitats (for example, after fires, in clearings);
- reversible - a return to the previously existing ecosystem is possible (for example, birch forest > fire forest > birch forest > spruce forest);
- irreversible - a return to a previously existing ecosystem is impossible (for example, the destruction of relict ecosystems; a relict ecosystem is an ecosystem that has survived from past geological periods);
- Anthropogenic - arising under the influence of human activity.
The accumulation of organic matter and energy at trophic levels leads to an increase in the stability of the ecosystem. In the course of succession, under certain soil and climatic conditions, final climax communities are formed. In climax communities, the entire increase in trophic level biomass is spent on the formation of secondary products. Such ecosystems can exist indefinitely.
In degrading (dependent) ecosystems, the energy balance is negative - the energy received by the lower trophic levels is not enough for the functioning of higher trophic levels. Such ecosystems are unstable and can exist only with additional energy costs (for example, ecosystems settlements and anthropogenic landscapes). As a rule, in degrading ecosystems, the number of trophic levels is reduced to a minimum, which further increases their instability.

Ideas about the biosphere as an "area of ​​life" and the outer shell of the Earth go back to J. B. Lamarck. The term "biosphere" was introduced by the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess (1875), who understood the biosphere as a thin film of life on the earth's surface, which largely determines the "face of the Earth". However, a holistic doctrine of the biosphere was developed by the Russian scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1926).
Currently, there are many approaches to the definition of the concept of "biosphere".
The biosphere is the geological shell of the Earth that has developed in the course of the historical development of the organic world.
The biosphere is the active shell of the Earth, in which the combined activity of living organisms manifests itself as a geochemical factor on a planetary scale.
The biosphere is the shell of the Earth, the composition, structure and energy of which are determined by the total vital activity of living organisms; it is the largest known ecosystem.

The structure of the biosphere
The biosphere includes both the vitasphere (the totality of living organisms) and the total results of the activities of pre-existing organisms: the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.
The area in which living organisms regularly meet is called the eubiosphere (actually the biosphere). The total thickness of the eubiosphere. 12-17 km.
In relation to the eubiosphere, the following layers of the biosphere are distinguished:
- apobiosphere - lies above the parabiosphere - living organisms do not occur;
- parabiosphere - lies above the eubiosphere - organisms enter by chance;
- eubiosphere - the biosphere itself, where organisms are found regularly;
- metabiosphere - lies under the eubiosphere - organisms enter by chance;
- Abiosphere - lies under the metabiosphere - living organisms do not occur.
Aerobiosphere - includes the lower part of the atmosphere. The aerobiosphere includes:
a) tropobiosphere - up to a height of 6 ... 7 km;
b) altobiosphere - to the lower boundary of the ozone screen (20...25 km).
The ozone layer is a layer of the atmosphere with a high content of ozone. The ozone screen absorbs the harsh ultraviolet radiation of the Sun, which has a detrimental effect on all living organisms. In recent decades, "ozone holes" - areas with a low ozone content - have been observed in the polar regions.
Hydrobiosphere - includes the entire hydrosphere. The lower boundary of the hydrobiosphere. 6 ... 7 km, in some cases - up to 11 km. The hydrobiosphere includes:
a) aquabiosphere - rivers, lakes and other fresh waters;
b) marinobiosphere - seas and oceans.
Terrabiosphere - land surface. The terrabiosphere includes:
a) phytosphere - the habitat of terrestrial plants;
b) pedosphere - a thin layer of soil.
Lithobiosphere. The lower boundary of the lithobiosphere. 2 ... 3 km (less often - up to 5 ... 6 km) on land and. 1...2 km below the ocean floor. Living organisms in the composition of the lithobiosphere are rare, however, sedimentary rocks in the composition of the biosphere arose under the influence of the vital activity of organisms.
IN AND. Vernadsky identified 7 types of substances in the biosphere: living matter, biogenic matter (fossil fuels, limestones), inert matter (igneous rocks), bio-inert matter (soil), radioactive matter, scattered atoms and matter of cosmic origin.
The functions of living matter in the biosphere are diverse:
- Energy - accumulation of solar energy during photosynthesis; Solar energy powers all life on Earth.
- Gas - the composition of the modern atmosphere (in particular, the content of oxygen and carbon dioxide) has developed, to a large extent, under the influence of the vital activity of organisms.
- Concentration - as a result of the vital activity of organisms, all types of fossil fuels, many ores, soil organic matter, etc. have developed.
- Redox - in the course of the life of living organisms, redox reactions constantly occur, ensuring the circulation and constant transformations of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, iron and other elements.
- Destructive - as a result of the destruction of dead organisms and their metabolic products, living matter is transformed into inert, biogenic and bio-inert.
- Environment-forming - organisms in various ways transform the physico-chemical factors of the environment.
- Transport - the transfer of matter against gravity and in the horizontal direction.

The relationship between the components of the biosphere
Plants are producers of organic matter, therefore it is with them that chains of grazing, or pasture chains, always begin in ecosystems. Microorganisms-reducers carry out the transfer of elements from an organic form to an extraorganic one. Chemosynthetic organisms change the oxidation states of elements, transfer them from an insoluble form to a soluble one, and vice versa.
Thus, with the help of plants and microorganisms, the cycle of carbon, oxygen and mineral nutrition elements is carried out.
The total mass of the living matter of the biosphere is 2.500.000.000.000 tons (or 2.5 trillion tons). The annual production of the Earth's plants exceeds 120 billion tons (in terms of dry matter). At the same time, approximately 170 billion tons of carbon dioxide are absorbed, 130 billion tons of water are split, 120 billion tons of oxygen are released, and 400 1015 kilocalories of solar energy are stored. About 2 billion tons of nitrogen and about 6 billion tons of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron and other elements are annually involved in the processes of synthesis and decay. For 2 thousand years, all the oxygen in the atmosphere passes through the plants.
The movement of elements along food chains (networks) is called biogenic migration of atoms. Mobile animals (birds, fish, large mammals) contribute to the movement of elements over considerable distances.

The basic laws of ecology are popularly formulated by the American ecologist B. Commoner.
The first law: "Everything is connected with everything." A small shift in one place environmental
network can cause significant and long-term consequences in a completely different way.
Second Law: Everything has to go somewhere. In essence, this is a reformulation of the well-known law of conservation of matter. B. Commoner writes: “One of the main causes of the current environmental crisis is that huge quantities of different substances have been extracted from the earth, where they were in a bound form, transformed into new ones, often very active and far from natural compounds” (“Closing circle", 1974).
Third law: "Nature knows best." Sustainable natural ecological systems are the most complex formations, and their organization occurred as a result of evolutionary development, selection from a variety of options. Therefore, it is logical to assume that natural is the best option and each new version will be worse. But this does not mean that nature cannot be changed, improved, adapted to the interests of man, it just needs to be done correctly, based on strict scientific knowledge about nature and foreseeing all possible negative consequences.
The fourth law: "Nothing is given for free" or "You have to pay for everything." The meaning of this law is that the world ecosystem is a single whole and, changing it to some insignificant extent in one
place, we must scientifically foresee what shifts may occur in other places. What a person has taken away from nature or spoiled, he must correct and return. Otherwise, such shifts will begin that are difficult not only to correct, but even to foresee. Changes may develop that will threaten the existence of human civilization.

abiotic environment(from the Greek "a" and "bioticos" - living) - a set of inorganic living conditions for organisms.
Autotrophs(from the Greek "autos" - itself, "trophe" - nutrition) - organisms that can feed on inorganic compounds.
Adaptation(from the Greek “adapto” - I adjust) - the adaptation of the structure and functions of the body to the conditions of existence.
Amensalism- a form of interaction in which one population suppresses another, but itself does not experience a negative effect.
Anthropogenic- caused by human activity, associated with human activity.
anthropocentrism(from the Greek "anthropos" - man, "kenton" - center) - the view that man is the center of the universe and the ultimate goal of the universe.
area(from the Greek "area" - area) - the area of ​​\u200b\u200bdistribution of a given taxon (species, genus, family) in nature.
autecology- a branch of ecology that studies the interaction of individual organisms and species with the environment.
Biogeochemical cycles- cycles of substances; the exchange of matter and energy between various components of the biosphere, due to the vital activity of organisms and having a cyclical nature.
Biogeocenosis- an ecological system that includes communities of different species in certain geological conditions.
Biodiversity- the number of living organisms, species and ecosystems.
Biomass- the total mass of individuals of a species, group of species, related to the area or volume of the habitat.
Biosphere(from the Greek "bios" - life, "sphire" - ball) - the shell of the Earth, in which the living interacts with the non-living.
Biotope- the space that the biocenosis occupies.
Biocenosis(from the Greek "bios" - life, "koinos" general) - a set of populations adapted to living together in a given territory.
View- a natural biological unit, all members of which are connected by participation in a common gene pool.
herbicides- chemicals used to control plants - pests of agriculture.
Heterotrophs(from the Greek "heteros" - different, "trophe" - nutrition) - organisms that feed on plants and animals.
Global(from the Greek "globus" - a ball) - covering the entire Earth.
Humanism(from the Greek "humanus" human) - a worldview based on the principles of equality, justice, humanity.
Degradation(from the French "degradation" - step) - deterioration, loss of qualities.
Demography(from the Greek "demos" - the people, "grapho" - I write) the science of population.
Defoliants- chemicals that cause the leaves of plants to fall off.
Divergence– enhancement of differences between closely related species.
Living matter is the totality of all existing in this moment organisms.
Pollutants- Substances entering the environment that lead to disruption of the functioning of ecosystems.
Customer- a protected area in which the performance of the function of nature protection is combined with limited economic activity.
Reserve(from "command") - a protected area in which economic activity is prohibited.
industrial society(from Latin "industria" - activity) - a stage of development of society, one of the main characteristics of which is industrial, commodity machine production.
Insecticides- chemicals used to control harmful insects.
Information is a measure of the inhomogeneity of the distribution of matter.
acid rain- rains containing nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide.
Commensalism A form of interaction in which one of the two interacting populations benefits.
Convergence- reduction of differences between species under the influence of the evolutionary process.
Consumers(from Latin “consumo” - I consume) - heterotrophic organisms, mainly animals that eat producers.
Cooperation A form of interaction in which both interacting populations benefit.
co-evolution- the co-evolution of two or more species of life.
Red Book- a set of descriptions of rare and endangered species of plants and animals.
A crisis- (from the Greek "krisis" - decision, repeated point, outcome) - a predicament.
culture- (from the Latin "cultura" - cultivation) - the totality of everything specifically that is created by him as a species of Homo sapiens.
Landscape- the main category of territorial division geographical envelope Earth.
Limiting factor- a factor that limits the existence of an organism.
Local(from Latin "localis" - local) - relating to a small area.
Reclamation- improvement of natural lands.
habitat- a site occupied by a part of a population and possessing all the conditions necessary for its existence.
Metabolism- the exchange of substances between the body and the environment.
Modeling- a research method, and another object (model), which is in a certain relationship with it.
Monitoring(from Latin "monitor" - warning) - an observation system, on the basis of which an assessment of the state of the biosphere and its individual elements is given.
Mutation(from the Latin "mutatio" - change) - a change in the genetic code that is inherited.
Mutualism- a form of interaction in which both populations benefit, and they are completely dependent on each other.
Neolithic(from the Greek "neos" - new, "litos" - stone) - a new stone age (10-6 thousand years ago).
neolithic revolution- a fundamental change in the way of farming, expressed in the transition from a hunting and gathering economy to an agricultural and cattle breeding.
Niche ecological- a set of conditions necessary for the existence of a given species.
Noosphere(from the Greek "noos" - mind, "sphaire" - ball) - the sphere of the mind that arises as a result of the appearance of a person on Earth and his interaction with the natural environment.
Obligation- forced connection, without which the population cannot exist.
Ozone screen- atmospheric layer lying at altitudes from 7 km at the poles to 50 km (with the highest ozone density at altitudes of 20-22 km), with an increased concentration of O3 molecules.
organic compounds- Substances containing carbon.
Paleolithic- (from the Greek "palios" - ancient, "litos" - stone) - the ancient stone age (from 2-3 million years ago).
Greenhouse effect- an increase in the concentration in the atmosphere of the so-called greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, etc.), which absorb the thermal radiation of the earth's surface, which leads to climate warming.
Pesticides- Substances used to control agricultural pests.
population(from Latin "populus" - people) - a set of individuals of the same species that inhabit a certain area of ​​\u200b\u200bfor a long time.
Emission limits (PDV)- the maximum amount of harmful substances that can enter the environment from the territory of this enterprise.
Maximum Permissible Concentrations (MAC)- the amount of any harmful substance that can be in the environment without significant damage to human health.
Maximum allowable amounts (PDS)- the total indicator of the harmful effects of polluting factors.
Maximum Permissible Levels (MPL)– the level of harmful physical impact (for electromagnetic and noise pollution).
Natural assimilation potential- the ability of the natural environment without prejudice to itself (i.e. to the mechanisms of its functioning and self-recovery) to give the products necessary for a person and to produce useful work for him.
Natural resource potential- a part of natural resources that can be really involved in economic activity given the technical and socio-economic capabilities of society, provided that the human environment is preserved.
Productivity- the total amount of biomass formed over a given period of time.
Producers(from Latin "producentis" - producing) - autotrophic organisms that create food from simple inorganic substances.
Equilibrium- a state in which the individual parameters of the system are unchanged or fluctuate around a certain average value.
Regional(from lat. "regionalis" - regional) - relating to a particular territory.
decomposers(from Latin “reducentis” - returning) - heterotrophic, mainly bacteria and fungi, destroying complex organic compounds and releasing inorganic nutrients suitable for use by producers.
Recreational resources- all phenomena that can be used for recreation: climatic, water, hydro-mineral, forest, mountain, etc.
Reclamation- return of land to a cultural state capable of yielding a crop, or to a natural state.
Recycling - reuse of production waste.
Symbiosis A form of interaction in which both species benefit.
synecology- a branch of ecology that studies the interaction of communities with their environment.
Community The totality of living organisms that make up an ecosystem.
Medium resistance- a set of factors aimed at reducing the size of a population or species.
Habitat- a set of conditions in which a given individual, population or species exists.
Structure(from Latin "structura" - structure) - a set of connections between the elements of the system.
succession(from Latin "successio" - continuity) - the process of development of an ecosystem from its inception to death, accompanied by a change in the species existing in it.
Toxic Substances(from the Greek "toxikon" - poison) - substances that cause certain diseases and disorders.
Tolerance(from Latin "tolerantia" - patience) - the body's ability to endure the influence of environmental factors.
Trophic- pertaining to nutrition.
Urbanization- the process of growth in the number of cities and an increase in the number of urban residents.
Sustainable development- meeting the needs of the present generation without threatening the future generation to meet their needs.
Phyto- Pertaining to plants.
Fluctuation- a change in any indicator under the influence of external or internal factors.
ecological pyramid- graphic representation of the ratio of trophic levels. Can be types: abundance, biomass and energy.
Environmental factor- any element of the environment that can have a direct impact on living organisms.
Ecology(from Latin "oikos" - house, "logos" - teaching) - a science that studies the interaction of living organisms with the environment.
Ecosystem- a system that makes up the community and the environment.
Ecotop- the habitat of the community.
Ethics(from the Greek "etos" - teach, disposition) is one of the philosophical disciplines that studies human behavior.

Abiotic environment -(from the Greek a - a prefix in the meaning of "not", "without" and bioticos - vital, living) a set of inorganic conditions (factors) for the habitat of organisms.

Agrobiocenosis -(from the Greek agros - field and biocenosis) a set of organisms living on lands for agricultural use, occupied by crops or planting of cultivated plants.

Adaptation - ( from the late adaptatio - adaptation) in biology, the adaptation of the structure and functions of organisms (their populations) to local conditions of existence.

Accumulation- (from lat. accumulatiop - accumulation, gathering in a heap) accumulation and deposition of sediments, destruction products formed due to the manifestation of various denudation processes.

Accumulation of pollutants - 1. Accumulation of various pollutants of anthropogenic origin in various environments: atmosphere, hydrosphere, soil. 2. Accumulation of pollution in living organisms from the environment and through the consumption of contaminated food.

Allelopathy - a specific form of biotic relationships, expressed in the interaction of plant organisms in phytocenoses; the chemical influence of some plant species on others through specifically acting secretions.

Amensalism - a form of biotic relationship in which for one of the interacting species the consequences of coexistence are negative, while the other does not receive harm or benefit from this. This form of interaction is often found in plants. For example, light-loving herbaceous species growing under a spruce experience oppression as a result of strong shading by its crown, while for the tree itself their neighborhood may be indifferent.

Antibiosis - in one form or another, antagonistic relations that limit or exclude the coexistence of species.

the level of direct and indirect impact of man and his economic system on nature and its individual components.

Area -(from lat. area - area, space) the area of ​​\u200b\u200bdistribution of the organism on land or in the sea.

Atmosphere- (from the Greek atmos - steam, spharia - sphere) the outer gaseous shell of the Earth.

Out (o) ecology -(from the Greek autos - itself and ecology) a branch of ecology that studies the effect of various environmental factors (mainly abiotic) on certain types of organisms.

Batial -(from the Greek bathys - deep) the seabed zone accompanying the continental slope (from 200-500 to 3000 m). The upper limit of the B. depends on the depth at which the gently sloping shelf turns into a relatively steep slope.

Bental - part of the ocean floor inhabited by organisms .

Benthos -(from the Greek bentos - depth) a set of organisms that live at the bottom of water bodies on various substrates.

Bioaccumulation – ( from the Greek bios - life and lat. accumulatio - accumulation, gathering in a heap) accumulation in the body of pollutants coming from the environment through the lungs, skin and digestive tract.

Biogeocenosis -(from the Greek bios, ge - Earth and koinos - general) solar energy, soil, water column, etc.) components united by the exchange of matter and energy into a single natural complex. The concept of B., introduced by V.N. Sukachev (1940), has become widespread in Russian literature.

Bioindicators (bioindication) -(from the Greek. bio and lat. indico - I indicate I determine) organisms or communities of organisms, the presence, number or features of development of which serve as indicators of natural processes, conditions or anthropogenic changes in the habitat.

Biological resources - include genetic resources, organisms or parts thereof, populations or any other biotic component of ecosystems of real or potential benefit or value to mankind.

biological rhythms - periodically recurring changes in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena.

Biome -(eng. biome from Greek bios - life and lat. -oma - a suffix denoting the totality) the totality of various groups of organisms and their habitat in a certain landscape-geographical zone.

Biomass -(from Greek bios - life and lat. massa - lump, piece) the total mass of all organisms on Earth in individual ecosystems, a group of species, individual species, etc. May refer to the raw (living) state of organisms or the dry state of their bodies.

Biosphere -(from the Greek bios - life and spharia - ball) the habitat of living organisms, the composition, structure and energy of which is determined by the activity of the entire set of living organisms - biota.

Biota - a historically established set of plants and animals united by an area of ​​​​distribution.

Biotic environment - A group of living organisms that influence other organisms through their activities.

Biotope -(from the Greek bios - life and topos - place) a section of a reservoir or land with the same type of relief, climate and other abiotic factors, occupied by a certain biocenosis.

Biocenosis -(from the Greek bios - life and koinos - general) the totality of animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms that jointly inhabit a land area or reservoir. B. is an integral part of biogeocenosis.

Ecosystem buffering - the ability of ecosystems to withstand disturbing influences (including anthropogenic ones is characteristic), to maintain their structure, functional features and the closed nature of the circulation of substances.

View - a set of individuals with common morphophysiological features, having a common evolutionary fate, capable of interbreeding with each other, forming a single system of genomes, occupying a single or partially broken area.

Types - batteries - organisms capable of accumulating pollutants in quantities many times greater than their content in the environment.

Types of indicators - organisms highly sensitive to certain pollutants, reflecting changes in the natural background.

Gene pool -(from Greek genes - giving birth, born and French fond - foundation) the totality of genes of individuals that make up a given population or species.

Herbicides -(from lat. herba - grass and caedo - kill) substances from the group of pesticides for the destruction of mainly weeds and other unwanted vegetation.

Hydrobionts -(from the Greek hydor - water and bios - life) organisms that live in aquatic environment.

Hypobiosis - a state of reduced vitality. At the same time, representatives of many species burrow into the silt and wait out adverse environmental conditions. This is how shields, planarians, oligochaete worms, mollusks, and some fish behave. Many protozoa form cysts, for example, ciliates, rhizomes, sunflowers.

Homeostasis - the ability to persist with correlated processes that maintain the most stable states. G. actively participates in the internal environment of the body (system) on the basis of a feedback mechanism that establishes a balance between need and opportunity.

Ecosystem homeostasis -(from the Greek homoios - similar, identical and stasis - state) the ability of an ecosystem to autoregulate when environmental conditions change. G.e. arises as a result of the interaction of the cycles of substances and energy flows, as well as “feedback” signals from subsystems.

Detritus -(from lat. detritus - worn) dead organic matter, such as fallen leaves, branches and other plant and animal remains, present in any ecosystem and decomposed by soil and aquatic organisms.

Detritophages -(from lat. detritus - worn out and Greek. phagos - devourer) animals that feed on detritus, i.e. dead, partially decomposed organic matter, together with the microorganisms it contains. For example, earthworms, crustaceans.

The law of the minimum (Liebig's law) - the yield of various crops is directly dependent on the content of nutrients in the soil, which are at a minimum.

Replaceable natural resources - natural resources that, in the process of being used with the development of the scientific and technological process, can now or in the future be replaced by other types of them.

Zoobenthos -(from the Greek zoon - animal and benthos - depth) bottom fauna, animal benthos, a set of animals living at the bottom of a reservoir.

Zooplankton -(from the Greek zoon - animal and planktos - soaring) a set of animals that inhabit the water column and are passively carried by currents.

Zoophages- (from the Greek zoon - animal and phagos - eater) carnivores that feed on other animals

Exhaustible natural resources - natural resources, the consistent use of which can reduce them to a level at which their further exploitation becomes economically unfeasible or there is a threat of their complete disappearance.

Commensals - organisms that benefit from cohabitation with other organisms.

Cooperation (collaboration) - both species form a community. It is not mandatory, but living in a community benefits both species.

Survival Curve - a graph showing the probability of individuals surviving to a certain age. Such graphs are built and, as a rule, differ for groups within a species, distinguished by various characters.

Convergence - the process of developing signs of external similarity in unrelated forms of organisms, if these species lead a similar lifestyle in similar environmental conditions. The convergence of features in different forms affects those organs that are in direct contact with the external environment.

Consumers -(from English consumers) organisms that feed on organic substances accumulated by producers - autotrophs, and convert them into other organic substances.

Climax -(from English climax, plant climax) the final stage of succession; a plant community that is in relative correspondence and dynamic equilibrium with the habitat environment (changes very slowly).

Lithosphere -(from the Greek lithos - stone, sphere) the solid outer shell of the Earth, with an average nominal thickness of 16 kilometers. The thickness of ice on the plains is 30–40 km, in the area of ​​mountain ranges 50–75 km, and within the basins of the seas, 5–6 km.

Local pollution - environmental pollution in the vicinity of industrial enterprises, construction sites, quarries, settlements and other places, not spreading over large areas.

Habitat - part of the earth's space, the boundaries of which are clearly delimited, covering a place with certain conditions (territory or water area), providing the entire cycle of development of an organism, population or species as a whole, where this species is found.

Migration (of animals and plants) – the movement of animals and plants in space, caused by a change in the conditions of existence in habitats or associated with the cycle of their development.

Monitoring -(eng. monitoring, lat. monitor - warning) a system of regular long-term observations in space and time, providing information about the state of the environment in order to assess the past, present and forecast in the future environmental parameters that are important to humans.

Mutualism - a biotic relationship in which each species can live, grow, and reproduce only in the presence of the other. They live in symbiosis.

Inexhaustible natural resources - part of the natural resources, the use of which by man does not lead to the apparent depletion of their reserves now and in the foreseeable future (solar energy, intraterrestrial heat, tidal energy).

Irreplaceable natural resources - part of natural resources that cannot be replaced by others now or in the foreseeable future (for example: environmental conditions of human life).

Neuston -(from the Greek neustos - floating) a community of microorganisms, plants and animals living in the surface film of sea and fresh waters. These are mainly organisms of small and medium sizes.

Nekton - aquatic animals capable of swimming quickly and overcoming the force of currents, for example, fish, squid, dolphins.

Noosphere -(from the Greek noos - mind and spharia - ball) literally “thinking shell”, the sphere of the mind, the highest stage of development (according to V.I. Vernadsky) of the biosphere, associated with the emergence and formation of civilized humanity in it, with a period when reasonable human activity becomes the main determinant of development on Earth. The concept of N. was introduced by the French mathematician and philosopher E. Leroy (1927) and P. Teilhard de Chardin (1930) and used by V. I. Vernadsky in the article “A few words about the noosphere” (1944).

Ozone layer(syn. ozone screen, ozonosphere) - a layer of the atmosphere at a height of approximately 10-50 km, characterized by an increased concentration of ozone (the gas molecules of which consist of three oxygen atoms - O 3), practically coincides with the stratosphere of the atmosphere. Lower limit O.s. at the poles it drops to 7-8 km, and at the equator it rises to 17-18 km. Thickness O.s. on average only 3 mm, which varies from 2 mm at the equator to 4.5 mm at high latitudes. O.s. absorbs ultraviolet radiation, which protects all life on Earth from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation.

Environment - 1) The complex of all objects, phenomena and processes that are external to a given organism, population or community of organisms, but interacting with them. Interaction is carried out through the circulation of substances. 2) The totality of natural, natural-anthropogenic and anthropogenic objects, phenomena and processes that are external to a person, with which he interacts in the course of his activity, therefore the term “human environment” is often used.

Oligotrophs - organisms (plants, microorganisms) that develop in an environment with a low concentration of nutrients.

Greenhouse effect - the effect of heating the lower layers of the atmosphere near the earth's surface, caused by the absorption of long-wave (infrared) radiation from the earth's surface. The main reason for this natural process is the content in the atmosphere of water vapor, carbon dioxide and some other gases (nitrogen dioxide, methane), the molecules of which absorb the thermal radiation of the Earth. They are called greenhouse gases.

Pedobionts - inhabitants of different soil layers.

Pelagial -(from the Greek pelagos - sea) the water column in the open part of a deep-sea reservoir.

Periphyton -(from the Greek peri - around, around and phyton - plant) a community of aquatic fouling organisms that cover objects and objects submerged in water - stones, piles, large plants, bottoms of ships, etc.

Plankton -(from Greek planktos - wandering) organisms living in suspension in natural waters, usually unable to move independently and therefore carried by currents. If these are plants, then they talk about phytoplankton, if they are animals, then they talk about zooplankton.

population density - the number of individuals (biomass) of a population per unit of space or volume. Being a species-specific ecological characteristic, population density significantly depends on environmental factors.

Population -(from lat. populus - people, population) a set of homogeneous individuals interacting with each other, having a common habitat in the form of a continuous range, within which they reproduce and live.

Shelford's rule (law of tolerance) - one of the fundamental principles of ecology, according to which the presence or prosperity of a population of any organisms in a given habitat depends on a complex of environmental factors, each of which has a certain range of endurance (tolerance) for an organism. The range of tolerance for each factor is limited by its minimum and maximum values, within which only an organism can exist.

Limit of stability - maximum tolerated by the body, community, etc. impact (while maintaining their structure and functional features).

Maximum Permissible Concentration (MAC) – the maximum concentration of harmful substances in soil, air or water, above which their negative impact on human health and the environment is noted. It is established by law or recommended by the competent authorities.

Producer(s) -(from lat. producentis - creating) autotrophic organisms that produce organic matter from inorganic matter using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. These are mostly green plants, including phytoplankton, using solar energy.

Profundal -(from lat. profundus - deep) the deepest part of the lake, into which wind-wave mixing and sunlight do not penetrate.

Regional pollution - environmental pollution found within a large area, but not covering the entire planet (for example: pollution of the World Ocean with oil products, waters of regions of intensive agriculture with phosphorus and nitrogen compounds, the atmosphere of industrialized territories with nitrogen oxides, sulfur, dust).

Synusia -(from English synusium) a structural part of a phytocenosis, characterized by a certain composition of ecologically more or less similar species belonging to the same life form. It has spatial (or temporal) isolation, and, consequently, a special phytocenotic environment.

Community - a set of cohabiting organisms of different species, representing a certain ecological unity (for example, phytoplankton of a reservoir, soil animals of a forest area). Sometimes S. is defined as the totality of all organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms) inhabiting a land area or a reservoir, and is interpreted as a synonym for the term “biocenosis”. There are also S. plants - phytocenosis and S. animals - zoocenosis.

Stenobiont -(from Greek stenos - narrow and Greek biontos - living) an organism that can live in the constancy of any environmental factor or group of interacting factors. Stenobiontness can be expressed in relation to temperature (stenothermic organisms), salinity (stenohaline), hydrostatic pressure (stenobatic). Among S. there may be organisms that need an increased value of any factor (they are indicated by the addition of the ending - phylum - thermophiles, hygrophiles, etc.). Species or individuals that require reduced doses or absence of it (indicated by adding the ending - fob - calcephobe, gallophobes, etc.).

Stress -(from lat. stress - stress) 1) The state of stress of the body is a set of physiological reactions that occur in the body of a person or animal (possibly in plants) in response to the influence of various adverse, or, conversely, exceptionally favorable factors.

Sublittoral -(from Latin sub - under and litoralis - coastal) a transitional zone between the littoral and profundal of the lake, also called the embankment of the coastal shallows.

Succession -(from Latin successio - succession, inheritance) the development of an ecosystem, which consists in changing the species structure and biocenotic processes over time. In other words, this is a successive change in time of some biocenoses by others on a certain area of ​​the earth's surface, which, with an increasing degree of accuracy, ensure the closure of the biochemical cycle of substances.

Supralittoral -(from lat. supra - above, above and litoralis - coastal) splash zone, a zone on the border of the sea and land, lying above the littoral and not flooded during high tide. It is exposed to the action of the surf, covered with water during surge winds and strong storms.

Technogenesis - the process of changing natural complexes and biogeocenoses under the influence of human production activities.

Tolerance -(from lat. tolerantia - patience) the body's ability to endure the adverse effects of a particular environmental factor. All organisms are characterized by an ecological minimum and an ecological maximum of the magnitude of the influencing factor; the range between these two values ​​is the T limits.

Trophic chain (food chain) - relationships between organisms through which matter and energy are transformed in an ecosystem. In T.c. when transferring potential energy from link to link, most of it (80-90%) is lost, turning into heat. If you represent this ratio quantitatively, you get a food pyramid. T.c. divided into two main types: pasture and detrital. In the pasture shopping center (chain of grazing) autotrophic organisms form the basis, then herbivorous animals consuming them, then predators (consumers) of the 1st order, predators of the second order. In detrital T.c. (decomposition chains), most common in forests, most of the plants are not eaten, but die off and undergo decomposition by saprophytic organisms and mineralization.

Ultraabisal -(from Latin ultra - over, more and Greek abyssos - bottomless) zone of greatest ocean depths (6-11 km), confined to ocean trenches, located along the continents (Peruan-Chilean) or island chains (Japanese, Mariana) total area U. less than 1.5% of the ocean floor.

Soil fauna - There are several ecological groups of soil animals: 1) microfauna - microscopic animals ranging in size from 2 to 100 microns. These include protozoa, rotifers, nematodes; 2) mesofauna - this group includes animals with body sizes from tenths to 2-3 mm, for example, ticks, springtails, two-tailed, centipedes; 3) macro fauna - soil animals with body sizes from 2 to 20 mm. These are insect larvae, earthworms, bears, centipedes; four) megafauna - These are large shrews, mainly from among mammals. A number of species spend their whole lives in the soil (moles, mole rats, mole voles, zokors), or part of life cycle(gophers, marmots, rabbits, badgers, etc.).

Phytobenthos -(from the Greek phyton - plant and benthos - depth), bottom vegetation, a set of plant organisms that live at the bottom of a river and reservoirs.

Phytoplankton- (from the Greek phyton - plant and planktos - soaring, wandering) a set of plant organisms passively soaring and carried by currents in the water column, mainly microscopic algae, unicellular and colonial.

Phytophages -(from the Greek phyton - plant and phagos - eater) herbivorous organisms, consumers of the 1st order. They provide the first step in the processing of living plant biomass along the grazing chain.

Phytocenosis -(from the Greek phyton - plant and koinos - general) plant community, a set of plants on a relatively homogeneous area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe earth's surface, producing organic matter based on photosynthesis. F. is characterized by a certain species composition and structure, formed as a result of the selection of species capable of coexisting with each other and with other organisms under certain conditions.

Fluctuation- these are reversible, multidirectional changes, when periods of aging and rejuvenation of populations alternate and generations continuously replace each other. Thus, the population size remains unchanged for a long period of time, and it retains the area it occupies.

Background pollution - pollution of the environment by physical, chemical or biological agents found far from their sources and practically anywhere in the world.

Background monitoring - monitoring whose main task is to fix and establish indicators characterizing the natural background, as well as its global and regional differences and changes in the process of biosphere development.

Predation - a type of biotic relationship in which a predatory species feeds on other animals.

Eurybionts -(from the Greek "evry" and bios - life) animals or plants that can exist with wide changes in environmental factors. So many terrestrial animals living in a continental climate are able to withstand significant fluctuations in temperature (eurythermal organisms), humidity, solar radiation and other factors.

Euryphagia- (from the Greek "evry ..." and phagos - devourer) omnivorous, feeding animals (euryphages) with a wide variety of plant and animal food.

Ecological valency - the degree of adaptability of the species to changes in environmental conditions. Quantitatively, it is expressed by the range of environmental changes within which a given species retains normal vital activity.

Ecological niche -(from the English ecological niche) a set of chemical, physical and biological factors necessary for the life of an organism that has certain ecological characteristics. The same species may occupy different ecological niches in different parts of its range; the same ecological niche, in different geographical locations, can be occupied by different species.

Environmental factor - any environmental condition or a phenomenon (process) affecting the environment, to which living organisms and inert matter of nature react with adaptive reactions (factors that are lethal for organisms and irreversible changes in quality for inert matter lie outside adaptive abilities).

Ecosystem - Until now, there has been a wide variety of definitions of the concept of E. 1. E. (N.F. Reimers. Nature management. - M .: Thought. -1990) - a) any community of living beings and its habitat, combined into a single functional whole, arising on the basis of interdependence and causal relationships that exist between individual environmental components. b) E. synonymous with biogeocenosis. 2. E. (I.I. Dedyu. Ecological encyclopedic Dictionary. - Chisinau: Moldavian Soviet Encyclopedia.-1989) - a term introduced into science by A. Tensley (1935) to denote any unity (of a very different volume and rank), including all organisms (i.e. biocenosis) in a given area (biotope) and interacting with the physical environment in such a way that the flow of energy creates a well-defined trophic structure, species diversity and circulation of substances within the system. 3. E. (Yu.P. Khrustalev, G.G. Matishov. Ecological and geographical dictionary. -Apatity: Kola Science Center. -1996) - a single natural or anthropogenic - natural complex, consisting of a combination of living organisms and their environment habitats interconnected by the exchange of matter and energy and combined into a single functional whole

Ecotype - a group of individuals of a plant species adapted to certain soil and climatic conditions.

environmental science- environmental science.

epipelagic - the lower boundary of the epipelagic zone (no more than 200 m) is determined by the penetration of sunlight in an amount sufficient for photosynthesis. Green plants cannot exist deeper than this zone.

Literature

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Applications

Attachment 1.