Regional and local systems of nature management. Regional information system of nature management The modern system of nature management consists of

PLAN

Introduction

2. The system of control and management.

2.1. Federal bodies of environmental control and management.

2.2. Bodies of environmental management in the subject of the Russian Federation.

2.3. Environmental monitoring.

2.4. Ecological and natural resource legislation.

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

It is fundamentally important that the problems of environmental protection and rationalization of nature management, having an interdisciplinary nature and affecting the interests of not only living, but also future generations of people, involve the use of economic instruments in conjunction with state and socio-political methods. An important role in ensuring the environmental safety of production and consumption processes, as well as in the sustainable functioning of the sphere of nature management and environmental protection, is played by the management mechanism.

Given the growing importance of international and global aspects of environmental issues, environmental safety and environmental management in the Russian Federation is carried out at the federal and regional levels of organization and management decision-making. For the purposes of environmental management, administrative-legal, economic (including market), financial-credit, socio-political, moral and psychological instruments and incentives are used interrelatedly.

This paper discusses the role and importance of administrative and legal methods in the mechanism of environmental management and environmental safety, as well as: what are the features of nature management and environmental protection as an object of management, and what is the composition of the main tools used for this purpose, what is the structure of environmental control and management of Russia, and how the principle of separation of powers is implemented in the environmental sphere and the democratization of managerial decision-making is ensured. An assessment of the effectiveness of the current system of environmental and environmental management in Russia is given, which is the legal basis for nature management and environmental safety, and how the primacy of the norms of international environmental law should be understood. After analyzing the management system, taking into account the real environmental situation, an assessment was made of the role of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the formation of the legal framework for environmental protection. And also, what main components form the system of environmental standards and regulations, how the “price” of an environmental standard is determined, how national and international standards are interconnected. How are environmental measures coordinated and coordinated in a market economy, how does a targeted environmental program differ from a directive plan, and what should be done as a matter of priority in Russia to improve the efficiency of the environmental management mechanism.

1. The concept and structure of the nature management mechanism.

Nature Management Mechanism and environmental safety is an integral set of management methods and tools that organize, regulate and coordinate the processes of nature management in conjunction with production and socio-economic processes, ensure the proper level of environmental safety of production and consumption, reproduce the quality of the environment as a specific benefit.

The management mechanism of any area of ​​economic activity, as follows from the general theory of management, can be carried out and function effectively in the unity of such basic functions as organization, planning, forecasting, regulation, accounting and control.

The mechanism of environmental management is an integral part of the economic management system as a whole, having a similar structure, principles and target orientation to the consistent implementation of market reforms and the approval of economic approaches to management.

The main links in the mechanism for managing nature management and environmental safety are a set of administrative, control and economic instruments, whose specific composition is presented in Tables 1 and 2.

Administrative and control management tools environmental management and environmental safety

1. Environmental and natural resource legislation

2. Environmental monitoring

3. Environmental standards and regulations: Standards and limits for the emission (discharge) of pollutants by stationary and mobile sources of pollution; Water withdrawal and forest use limits; Quotas for extraction of biological resources; Standards for visiting specially protected areas; Norms for shooting game animals, collecting wild plants; Prohibitions on the placement of pollutants in specific locations activities, the use of toxic substances and heavy metals.

4. Licensing of economic activity: Associated with the impact on the environment and human health; Providing environmental monitoring and control.

5. Environmental certification (labeling)

6. EIA and ecological expertise of projects

7. Environmental audit

In the totality of economic instruments for nature management and environmental protection, it is necessary to single out a pledge system, which, in particular, represents payments established by law or as a result of voluntary agreements. These payments are collected on purchases of potentially dangerous goods and refunded upon return of used products. This mechanism is used as a kind of guarantee of a high level of recycling of the product itself or its packaging. Tab. 2

Economic instruments for environmental protection and nature management

Market-oriented instruments: Natural resource payments and payments for environmental pollution; Market prices for natural resources entering the economic turnover; The mechanism for the sale and purchase of rights to pollute the natural environment; Collateral system; Intervention to correct market prices and support producers (including in the markets for recycled waste); Methods of direct market negotiations and other methods of self-regulation; Voluntary environmental agreements between environmental control bodies and enterprises, as well as between the enterprises themselves - nature users.

Financial and credit instruments: Forms and instruments of financing environmental protection measures; Environmental credit facility, loans, subsidies, etc. Accelerated depreciation regime for environmental protection equipment; Environmental and resource taxes; Ecological risk insurance system.

In recent years, the pledge principle has also been used with respect to durable goods, including car bodies, freezers and refrigerators, and certain types of electronic equipment.

Taking into account the experience of many countries, as the most actively used, these are payments for nature use (resource payments and payments for environmental pollution), as well as financial and credit instruments (Table 2). Market interventions are usually carried out in the form of subsidizing market prices, for example, for raw materials resulting from waste processing. The need for such subsidies and support for producers arises when prevailing market prices do not cover recycling costs. Another example of market intervention is the provision of guarantees to manufacturers, either promoting the formation or facilitating the functioning of some environmentally oriented market sector (for example, support for the production of environmental equipment, environmental controls, etc.).

However, specific methods implementation of the main management functions, the choice of organizational structures and mechanisms is largely determined by features of the control object. The main features of the sphere of nature management and environmental protection as an object of management are the following:

The infrastructural nature of the products of this sphere (the quality of the natural environment, its ecosystems and resources) and the services it provides (environmental, resource saving, ensuring the environmental safety of production and consumption). All sectors of the economy and business entities, respectively, need the products of this sphere, and environmental management methods should also apply to the economy as a whole, be methods of managing what is today called a big economy;

The duration of the main reproduction processes as a result of the interweaving of their economic and natural aspects, which causes a significant time gap between the costs directed to nature protection and restoration and the results obtained, as well as a high degree of uncertainty and risk that accompanies many management decisions;

A special combination of public and private systems of property rights as a result of the belonging of many objects of nature management to public environmental benefits and resources of joint use;

The specificity of the combination of market and administrative-control management tools, predetermined by the presence of numerous market failures in the field of nature management and environmental protection;

Relatively (with other sectors of the economy) the higher role of the state and its institutions in the mechanism of environmental management and environmental protection, as a result, the urgent need to develop special mechanisms (including socio-political ones) that neutralize the negative aspects of state influence on this area.

The mechanism of nature management and environmental protection is based on certain institutional framework, which is formed by:

The system of property rights, including ownership of environmental benefits, natural resources and environmental infrastructure;

A set of environmental control and management bodies (national, regional, local).

Property relations (primarily property relations) for environmental benefits, natural resources and environmental infrastructure facilities are determined by the legislation in force in each particular country, the central element of which is, as a rule, the Constitution. In Russia, according to Art. 9, paragraph 1 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, land and other natural resources are used and protected as the basis of the life of the peoples living in a particular territory. Art. 42 establishes the right of every person to a favorable environment and for compensation for damage caused to his health and property. Art. 9, paragraph 2 proclaims the right of citizens and legal entities to private ownership of land and other natural resources. And, further, in accordance with Art. 72, the issues of ownership, use and disposal of land, subsoil, water and other natural resources, as well as nature management, environmental protection and ensuring environmental safety are under the joint jurisdiction of the Federation and the subjects of the Federation. The concretization of these constitutional norms and the establishment of a certain regime of property rights is carried out in the relevant natural resource legislation, a more detailed analysis of which is given below.

2. The system of bodies for control and management of nature managementeat.

2.1. Federal bodies of environmental control and management.

In Russia, according to the emerging democratic approaches, the system of environmental control and management is based on such an important principle as the separation of powers. All four branches of government are represented at the federal level. presidential, legislative, executive, as well as judicial(Fig. 1) . Similar principles of democratic governance are also implemented in the subjects of the Russian Federation, but with the only difference that the highest officials of such subjects are governors, and in the constituent republics of the Russian Federation, the presidents of the corresponding republican formations.

Among the powers presidential branch of government includes the development of the initial principles of a national environmental policy, as well as legal support environmental protection and nature management. In accordance with the Constitution in force in Russia, the President not only has the right to legislative initiative, but also approves (or rejects) laws adopted by deputies, after which they enter (or do not enter) into force, and also has the right to prepare his own decrees. The Security Council of the Russian Federation functions as part of the presidential branch of power, and within its framework - Interdepartmental Commission on Environmental Safety, which prepares proposals for solving fundamental issues of environmental protection and nature management.

Among them are issues related to the prevention and liquidation of emergency situations characterized by particularly severe environmental consequences, including at sea and in the water basins of Russia, with the safe disposal of radioactive waste, ensuring the fulfillment of the obligations of the Russian Federation arising from international conventions and treaties, etc. .

Legislative (representative) branch authorities represented in Russia by a bicameral parliament - the Federal Assembly, which prepares and adopts environmental legislation. Legislators participate in the regulation of nature management and environmental protection also by including environmental standards in economic, criminal and administrative legislation, including the Civil, Criminal and other codes. The State budget adopted by both houses of parliament has a significant impact on environmental protection and sustainable nature management. In this case, the structure of its income and expenses, the tax base, including environmental and resource taxes, the list of federal environmental programs included in the budget, the conditions and level of financing of the system of authorities and management in the field of nature management and environmental protection, etc. d.

By participating in the legislative and rule-making process, deputies reflect the diverse preferences of voters for a particular set of public goods, including environmental ones. The result of this activity is actually realizable national environmental policy, reflecting the balance of interests of various social strata, socio-political and economic structures, their ideas about the degree of priority of social problems, as well as reinforcement by an appropriate legal framework and material and financial resources.

Executive branch of government presented specialized bodies of state environmental control and management, which are part of the Government of the Russian Federation. The activities of each of the federal executive bodies are determined by a special Regulation, which sets:

Functions and tasks of the relevant federal body in a specific area of ​​environmental protection and ensuring environmentally safe and sustainable nature management;

The order of its interaction with other departments;

Internal (usually territorial) structure.

A number of federal departments of general competence also participate in the mechanism for regulating nature management and environmental safety. Among them are the State Standard of the Russian Federation, the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation (information and statistical support along with other departments of environmental management), the State Customs Committee (SCC) of the Russian Federation (control over compliance with the requirements of international treaties and environmental safety when goods cross the state border), the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation (monitoring compliance with fire hazard measures - Fire Department).

At the federal level, the system of specially authorized authorities and management of nature management and environmental safety can be divided into three interrelated links (Fig. 1). The following is an analysis of departments that perform complex coordinating functions.

Rice. one. Organizational management system for environmental protection and nature management in anemia.

Ministry natural resources RF (Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia) that implements:

Development and implementation of state policy in the field of environmental protection and nature management and coordination in this area of ​​similar functions of other ministries and departments;

Management of the state subsoil fund and state water fund;

Observation of the state of the subsoil and monitoring of water bodies;

Licensing of use subsoil, licensing of water use;

Control over the fulfillment by users of natural resources of the terms of license agreements (including in order to prevent unauthorized use of subsoil and water bodies).

The Ministry of Natural Resources, like many other bodies of environmental control and management, creates territorial (basin) divisions, inspections, etc. in the subjects of the Federation to exercise its powers. Organizations StateCommittee of the Russian Federation for Environmental Protection (Goscomecology) and the Federal Forestry Serviceeconomy of Russia. At the same time, a significant part of the functions of the abolished departments was assigned to the subdivisions of the Ministry of Natural Resources. Due to the fact that a new regulation on the Ministry of Natural Resources is still being prepared, its additional functions can be determined taking into account those tasks that were previously solved by these departments. Yes, for State Ecology Committee The main functions were the following:

Intersectoral coordination and regulation in the field of environmental protection;

State environmental control;

State ecological expertise; monitoring of anthropogenic impact on the environment;

Monitoring of flora and fauna (except for forests);

Licensing of the export of bioresources and import of waste, as well as all other types of activities with waste, etc.

A lot of work was also carried out by territorial (in each of the subjects of the Federation) bodies of this Committee, including the formation of a regulatory and instructive-methodological base for environmental control and management in the field. As well as the coordination with enterprises - users of natural resources of the standards for the permissible technogenic load on the relevant natural environments and the provision of appropriate emission permits (permits for permissible emissions (discharges) of pollutants into the environment and waste disposal standards), etc.

Concerning Federal Forestry Service of Russia (Rosleskhoz), then it previously carried out control, regulatory and licensing functions in the field of forest fund management of the country. And taking into account the special biosphere role of forests, this service participated in monitoring the state of the natural environment as a whole, and also controlled and regulated the use of wildlife and their habitat. Specifically, the main tasks of Rosleskhoz were:

Implementation of the main directions of the state forest policy;

Organization and provision of rational, multi-purpose and continuous forest management, reproduction and protection of forests, as well as the preservation and strengthening of the environment-forming and other useful properties of forests;

Ensuring the conservation of natural complexes of special environmental, scientific, recreational value, as well as biodiversity;

Improvement of economic and other methods of forestry management;

Control over compliance with the requirements of forest legislation, etc.

Federal Service of Russia for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet) solves the following as its main tasks:

Monitoring the state and pollution of the natural environment as a whole and its most important resources (including the atmosphere, surface waters, marine environment, soils, near-Earth space), including space monitoring of the state of natural objects;

Assessment of climate change.

To the group resource and industry departments, which are in charge of managing the efficient use, reproduction and protection of individual natural resources, now there are only two departments: the Federal Land Cadastre Service of Russia (Roszemkadastr) and the State Committee of the Russian Federation for Fisheries (Goskomrybolovstvo of Russia).

Main Functions Roszemkadastra are:

Implementation of state policy in the field of rational use of land, conservation and reproduction of soil fertility;

Organization and implementation of work related to land reform, land privatization and registration of land ownership rights;

Carrying out land management work, maintaining the state land cadastre and land monitoring, creating a data bank on federal and other lands, etc.

In competence State Committee for Fisheries of Russia located:

Regulation, use, protection and reproduction of fish stocks, as well as regulation of fisheries;

State control over compliance with the standards and rules for the protection of fish stocks, their accounting, the establishment of norms for the permissible catch of fish and other biological resources;

Determination of water purity standards for fishery reservoirs;

issuance of permits (licenses) for commercial, sports and amateur, research fishing, etc.

To bodies that perform primarily supervisory functions, applies

Sovereignsanitary and epidemiological service RF, part of the system of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation. Its main tasks are:

Organization and maintenance of the state system of sanitary and hygienic monitoring, including observation, assessment and forecasting of public health in connection with the state of the environment;

Participation in the development of targeted and territorial programs to ensure the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population, as well as the preparation of proposals for programs to improve the human environment;

Development and approval of sanitary norms, rules and hygienic standards;

organization and conduct of sanitary-hygienic and epidemiological expertise, state control over compliance with the requirements of the sanitary legislation of Russia.

Important tasks in the field of ensuring the safe operation of subsoil and industrial safety are performed by the Federal Mining and Industrial Supervision of Russia (Gosgortekhnadzor). Control over compliance with legal requirements regarding the safe use of nuclear energy and materials, radioactive substances, state supervision over the organization and status of accounting and storage of such materials and substances is carried out by the Federal Supervision of Russia for Nuclear and Radiation Safety (Gosatomnadzor). The Ministry of the Russian Federation for Civil Defense, Emergency Situations and Elimination of Consequences of Natural Disasters serves to ensure the management of environmental safety as an integral part of general safety. (Russian Emergency Situations Ministry). The organizational structure of management of each of the listed federal departments is usually built according to the administrative-territorial principle with the formation of relevant units (committees, inspections, etc.) either in the subjects of the Federation or in larger districts (for example, within the Northwest). Taking into account the ongoing reform of the administrative-territorial structure of the country and the allocation of seven federal districts, a number of functions for environmental control and management are also expected to be centralized and coordinated at this level.

In the field of environmental protection and nature management, along with the presidential, legislative and executive bodies of power and administration, there is also judicial branch of government. In accordance with the current legislation in Russia, criminal liability is provided for committing environmental crimes, administrative liability for environmental offenses, and civil liability for causing harm to the natural environment and public health. Of fundamental importance was the adoption in 1996 of the new Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, Section IX of which is devoted to crimes against public safety, public health and environmental crimes. The most common criminal offenses registered after the adoption of the new Criminal Code of the Russian Federation include illegal fishing and other types of extractive industries, illegal hunting and logging, as well as pollution of water bodies and atmospheric air, which are characterized by severe environmental consequences. Examples of environmental offenses that entail administrative and civil liability are:

Emission (discharge) of harmful substances in excess of established standards;

Failure to comply with the rules for the operation of treatment facilities, damage or destruction of natural objects (including agricultural land);

Violation of fire safety rules in forests, etc.

However, experts draw attention to the fact that the amount of funds collected by the courts from the perpetrators of pollution, as a rule, is extremely insignificant, being an order of magnitude or more lower than the actual damage caused to the environment and public health.

2.2. Bodies of environmental management in the subject of the Russian Federation.

In accordance with the federal structure of Russia, important functions in the field of environmental management and control over the rational use of natural resources are performed by territorial subseparation of federal executive bodies. In addition, in the subjects of the Federation there are executive agencies, performing these functions in conjunction with solving the problems of the socio-economic development of the region. Analysis of the system of environmental management and environmental safety at the regional level is important, because It is at this level that interaction is carried out with enterprises that use natural resources and have an impact on the environment, as well as with the population.

Let us consider the structure of regional authorities for nature management and environmental safety using the example of St. Petersburg (Fig. 2) as an independent subject of the Russian Federation. However, taking into account the implementation of the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of May 17, 2000 “On the structure of federal executive bodies”, certain changes may be made to this scheme.

Regulations(functions, powers, etc.) of regional divisions of federal specially "authorized bodies" are approved by the appropriate federal specially authorized body in accordance with the legislation and the federal Regulations on its activities. departments and committees) exercising environmental control and control in the field of rational nature management, including:

Control over the activities of the enterprises of the priority list ~ the main environmental pollutants;

Control over compliance with the law when placing waste and the formation of unauthorized dumps;

Rationing and control of compliance by enterprises with environmentally safe permissible levels of emissions, discharges of pollutants and waste generation;

Coordination of plans for environmental protection measures and environmental passports of enterprises.

The structure, formation procedure, powers, organization of the work of committees, departments and departments within the Administration are determined by the order of the head of the Administration of the subject of the Federation. In the city of St. Petersburg, the main tasks of the specialized Department for Environmental Protection are:

Coordination of environmental activities of various economic entities, regardless of their departmental subordination;

Organization of complex environmental protection works, development and participation in the implementation of environmental programs;

Issuance of permits for the right to use natural resources, for the emission and discharge of harmful substances, for the placement, processing and storage of hazardous waste;

Ensuring the completeness and public accessibility of information on the environmental situation.

Fig.2. Nature Management Bodiesand environmental safety at the level of the subject of the Federation

(on the example of St. Petersburg).

Environmental management and environmental safety includes local level (city, administrative region, etc.), the importance of which is objectively increasing in the context of strengthening democratic approaches to governance. At the same time, in Russia, due to the transitional nature of socio-economic development, the incompleteness of political and legal reforms and the reform of the administrative-territorial structure of the country, the role and importance of local governments in the field of environmental regulation have not been finally determined. Taking into account the experience of countries with developed democratic traditions, as well as taking into account the specifics of Russia and the first results of market and political reforms, it is possible to assign the following main functions to local governments:

Operational monitoring of the state of the environment;

rationalization of nature management, creation and maintenance of favorable living conditions for the population;

Participation in the development and control over the implementation of targeted regional environmental programs;

Participation in environmental expertise of investment projects;

Financial and organizational support for activities included in the relevant regional plans and programs, etc.

At the same time, local governments should solve various problems of environmental and natural resource management from an integrated perspective, as well as in close relationship with the solution of other socio-economic tasks assigned to them, including measures for the improvement and landscaping of territories, organizing the collection and disposal of household waste, development of healthcare institutions, physical culture and sports, etc.

2.3. Environmental monitoring.

The effectiveness of environmental protection and nature management largely depends on the quality and completeness of environmental information. Part of the data necessary for environmental management is concentrated in the State Committee of the Russian Federation on Statistics. Information comes, in particular, as a result of filling in the environmental passport by enterprises, forms of mandatory statistical reporting (2 TP for air, 2 TP for water management, 2 TP for toxic waste and a number of others). The complexity and originality of environmental management necessitates the existence of other databases, including those that come through environmental monitoring.

Environmental monitoring represents a certain system of observation, assessment, forecast of the state of the environment and information support for the process of preparing and making managerial decisions. To the number main tasks environmental monitoring include:

Observation of sources and factors of anthropogenic (technogenic) impact on the state of the natural environment;

Observation of the state of the natural environment and the processes occurring in it under the influence of anthropogenic factors;

Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;

forecast of changes in the state of the natural environment under the influence of factors of anthropogenic impact and assessment of the predicted state of the natural environment;

Providing relevant environmental information in a user-friendly form and communicating it to decision makers.

In the Russian Federation, several departmental monitoring systems have been operating until recently. Among them:

Forest Fund Monitoring Service of the Federal Forestry Service;
- monitoring service for water bodies and the geological environment of the Ministry of Natural Resources;

Service of Agrochemical Observations and Monitoring of Agricultural Land Pollution
State Committee for Land Resources and Land Management;

Sanitary and hygienic monitoring service (including observation, assessment and forecasting of public health in connection with the state of the environment) of the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision;

Environmental monitoring services of Roshydromet;

Services for monitoring sources of anthropogenic impact on the state of the environment and specially protected natural areas of the State Committee for Ecology.

The existence of several departmental environmental monitoring systems in the case of their isolated uncoordinated work (as was the case in Russia until recently) cannot but lead to fragmentation of information, and hence to a decrease in its quality about an integral natural object, which is the natural environment. In addition, with this order, the inefficiency of spending very scarce administrative funds is obvious.

Currently, the country is working on the creation unified state systemwe environmental monitoring (EGSEM), within which the organizational and financial efforts of departmental monitoring systems should be combined (in order to monitor the state of the natural environment as a whole and a comprehensive ecosystem assessment of this state, including an assessment of the state of public health). At the same time, EGSEM is included in the system of global environmental monitoring.

The creation of the USSEM is a complex multi-stage process that includes the formation of the relevant territorial subsystems. Now, both at the federal and regional levels, information is being exchanged between departmental services that perform specialized tasks in the field of monitoring and controlling the state of individual elements of the natural environment. Regional information-analytical centers have been set up to enable prompt processing of relevant information.

2.4. Ecological and natural resource legislation.

The modern legal framework for environmental protection and rational nature management in Russia has been formed since the early 1990s. In the system of environmental law, 2 blocks can be distinguished:

1. Environmental legislation and environmental safety legislation.

2. Natural resource legislation.

First block form the Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Protection” (1991), as well as other legislative acts, both adopted in the development of the main sections of this law, and regulating relations in areas related to environmental protection and ensuring environmental safety. Such, for example, are the following laws of the Russian Federation: “On Environmental Expertise” and “On the Use of Atomic Energy” (1995), “On Industrial Safety of Hazardous Production Facilities” and “On Licensing Certain Types of Activities” (1998), “On Sanitary epidemiological well-being of the population” and “On the protection of atmospheric air” (1999), etc.

In natural resource legislation, for example, includes the following laws: “Water Code of the Russian Federation”, “On the rates of deductions for the reproduction of mineral resource bases” (1995), “On land reclamation” (1996), “Forest Code of the Russian Federation” (1997), “On production and consumption waste” and “On payment for the use of water bodies” (1998), “On the State Land Cadastre” (1999), etc.

The process of forming the legal framework for environmental protection and nature management cannot be considered complete; there are many legal gaps in this area. Currently, a significant block of bills is being developed and discussed. It includes projects designed to complete the process of forming a set of natural resource laws. These, in particular, include: “On the flora”, “On the procedure for licensing the use of subsoil”, “On the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation”, “On fishing and protection of aquatic biological resources”, etc. Clarifications that need to be made to the Land RF code. The main subject of discussion is the question of the admissibility of real economic turnover (purchase, sale, pledge, etc.) of agricultural land, as well as the right to land of foreign legal entities and individuals.

Among the draft laws aimed at protecting the environment and ensuring environmental safety are: “On environmental insurance”, “On environmental safety”, “On radioactive waste management”, “On state policy in the field of environmental education of the population”, etc. For legal support of environmental protection and rational use of natural resources, not only the intensity of legislative activity, but also its content is of great importance. All environmental and natural resource laws must proceed from common conceptual ideas, be interconnected or, as experts say, codified. It is necessary that they serve as an adequate legal basis not only for administrative and control, but also for economic approaches to environmental protection.

Given the global nature of many environmental problems, along with national legislation, international treaties and conventions. According to Art. 5 of the Federal Law “On International Treaties of the Russian Federation” and in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, international treaties of the Russian Federation, along with the generally recognized principles and norms of international law, are an integral part of its legal system. If an international treaty of the Russian Federation establishes other rules than those provided for by law, then the rules of international treaties shall apply. Thus, in environmental practice, the transition to the observance of the principle of priority of international agreements over national legislation is ensured. This also achieves the harmonization of national legislation with generally recognized international standards of environmental protection and nature management. Russia is a party to many international treaties and agreements in the field of environmental protection and rational nature management, since the orientation of national environmental legislation to the best world standards, requirements, and rules increases the effectiveness of environmental protection activities.

In Russia, there is also greening of related branches of legislation by taking into account environmental standards and environmental safety standards. Thus, the Federal Law “On the Protection of Consumer Rights” (1996) contains norms aimed at ensuring the safety of goods, works and services for the natural environment. The Federal Law “On Trade Unions, Their Rights and Guarantees of Activity” (1996) regulates the participation of trade unions in the formation of state environmental programs, the examination of the safety of designed and operated mechanisms, and the development of legal acts regulating environmental safety issues.

Modernization of the economic mechanism of environmental protection should be served by the new Tax Code, if it more fully reflects environmental and resource factors. The financial basis for environmental protection is provided with adequate reflection of the relevant costs and expenses for the reproduction of natural resources in the expenditure side of the budget, approved by the Law “On the Federal Budget of the Russian Federation” (for the current year). Ensuring the necessary level of product safety for the environment, life, health and property is met by the inclusion of the relevant norm in the Federal Law “On Certification of Products and Services” (1993, as amended and supplemented in 1995, 1998).

In accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and taking into account the transitional socio-economic and political conditions, significant legal force is characterized Decrees of the President of the Russian Federation. Among the Presidential Decrees covering the field of environmental protection and nature management, in particular, include: “On the state strategy of the Russian Federation for environmental protection and sustainable development” (04.02.1994, No. 236), “On the concept of the transition of the Russian Federation to sustainable development” (dated April 1, 1996, No. 440), etc.

A distinctive feature of most Russian laws is that they do not act as legal acts of direct action. Important elements of the mechanism for their implementation - normative acts of federal executive bodies(decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation, instructions from various ministries, etc.), and for regional laws - the relevant acts of the authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. These regulations relate to various aspects of ensuring environmental safety and rational use of natural resources, including issues related to the organization and conduct of environmental expertise, environmental monitoring and licensing, the establishment and collection of natural resource and emissions payments, the activities of specially authorized bodies for environmental control and management, etc. P. Such documents include, for example, the Instruction of the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Taxes and Dues on the Application of the Law of the Russian Federation “On Payment for Land” (2000), which is important for all business entities.

3. System of environmental standards and regulations, licensing and certification.

The system of standards and norms used for environmental protection and rational nature management is a set of interrelated restrictions and requirements for the quality of the natural environment, as well as requirements for production, technological and organizational and management processes, manufactured products and services, through which the environmental safety of the population and production, the preservation of the genetic fund is ensured, as well as the rational use and reproduction of natural resources in the conditions of sustainable development of economic activity.

In Russia, the fundamental approaches to the regulation of the quality of the natural environment and the establishment of environmental standards are defined in a number of federal laws “On the Protection of the Environment”. The norms of the “Nature Protection” system, which are called environmental standards, are approved by specially authorized bodies for environmental control and management, the sanitary and epidemiological service, as well as the State Committee of the Russian Federation for Standardization and Metrology (Gosstandart). The main areas of application of environmental standards and regulations are environmental control, forecasting, programming and planning of environmental and natural resource activities, environmental expertise, etc.

In modern conditions, environmental standards and regulations are a very complex system of indicators. The main groups of these indicators are as follows.

1. Indicators of the critical level of impact on humans and natural complexes, going beyond which, in terms of their biomedical (hygienic), socio-economic and environmental consequences, modern science considers absolutely unacceptable. These indicators should act as strict, strictly obligatory conditions for fulfilling the design, planning, economic and other tasks.

2. Indicators that determine the order of zoning of various regional entities. Zoning establishes the type of use of territories, and also determines their functional purpose and restrictions on use. Territorial zoning, as well as compliance with the restrictions established for the use of the territories of individual zones, is a necessary condition for ensuring dynamic ecological balance and sustainable nature management. Thus, in accordance with the Town Planning Code of the Russian Federation (1998), the following are distinguished mainfunctional areas: public business, industrial, engineering and transport infrastructure, recreational, agricultural use, special purpose, military installations. Given the restrictions on conducting economic (including urban) activities, zones are also distinguished: specially protected natural areas, sanitary and sanitary protection zones, water protection zones and coastal protective strips, sanitary protection of water supply sources, mineral deposits, environmental emergencies and environmental disasters, with extreme natural - climatic conditions, etc.

3. Environmental quality standards- are dynamic, i.e. they are valid for a certain period of time, which may be stipulated by law. After its expiration, they change - as a rule, in the direction of tightening.
In addition, they are differentiated by separate functional territorial zones. AT this case the main object of regulation are indicators of the impact of economic activity on natural-territorial complexes, elements and resources of the natural environment, as well as e human health. Environmental quality standards, in turn, are divided into a number of varieties:

- standards for maximum allowable concentrations (MAC) harmful substances (chemical, toxic), as well as harmful microorganisms and other biological substances in various natural environments (atmospheric air, water bodies, soil). A significant part of these standards are sanitary and hygienic. Their observance is designed to ensure the necessary level of safety and harmlessness to human health of environmental factors and living conditions.

- nstandards that define requirements for the quality of drinking water. In Russia, these are sanitary rules and norms (SanPiN). These requirements are established using indicators that determine the maximum permissible content of bacteria, gases, organic and inorganic substances in drinking water. The list of substances subject to control includes 2000 substances, including 200 mandatory. ), petroleum products, surfactants, nitrates, DDT and other substances.

- standards for maximum permissible levels (MPL) man-made impacts and maximum permissible loads (MPL) on the environment and human health. The first of these are the remote control limits for the effects of radiation, noise pollution, vibration, magnetic fields on public health (for example, in Russia for residential areas, the permissible level of noise exposure in the daytime corresponds to 55 decibels, at night - 45 decibels; on highways - 65 decibel). The establishment and observance of PDN is necessary in the formation of the TIC, the development of industry, agriculture, the construction and reconstruction of various economic facilities. PDN and determine the level of permissible anthropogenic impact both on individual natural resources and on natural complexes that does not lead to disruption of the ecological balance. They are a kind of complex environmental quality standards and are subdivided into sectoral and regional PDN (for example, the developed norms for maximum permissible impacts on the Baikal ecosystem can serve). Their observance is important for the sustainable functioning of ecosystems and territorial production complexes. Varieties of PDN are norms (limits) of permissible forest use, norms for shooting game animals, quotas for catching fish resources, etc.

- nstandards of sanitary and protective zones are established to protect reservoirs and sources of water supply, specially protected natural areas, resort and health-improving zones in order to protect them from harmful technogenic and anthropogenic impacts, as well as around landfills for the disposal of toxic waste. In Russia, special zones with a width of 100 to 500 m have been defined for the protection and improvement of the hydrological regime, as well as the improvement of rivers, lakes, reservoirs and their coastal areas (for example, in order to protect fishery reservoirs from the ingress of chemicals used in agriculture, a 200-meter security zone is established where the use and storage of chemical products is prohibited).

4. Emission standards - standards for maximum allowable emissions (MAE) of emissions (PDS) harmful substances, as well as harmful microorganisms and other biological substances that pollute the air, water and soil. The same group includes accommodation standards various waste , including toxic and radioactive, standards (limits) for water use(water disposal) etc. Emission standards are directly related to environmental quality standards, i.e. with MPC. At the same time, MPC, assessing the state of various natural environments from the sanitary-hygienic and environmental aspects, cannot serve as a direct regulator of their qualitative characteristics. This task is performed by MPE indicators (MPD, waste disposal standards), which are set for specific pollution sources and have a direct impact on the environmental aspects of their activities.

At the same time, the following important rule is observed, which can be explained by the example of air pollution regulation. MPE are established for each source of pollution, provided that the emissions of harmful substances from a given source and from a combination of sources of a city or other settlement, taking into account the prospects for the development of industrial enterprises and the dispersion of harmful substances in the atmosphere, do not create a surface concentration exceeding their MAC for the population, flora and fauna peace.

If in the air of cities and others settlements the concentration of harmful substances already exceeds the MPC, and the MPE values ​​for objective reasons cannot be achieved by enterprises, for such enterprises temporarily agreed emissions of harmful substances(U.S.V.). At the same time, the need for a phased reduction in emissions of harmful substances to values ​​that ensure compliance with the MPE is stipulated. According to the procedure in force in Russia, draft standards for emissions, discharges of pollutants, as well as waste disposal are developed by the enterprises (institutions, organizations) themselves. At the same time, along with the peculiarities of production and technological processes, the profile of the enterprise, etc. proposals from local authorities and the public should also be taken into account. MPE indicators (MPD), waste disposal standards are approved by specially authorized bodies in the field of environmental protection (as a rule, regional environmental committees), as well as bodies of the sanitary and epidemiological service in accordance with their competence. At one enterprise there can be not one, but several sources of emissions (discharges). Therefore, MPEs (MPDs) are set not for the enterprise as a whole, but for specific sources of emissions (discharges) based on their inventory.

5. Environmental requirements for products, established (as well as previous standards) taking into account system requirements for environmental safety. Thus, in accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Protection” (Article 32), environmental requirements for products must ensure compliance with the standards for maximum permissible environmental impacts in the process of production, storage, transportation and use of products. Most countries regulate the content of chemicals in food. Relevant recommendations are developed by both national environmental authorities and the Food and Agriculture Commission of the United Nations (FAO), as well as the WHO expert group. There are permissible levels of release of harmful substances from polymeric materials into the media in contact with them (water, air, food).

In recent years, a lot of work has been done in Russia to update this group of standards. The work on updating this group of environmental standards, their harmonization with international standards is of particular importance for increasing the competitiveness of Russian goods in the foreign market, especially in view of the prospects for the country's entry into the WTO and closer interaction with the EU countries. Environmental indicators of quality and safety of finished products must fully comply with international requirements. Taking into account the signing by Russia of the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol, control over the production of products containing ozone-depleting substances (chladones), which were previously widely used in the production of refrigerators, air conditioners, polymeric materials, etc., is also relevant. In fulfillment of the obligations arising from these international agreements, Russia approves national quotas for the production of ozone-depleting substances, organizes (previously under the control of the State Committee for Ecology and its territorial divisions) work on the transition to the production of ozone-friendly substances and the use of appropriate technologies. The import into the Russian Federation (and export from the Russian Federation) of products containing ozone-depleting substances is also centrally regulated.

6. Standards for environmental quality management systems at enterprises. In international practice, several series of standards of this type are used. Among them: EMAS (in the countries of the European Union) and ISO 14000. On the basis of the latter, in 1998, Russia adopted a similar domestic series of standards GOST R ISO 14000. The peculiarity of these standards is that the object of regulation here is not individual environmental characteristics of products or technological processes, but in general the organizational and managerial process at the enterprise. Thus, the necessary level of environmental safety and compliance with environmental requirements are guaranteed all the way: from product development, supply of raw materials and equipment, recruitment and training of personnel, the production process itself and further - product sales and safe disposal of end-of-life products.

Licensing of natural resources in general plan- this is the granting of the right to conduct economic activities in the presence of the necessary permission. In Russia, in the field of environmental economics, two main types of activities are subject to licensing:

Associated with the impact (direct or indirect) on the natural environment, its resources and human health;

Activities that provide environmental monitoring and control.

Thus, licensing is an important element of environmental control and management of rational nature management, a means of accounting for users of natural resources and bringing to them the requirements contained in environmental legislation, the system of environmental standards and regulations. The license is a permit document that fixes the conditions for the use (consumption) of natural objects, specific restrictions on the technogenic (anthropogenic) impact on individual natural environments, resources and ecological systems, payment for nature use, as well as professional and other requirements for persons exercising environmental control and monitoring.

At present, the implementation of many types of activities on nature management and impact on the state of the natural environment requires a special license. The use of subsoil occurs in a similar way, including drilling wells for the use of underground water, processing, transportation and storage of hydrocarbon raw materials. As well as activities for the disposal of production and consumption waste, geodetic and cartographic activities (including those related to the preparation of the land cadastre), etc. The list of these activities is contained in the Regulation on licensing certain types of activities in the field of environmental protection approved by the Government of the Russian Federation (No. 168 dated February 26, 1996).

In accordance with the Federal Law “On Licensing Certain Types of Activities” (1998) and the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation “On Licensing Certain Types of Activities” adopted for its implementation (dated April 11, 2000), federal specially authorized bodies have the right to issue licenses and conclude relevant license agreements environmental protection and nature management (in particular, the Ministry of Natural Resources, Gosgortekhnadzor, etc.).

Some types of activities are licensed with the subsequent conclusion of agreements jointly by the territorial subdivision of the federal specially authorized body for environmental protection and nature management and the executive authorities of the corresponding subject of the Russian Federation (for example, the procedure for licensing and concluding water use agreements in the city of St. Department of the Ministry of Natural Resources and the City Administration). Territorial bodies of the Ministry of Natural Resources also issue special permits for the emission (discharge) of pollutants and waste disposal.

In recent years, the procedure for issuing licenses for competitive basis, which is designed to increase the degree of validity of their issuance, as well as to receive higher revenues for the right to obtain licenses in the budget. The quality of the license agreements concluded is also of great importance. Thus, in the case of subsoil use, it is important that they fully reflect the requirements for the integrated extraction and processing of mineral raw materials, the prevention of environmental pollution, and the implementation of compensatory environmental measures.

Environmental certification in countries with developed environmental legislation and an established system of environmental control and management is of great importance. In general, certification is an established (usually by law) procedure for confirming the compliance of products and waste generated during their production, as well as potentially hazardous industries and technological processes, with environmental standards, norms and other requirements for environmental safety, environmental management and protection of public health.

In practice, it is usually applied obligatory and voluntary certification. The procedure for environmental certification in Russia is defined by the Federal Law “On Certification of Products and Services”. In accordance with this Law, the Gosstandart of Russia registered the System of Mandatory Certification for Environmental Requirements in the State Register (Resolution of the Gosstandart of Russia dated 01.10.96 No. 66-A). Before the reorganization in 2000 of the system of environmental control and management bodies, the organization and conduct of mandatory certification for compliance with environmental requirements were entrusted to the State Committee for Ecology of Russia. This Committee, together with Gosstandart, prepared the main regulatory documentation in force in Russia in this area . Objects of certification according to environmental requirements in Russia are:

Enterprises and productions (including experimental ones);

Products, the use of which may be accompanied by damage to the environment;

Waste production and consumption, as well as the procedure for handling them;

environmental management systems.

A special place in this system is given to the certification of environmental safety of defense industry enterprises. , which is regulated by the relevant Orders of the State Committee for Ecology of Russia (No. 459 of 01.11.96 and No. 71 of 25.02.97). The objects of mandatory certification in this case are galvanic production, production of printed plates, technological and chemical processes, foundry, welding and assembly and welding production, paint and varnish, optical and some other types of production.

Main tasks The system of ecological certification operating in the country are:

Implementation of mandatory environmental requirements of environmental legislation in the course of business activities;

Introduction of environmentally friendly production, technological processes and equipment;

Compliance with environmental safety requirements and prevention of environmental pollution (during the placement, processing, transportation, liquidation and disposal of production and consumption waste, as well as during the production, operation and disposal of various types of products);

Prevention of the import of environmentally hazardous products, wastes, technologies into the country;

Facilitating the integration of the country's economy into the world market and the fulfillment of Russia's international obligations in the field of environmental quality management.

However, establishing the status environmental certificate and environmental mark of conformity, provides a guarantee on the part of specially authorized federal environmental control bodies of compliance with the requirements of environmental legislation, environmental safety standards and rational nature management. Such a guarantee can be used by an enterprise as a means of gaining competitive advantages both in the domestic and international markets.

4. Program-target method in environmental management and environmental safety.

The program-target method is an integral part of the block of administrative and control management tools, and at the same time, it fully complies with market principles, allowing you to coordinate various aspects of environmental activities of subjects of the natural resource management process independently managing in a market environment.

In the first years of market reforms in Russia, an attempt was made to abandon planning as such. This was justified only to the extent that in previous years rigidly centralized and directive approaches to management were dominant, replacing the achievement of real environmental results with reports on the fulfillment of planned targets lowered from above. However, gradually, including under the influence of the documents of the 2nd UN World Conference on Environment and Development, the understanding came that in a market economy, environmental activities also need certain forms of coordination, setting and achieving balanced current and long-term goals. For the development of a modern apparatus for environmental planning, the documents of a series of international conferences held in the 90s of the heads of environmental departments, countries - members of the UN Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) were of great importance. These forums have been called Environment Ministerial Conferences.

Thus, at the 2nd Ministerial Conference on the Environment, held in Lucerne (1993) the “Environmental Action Program for Central and Eastern Europe” was adopted, containing recommendations on the development of environmental policy in countries with economies in transition and the development on its basis of national action plans for environmental protection.

In Sofia (1995) at the 3rd Ministerial Conference "Environment for Europe" was approved the "Environmental Program for Europe" (Environmental Program for Europe), prepared by the Committee on Environmental Policy (CEP) UNECE. It represents, in essence, a long-term pan-European plan for the environment and sustainable development, including a system of necessary measures in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe.

In Denmark 1998 at the 4th Ministerial Conference “Environment for Europe”, the first results of the implementation of the Environmental Action Program (EAP) for the CEE countries were summed up in accordance with the decisions of the conference in Lucerne (1993), and the progress of the implementation of the Environmental Program for Europe was reviewed, adopted at the conference in Sofia (1995).

The recommendations of international conferences are actively used in the planning of environmental activities at the sub-regional, national and local levels. As a result, targeted environmental programs (CEPs) are becoming the leading instrument for the practical implementation of the national policy in the field of environmental protection, as well as for planning and coordinating environmental measures in Russia (following most developed countries).

Target environmental program is a system (complex) of production, socio-economic, organizational and economic, research and other activities, agreed on resources, executors and terms of implementation and ensuring effectivesolution of the set targets in the field of rational nature management and environmental protection .

A distinctive feature of targeted programs is their complexity, which is adequate to the very nature of most environmental problems, as well as to the object of targeted management - the sphere of nature management and environmental protection. At the same time, each of the environmental programs, based on its target orientation, designed to address a specific, priority this moment time, for a given region, sector of the economy, etc. problem.

The place and role of the CEP in the mechanism of environmental management and environmental safety can be seen in Fig. 3.

In Russia mainlyayutsya the following types of CEP:

Programs aimed at easing environmental tension in the so-called problem regions or zones of ecological disaster (one of the examples is the targeted program for improving the environmental situation and the population of the Orenburg region);

Targeted programs of technical and technological orientation (for example, CEP "Waste");

Programs of predominantly organizational and managerial content (for example, the CEP “Creation of an automated system for maintaining the state land cadastre”).

Rice. 3. Schematic diagram of planning and programming

nature management and environmental safety.

The starting point for planning and programming is the development and approval of the “Federal Concept for Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development” as a document reflecting a normative-value approach to a balanced solution of socio-economic problems and problems of preserving a favorable environment and natural resource potential in order to meet the needs of present and future generations of people.

This concept serves as the basis for the development State Strategy for Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development, which is a long-term (ten-year, broken down into five years) forecast of a comprehensive solution to the problem of balanced socio-economic development of the country and improvement of the state of the natural environment. Within the framework of this document, the main directions of the restructuring of the national economy and the distribution of productive forces are also being worked out, taking into account compliance with the requirements of sustainable development and environmental safety. The preparation of the State Strategy is based on the principle of a sliding planning horizon, when every year its indicators are specified, and the targets are extended for the next period. In Russia, the first version of the State Strategy was developed for the period 1996-2005.

On the basis of the State Strategy, as an integral stage of its implementation, two-three-year National Action Plans for Environmental Protection of the Russian Federation. A fourth action plan is currently being implemented, covering the period from 1999 to 2001. Each such action plan consists of two interrelated parts:

Systems of federal environmental programs , employees to fulfill the priority tasks of the plan;

list of bills the adoption of which is necessary for regulatory and legal support for the implementation of programs.

At the next stage of planning and programming of environmental protection and nature management, share of environmental parameters in the system macroeconomic indicators (GDP, GNP, federal budget expenditures, gross investment, etc.). Without this, it is impossible to support the process of implementing environmental plans and programs with the necessary material and financial resources. The system of environmental standards is also closely related to the resources allocated for environmental purposes.

Environmental forecasting and programming at the federal level serves as the starting point for development in various regions of the country and sectors (industries) of the economy similar management documents, namely: regional (sectoral) concepts, strategies and action plans for environmental protection and sustainable development with the provision of their implementation by various sources of funding.

Financing of program activities along with budgets (federal and regional) can be carried out at the expense of environmental funds (from federal to regional and local), funds for the reproduction of natural resources, credit sources, subsidies, grants, including international financial institutions, insurance funds, etc.

And finally should be developed environmental strategies and environmental action plans, combined with measures to resource saving. Their implementation can be coordinated with the participation of enterprises in the implementation of federal (regional, sectoral) environmental programs.

For the regulatory and legal support of environmental forecasting and programming, the timely formation of not only environmental and resource legislation, but also additions and adjustments to the legal framework of the modern economy as a whole is of great importance. Speaking about this second aspect of the problem, we note the significance of the adoption of a new version of the Federal Law “On State Forecasting and Programs for the Socio-Economic Development of the Russian Federation”. This law should create a legal mechanism for regulating the economy in market conditions, define priority criteria for the selection of targeted federal programs, the procedure and sources of their financing, responsibility for non-fulfillment of program measures, etc.

Development and implementation of targeted environmental programs in the regions can be of different levels and purposes. Along with federal CEPs financed from centralized federal sources, it is also advisable in the regions and at the local level to develop targeted environmental programs on a democratic basis and from an integrated standpoint. These programs should form the action plans of regional administrations for environmental protection and SD and be linked to the concept and strategies of environmentally friendly sustainable socio-economic development adopted in the region.

The sequence of stages in the development and implementation of regional environmental programs, taking into account foreign experience, recommendations of special international conferences, as well as the planning and programming concept discussed above, is presented in a simplified version as follows (Fig. 4.).

Rice. 4. The sequence of stages in the development and implementation of the region's CEP.

However, in the regions (both in the subjects of the Federation and in the regions), modern approaches and principles of environmental planning are far from being fully used. So, for example, in St. Petersburg, the list of promising measures in the field of environmental protection and nature management, although it has received some reflection in long-term regional programs (for example, in the program “Clean City” adopted in 1997 and designed for 1997-2005 ), however, cannot be considered as measures that fully comply with modern principles of environmental protection and SD planning.

The most important tasks include the following:

Overcoming the remaining separate approach to planning the ecological and socio-economic development of the city;

Ensuring the fullest possible participation of all the main “target groups” of nature users (including business structures, local authorities, the population, non-governmental organizations, etc.) in the preparation and implementation of environmental programs;

Improving the quality of justification of the effectiveness and priority of activities included in regional environmental plans;

Control over the consistent implementation of activities included in the long-term CEP, providing the implementation process with the necessary sources of funding, including the regional budget.

“local agenda forXXIcentury” as a tool for balanced socio-economic and environmental managementsocio-economic and environmental management.

An increasing role in ensuring integrated socio-economic and environmental management that balances and takes into account the interests of all stakeholders and, on this basis, implements the principles of sustainable development, belongs to local authorities and self-government. With this in mind, as well as under the influence of international communities, and in theoretical and practical terms, a mechanism is being developed for substantiating and implementing the so-called “Local Agenda for the 21st Century”, which is assessed as an important guarantee for the sustainable future of cities, municipalities, as well as in general humanity in the new century. A number of Russian regions and municipalities (among them - Kingisepp district Leningrad region and Primorsky district of St. Petersburg), with the assistance of international funds, joined this activity, designed to radically change the mechanisms for making and implementing management decisions at the local level.

Within the framework of this approach, sustainable development is seen as a long, manageable and democratic process of changing society at the global, regional and local levels, aimed at improving the quality of life for present and future generations. This is a process in which all sectors of the local community (industry, energy, transport, various social groups and levels of the urban community) should be involved. And in its course, it is necessary to create real mechanisms for integrating environmental protection and the efficient use of natural resources into other significant types of social, economic, cultural and political activities of municipalities.

The key principles of Local Agenda 21 are:

The relationship of social, economic and environmental aspects;

Intersectoral approach in management and decision-making;

Integration;

partnership;

Broad participation, encouragement of innovations and initiatives;

agreements, consensus.

The formation of the MTD-21, as in the case considered by us in the previous subparagraph (see Fig. 4.5), as one of the starting steps has collection of information characterizing the social,ecological and economic development of the region and identifying on this basis priority issues in the area. Further, in the course of a broad democratic discussion, taking into account the opinions and interests of all potential participants, MTD goals and strategy their achievements.

The organizational system for managing the development and implementation of the MPD-21 at the level of an urban (rural) district is presented in the following form (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. Organizational management system of MPD-21 at the level of the city (regional) district.

At the same time, various forms of public involvement in the discussion of key problems for the region are used, including sociological surveys, questionnaires, organization of permanent seminars on SD, periodic release of TV programs, etc. This ensures, as the creators of the MPD-21 for the Kingisepp district emphasize, the approval new form dialogue between the district administration, industry, science, business, public organizations, the local population, which allows taking into account various interests in the decision-making process and contributes to the achievement of mutual understanding on the directions of development of specific territories.

The strategic goals of the MTD are, in turn, the basis on which the system is being developed forward and current action plans for their implementation. An essential part of these action plans are programs, aimed at solving priority socio-ecological and economic problems of the region. The goals, objectives and content of these programs are determined by the problems of a particular region. For example, a list of programs covering the problem of waste management may include: organizing a system for the separate collection of solid domestic waste, organizing a system for separate processing of solid waste, preventing the formation of unauthorized dumps and eliminating existing ones, organizing the collection and processing of specific waste (fluorescent lamps, car bodies, medical waste, etc.). For each of these programs, the circle of participants and sources of funding should be determined.

The mechanism for implementing the MAP-21 involves the use, along with institutional levers, of administrative, legal, organizational, technical and informational tools. The general prerequisite for the transition in cities (municipalities) to sustainable, environmentally friendly forms of socio-economic development is the implementation of a set of measures for the reconstruction and modernization (and, if necessary, re-creation) of modern enterprises and organizations of environmental infrastructure, including drinking water treatment and disinfection stations. water, sewers and municipal wastewater treatment plants, etc. It is also important to create stations that provide comprehensive environmental monitoring, including monitoring of water quality in open water bodies and in water supply networks, monitoring of soil pollution, especially along highways and railways.

Conclusion

And in conclusion, after considering all the issues on this topic, it is necessary to list the main conditions necessary for the successful application of modern planning methods in the field of environmental management.

1. Macroeconomic and political stability as the minimum necessary condition for the practical implementation of the Action Plans, CEP, MAP, etc. To neutralize the possible negative processes that accompany the transition to a market economy, including a partial loss of control in a number of areas, it is necessary to develop democracy and the initiative of civil society.

2. Existence of a clear and developed legislative framework and a viable institutional system, including the clarity and certainty of property rights to natural resources and other movable and immovable property, as well as an effective mechanism for their protection. This prerequisite, in turn, is of key importance for overcoming the multiplicity and inconsistency of federal and regional environmental plans and programs, their focus on short-term to the detriment of long-term interests and goals, neutralizing the negative manifestations of political lobbying of narrow corporate interests under the guise of priority national environmental problems.

3. Active search for internal and external sources of financing for the CEP, MAP, etc. Many countries, such as China, Indonesia, Japan, Korea and Poland, have created special funds to accumulate revenue from taxes, fines and sanctions for environmental pollution, as well as voluntary donations for such programs.

4. Emphasis in pea4U3aifuu plans and programs in the field of environmental protection on the use of market-based economic instruments that stimulate the development of cleaner and resource-saving production, create favorable conditions for voluntary, flexible and innovative measures, and ensure greater participation and responsibility of all segments of the population . The implementation of the CEP (IPA) cannot be based only on command and control principles, which are mainly effective only in the short term, their application is often expensive and can hinder effective economic development.

5. Public pressure, all potentially interested groups, active support and participation of the population. The definition of a plan of priority measures and sources of their financing at the regional level should be the result of a decentralized democratic negotiation process between the initiators of the creation of the CEP (IPA) and all its potential participants - authorities, commercial banks, joint-stock companies, parties, public organizations, etc. The results of such a negotiation process should be specific agreements (contracts) that determine the sources of funding and fix mutually assumed obligations and sanctions for their violation.

6. Ensuring access of the public and the scientific community to information on the state of the natural environment, the level of environmental safety of production and consumption, as well as information on social and environmental decisions made by representative and executive bodies as a prerequisite for continuous control and monitoring of the results of the implementation of the CEP.

List of used literature:

Erofeev B.V. Environmental law // M., 1998.

National Action Plan for Environmental Protection of the Russian Federation

The main legal acts of St. Petersburg in the field of environmental protection, nature management and ensuring environmental safety

//ed. N.D. Sorokin. SPb., 2000.

Environmental protection, nature management and ensuring environmental safety in St. Petersburg for 1980-1999 // ed. A.S. Baeva, I.V. Sorokin. SPb., 2000.

Pakhomova N.V., Richter K.K. Economics of environmental management and environmental management // St. Petersburg, 1999.

Pakhomova N.V., Shveidel A.G. External and internal environment of ecological insurance of enterprises // Problems of insurance in the aspect of national security. SPb., 1998.

Protasov V.F., Molchanov A.V. Ecology, health and environmental management in Russia

Tsaregorodtsev G.A., Senokosov L.I., Petrupin V.V. User fees

natural resources // M., 1998

Environmental legislation of the Russian Federation. In 2 t.

// ed. N.D. Sorokina, E.L. Titova. SPb., 2000.

Yandyganov P.Ya., Yandyganov P.Ya. Environmental management in the region;

theory, methods, practice // Yekaterinburg, 1999.

1. Control nature management (4)

   Abstract >> Accounting and audit

   ... management nature management and their relation to the practice of environmental regulation. 2.1. nature management. A crisis nature management. 2.2. Control nature management under natural forms of management. 2.3. nature management ...

2. Control nature management in Russia

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   Work By discipline” nature management" on the topic: Control nature management in Russia Tula 2006 ... Law regarding the economic mechanism nature management. Chapter 2 Methods management nature management in Russia 2.1 Economic incentives...

3. Improvement of the mechanism management nature management in areas contaminated with radionuclides

   Diploma work >> Ecology

   1 application. NATURE MANAGEMENT, ECONOMIC MECHANISM ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT, CONTROL ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT, NATURE MANAGEMENT ON TERRITORIES CONTAMINATED WITH RADIONUCLIDES, IMPROVEMENT OF THE MECHANISM MANAGEMENT

PP could not be the same in different historical times and in societies at different levels of development 6 . There are also undeniable differences in environmental management in different sectors of the economy. 7 . Well, and what we started with, nature management is not the same in the regions.

Thus, at any given moment in a certain place, nature management has its own distinctive features.

Based on the definition of nature management, it can be argued that such differences are of a systemic nature. Indeed, andnature and society are systems . The interaction of systems in the process of reproduction, and not just contact, must also have a systemic character. The system should be in the sphere of relations between society and nature and be distinguished by the above properties.

In view of the foregoing, the system of nature management can be defined as follows.

Nature management system - it is a form of organization of social reproduction of the processes of interaction between society and nature that has historically developed in a certain territory.

Any system can be dividedinto subsystems according to the similarity of its constituent elements (for example, taxonomy of species or branch division) and according toterritorial principle (when heterogeneous, but interacting elements are combined into a system due to territorial proximity).

As a result, two hierarchical structures are distinguished in environmental management systems: sectoral and territorial.Sectoral nature management will not be of direct interest to us, but the influence of territorial factors on industries will inevitably have to be touched upon.

3.1. Territorial structure

Let's start with the territorial hierarchy.

Nature management combines natural and social elements and processes, respectively, it is forced to focus on both natural and social territorial hierarchies. As a whole, they are analyzed only in the theory of the geographic envelope of the Earth.

Its hierarchy includes:

global level with global environmental management systems;

several regional levels and regional systems of nature management. The number of regional levels may vary depending on both objective factors and the purpose of allocation, but more on that in other topics;

local level. What is meant by this is also a debatable issue and we will discuss it separately.

Whatever the hierarchical level of the territorial system of nature management, it must retain common structural features that distinguish it from systems identified by other (non-territorial) features.

If we turn again to the definition of nature management and take into account that we are talking about territorial systems, we will see thatthree groups of factors should influence the formation of environmental management systems :

natural geographical because we are talking about interaction with nature;

socio-economic , since nature management is carried out in the interests of people, and interests are formed by the conditions of social reproduction;

cultural and historical , due to the undoubted influence of the historical and cultural situation on the socio-economic and other aspects of society.

In order not to be unfounded, let us analyze the main channels of influence of each of the factors on the emergence and development of environmental management systems. If according to Commoner in ecosystems “everything is connected with everything”, then the same is true in environmental management systems. Changing each of the factors to a greater or lesser extent changes all the others.

Natural geographic factors create the originality of nature management systems through:

originality of combinations of natural resources in the territory;

natural conditions of human life;

ecological capacity and sustainability of landscapes.

Consider each of the directions of influence.

1. By definition, a “combination of natural resources” is a source of natural resources different kind located in a certain integral territory and united by actual or prospective joint use. The obvious thing is that the absence of some kind of resource, at least, excludes its use in a given territory, which means that it affects the sectoral structure of the economy. If there were no steppes on the territory now occupied by Mari El, then steppe nomadic cattle breeding could not exist here, and an appropriate culture could not form. If now in our bowels there is no, for example, nickel, then it is difficult to expect that a nickel industry will appear here. Without this dangerous industry, there will be no accompanying environmental problems.

The presence of certain resources in itself creates favorable conditions for the emergence of extractive and manufacturing industries that use them.

Continuing on RME. The natural resources that the territory has are mainly soil-climatic suitable for some branches of agriculture and non-nomadic animal husbandry, forest, water and some common mineral resources. What do we see among the leading industries in the primary sector? Agriculture and logging and processing industries based on them (food industry, woodworking, pulp and paper). What kind ecological problems related to the work of these industries, how to counteract them? The answer to these questions leads to the socio-economic (management) elements in the system of nature management.

Due to different sets of natural resources in different territorial combinations, an appropriate sectoral structure is formed, links are established between different industries due to territorial proximity and territorial production complexes arise that cover entire resource cycles or their larger or smaller links.

2. The natural conditions of life, even in modern conditions, remain the most important factor determining population density. As studies of population migration in the USSR show, despite the stimulation of the settlement of the northern regions, the population gradually shifted towards more favorable climate areas. Similar trends are observed in the US. In turn, the high population density is accompanied by the same high pressure on the environment, in particular large quantity MSW.

A large population stimulates the development of non-resource-intensive industries in the secondary and tertiary sectors. This forms an industry structure containing a higher proportion of the final, less environmentally hazardous, stages of the resource cycles.

The traditionally high population density with a shortage of land and other resources brings to life the need to save them and legally regulate their use and distribution. Obviously, this is a completely different culture of nature management than in areas with low population density. Russian peasants practiced slash-and-burn agriculture much longer than European ones, not to mention Chinese and Indian ones.Accordingly, the wastefulness of nature management is in the blood of Russians.

3. Ecological capacity is a very strong constraint on the development of unsustainable environmental management systems. There are a lot of historical examples, which were partly studied in the course of social ecology, when irrational nature management led to the death of civilizations. A less dramatic, but fresh example is the tragedy of the Aral Sea, which led to the disappearance of the regional system of nature management that has developed around this sea.

The low stability of ecosystems limits the possible load, for example, in the North compared to the forest-steppe regions. The nickel plant in Norilsk has almost completely destroyed the tundra around it. A similar plant in the Orenburg region also causes a lot of trouble, but the ecosystem withstands them and can endure several more industries.

Environmental restrictions have shown and are showing their influence not only at the regional and local levels, but can also have a global character. Past and current environmental crises confirm this. However, not all of them are people's fault. Some of the crises were caused by natural climate change. This forced us to change the usual systems of nature management.

Socio-economic factors . The construction of environmental management systems depends on them due to:

the level of socio-economic development;

sectoral structure of the economy;

infrastructural development of the territory;

the nature of settlement systems;

organization of environmental management systems.

1. The impact of the level of development on environmental management systems is generally associated with technical progress, accompanied by a change in technological methods of production and stages of socio-ecological development. Undoubtedly, the nature of interaction with nature in the appropriating economy and industrial economy is fundamentally different.

But even in our time, technical socio-economic inequality persists.In some regions of the world, relics of previous stages of development are preserved, while others are moving to the post-industrial level.But even within the same stage, inequality is noticeable.

Differences in levels of development, even within one stage, affect such macroeconomic indicators as the ratio of accumulation and consumption, the proportions of personal and industrial consumption, the need for resources, incl. energy and material consumption, etc. Hence the different nature of environmental problems.

2. The sectoral structure of the economy is important mainly at the regional and local levels. From the point of view of resource use and environmental consequences of management, it is most importantthe ratio of branches of the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy. For example, the economic potential of the Kemerovo region is less than that of the Moscow or Nizhny Novgorod regions, but the environmental situation there is noticeably more acute precisely because of the predominance of resource industries. It is clear that the whole system of environmental management here should be different. If in the central industrial regions the main problems are related to the reduction of discharges and emissions from manufacturing enterprises and vehicles, as well as household waste, then in mining regions it should be more about the integrated use of resources, land reclamation, etc.

It is also impossible to approach agricultural and industrial regions with the same yardstick, etc.

3. The higher the provision of the region with infrastructure, the more active its economic life, and hence the resource use. The development of any territory begins with the laying of roads. As both Russian and foreign experience shows, not only the economy, but also the population prefers to move to where the infrastructure is better. Characteristically, even in the Soviet planned economy, with great difficulty and not always, it was possible to force the sectoral ministries to build enterprises in underdeveloped areas. They were preferred to be placed where there were roads, power lines, communications, etc.

The transport infrastructure makes the space more permeable and concentrates the anthropogenic and technogenic load in more convenient places. For example, meat is now imported to Russia from Brazil and Australia. If transport were not so cheap, the fields that are now being abandoned would have to be sown with fodder crops. As a result, Brazil is moving to intensive farming systems, and part of the Russian land is changing agricultural nature management to forestry.

4. The formation of settlement systems is also connected with the development of transport. The change in the stages of urbanization fundamentally affects the use of territories.There is a polarization of space. In agglomerations, intensive nature management is concentrated, and in inter-agglomeration spaces, extensive.It becomes possible to territorially separate man-made and natural landscapes.

5. Management of nature management, at least in a primitive form in the form of customs, has always existed. As the ecological crisis worsens, it becomes an indispensable element of nature management systems and the nature of interaction with the environment increasingly depends on it.The unfavorable environmental situation in many regions of Russia is not least due to the fact that our environmental management system is actually destroyed and is a conglomerate of departments with poorly defined and delimited functions, which is also in a situation of constant “reforms”.

The contrast is the situation in the developed countries of the world, where environmental problems in the late 60s - early 70s. 20th century were in many ways even sharper than we have now. But a reasonably built system of environmental management allowed to normalize and even improve the situation. It is clear that significant adjustments had to be made to the entire system of environmental management up to the elimination of "dirty" industries, as in Japan.

Among the cultural and historical factors, the most important are:

the goals of the development of society;

traditions of attitude to nature and nature management;

history of nature management.

1. Goal-setting is the most important difference between a person and an animal. This also applies to the goals of society in relation to interaction with nature.It makes no sense to comment on this in detail in general, since the relevant topic has been thoroughly discussed in social ecology.It is only worth mentioning here thatnuances in the definition of goals can exist within the same culture, incl. and regionally. For example, when carrying out work on the assessment of specially protected natural areas, it turned out that there were different attitudes towards them among the local and non-local population. The same tendencies can be traced in conflicts over plans for the transformation of nature. Thus, in Chuvashia, the attitude towards the Cheboksary HPP is rather positive, while in Mari El it is negative.

2. Traditions in relation to nature in different religious and national cultures were also discussed in the course of socioecology.Despite globalization and, consequently, the unification of customs, cultural differences continue to play a prominent role.For example, Lake Biwa, Japan's largest lake, has become catastrophically degraded despite efforts to prevent industrial effluents from entering it. As it turned out, the main contributor to pollution was surfactants contained in synthetic detergents used by the population. The government has appealed to the population living in the lake basin with an appeal to switch to soap. What the people did. But this is the Japanese population.

Everyone can easily imagine how the Russian population will behave in a similar situation. The Russian government is also not accustomed to asking the population for something. It would impose fines for the use of psychoactive substances if it cared about the situation at all, and the population would invent ways to avoid sanctions. Nature would generally be in the background.

3. Historical evolution created modern nature. In this sense, modern nature management depends entirely on the historical process. For example, the modern nature of China or Western Europe has little in common with the wild nature of these places. And nature management systems are oriented to what we have now.

The catastrophes at nuclear power plants in Chernobyl and Fukushima greatly worsened attitudes towards the use of nuclear energy. This caused changes in the structure of energy consumption, and has already affected and will affect the use of natural resources in energy-producing regions. At the same time, in the Chernobyl trace, nature management had to be either completely stopped or significantly limited.

These are just small examples, but traces of the historical past in modern nature management can be found in almost any developed territory. It would seem, what do the Cheremis wars of the 16th century have to do with the case? But if not for them, the Mari would not be banned from blacksmithing and settling in cities, and how would the craft and economy develop in our area?

The totality of the natural resources of the region, as well as the industries that use them, forms a system whose properties are emergent, that is, they are something more than just the sum of the properties of the constituent categories. Such a system may be abundant or poor in terms of the totality of resources needed by society, it may provide one resource in abundance, but not have others at all. There is no doubt that such asymmetry or, conversely, the balance of natural conditions largely predetermines not only the sectoral specialization of the economic complexes functioning in them, but also more general properties of the socio-economic system of the region, including its stability - the ability to maintain itself under changes in external conditions. . The imbalance of resources creates a certain internal tension in the system - it deharmonizes the economic complex. However, in conditions of deficiency, it has some signs, and in conditions of excess - fundamentally different. This section is devoted to the analysis of these features. Its purpose is to give an integral view of the most general properties the system of nature management that has developed today in the regions of Russia.

Integral resource potential and its use

The presence of primary characteristics for the main categories of natural resources and their use allows us to solve the problem of a comprehensive assessment of the resource potential of the regions. The synthesis of integral indicators was carried out on the principles of superposition of several maps, taking into account weight coefficients that reflect the limiting value of the resource for the economic complex of the country as a whole (in descending order - mineral, fuel, forestry, agricultural, climatic, environmental, water and hydropower) and the number of people employed in the use and processing of different types of resources for each region.

In terms of the complex of resources, the richest regions of the country include the Khanty-Mansiysk autonomous region and Sakhalin Oblast (Map 1).

This indicator is slightly lower in the Krasnoyarsk Territory, the Yamalo-Nenets and Komi-Permyak districts, the Tomsk region, and the Jewish Autonomous Region. Finally, the Arkhangelsk, Irkutsk regions, Komi, Udmurtia, as well as a group of black earth regions - Kursk, Belgorod, Lipetsk, Orel, Tambov and Ulyanovsk regions can be classified as resource-provided regions.

The Caspian group of Russian regions is distinguished by the minimum resource endowment - primarily Kalmykia, as well as Dagestan and the Astrakhan region. Close to the last two regions, the level of scarcity of natural resources has the northern regions - the Taimyr, Koryak and Nenets Autonomous Okrugs, the Murmansk and Magadan regions, as well as the Orenburg, Chelyabinsk, Novosibirsk regions, Buryatia and Tuva. Characteristically, both in the leading group and among the outsiders there are both old, historically long developed, and sparsely populated regions of recent development. Moreover, the regions whose current economic situation and political orientation of the population are directly opposite have a similar resource potential. This indicates the absence of any pronounced patterns in the distribution of resource potential across the country.

In terms of the integral intensity of the use of resource potential, the leading group is also headed by the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug (Map 2).

Somewhat less stressful is the use of resources by the economic complexes of the Yamalo-Nenets District, Krasnoyarsk Territory, Orenburg and Kostroma regions, Moscow and Karachay-Cherkessia. The volumes of specific consumption of natural resources per capita are even lower in Komi, Irkutsk and Tver regions, St. Petersburg. This list differs from the previous one in a larger proportion of regions whose socioeconomic situation was relatively prosperous during the acute phase of the crisis, which indicates that it is not enough just to have a resource, you need to be able to use it usefully.

Principles for assessing the nature management structure

Data on various groups of natural resources and the volumes of their use make it possible to solve the problem of quantifying the structural diversity and adaptive capabilities of the environmental management system of regions using the algorithms set out in the Appendix. A result similar in meaning is also obtained by comparing the resource potential and the intensity of its use according to the models described at the beginning of the chapter. At the same time, the system of nature management, which has a minimum imbalance, is the most harmonious and, in the accepted terminology, is qualified as a core, and regions with a significant imbalance - as a periphery. The predominant type of imbalance (underutilization of rich resources or intensive exploitation of the poor) makes it possible to classify nature management of the peripheral type as a crisis or conservative subtype. The final results of the classification of Russian regions according to the degree of manifestation of nuclear and peripheral properties, performed by complementary methods, can be represented as a kind of diagram of the state of regional systems of nature management in the coordinates of diversity - adaptive stability. Structural complexity increases along the vertical axis from top to bottom - from extremely monotonous, to extremely diverse in terms of types of nature management, regions. On the horizontal axis, from left to right, the regions are placed in the order of the best balance in the structure of nature management, reflecting the increase in their adaptive stability. Both this and all similar tables in subsequent chapters are analogues of the abstract scheme given in the theoretical Appendix, and differ only in that they are built on real factual data. It follows from the theory that the elements that make up an integral system should be located in the diagram field in an arrow-shaped group. Naturally developing systems consist of subsystems that have nuclear, conservative and crisis properties, and the number of subsystems with the most pronounced features of these types of structure should be small. Intermediate states close to the average should prevail. Hence the increased density of elements (regions) in the center of the table and the thinning rays going to the three extreme states. In a perfectly balanced system, a three-beam star must have the correct shape; in real ones, deviations in one direction or another are inevitable, and the more deviations, the less balanced the system is.

Balance of nature management in different regions

Evenkia, Gorny Altai, the Komi-Permyatsky Autonomous Okrug of Chuvashia and Mari El are characterized by a significant imbalance between the rich natural potential and the low level of its use, as well as the excessive diversity of the low-power nature management system. Slightly more balanced in terms of diversity and completeness of resource use is the system of nature management in Yakutia, Udmurtia, Mordovia, Kaluga, Jewish, Amur and Kamchatka regions, Tuva and Ingushetia. The system of nature management in almost all regions of this group belongs to the crisis type of the periphery.

Problems of the opposite nature - excessive monotony and monotony of the nature management complex (properties of the conservative periphery); significant use of poor or vulnerable natural potential is typical for the Orenburg region, the Azov-Caspian regions (Rostov, Astrakhan regions, Dagestan, Kalmykia, Stavropol Territory). The next group in terms of sharpness of contradictions is the northern regions with developed industry (Murmansk and Magadan regions, Chukotka, Nenets and Yamalo-Nenets districts) or located in the zone of its influence (Taimyr district).

In regions with poor natural resources, the structure of nature management is mostly characterized by low diversity. Balanced interaction with the environment of economic complexes of such regions as Kalmykia, Dagestan, Astrakhan region is possible only on the basis of a limited range of effective forms of nature management. To a somewhat lesser extent, this applies to the Southern Urals, northern Taimyr and Nenets districts, Murmansk and Magadan regions.

With a shortage of most resources, combined with their intensive use (Caucasus, Ciscaucasia), the most viable are flexibly managed, mainly private forms of management in nature management. Usually such regions have a limited number of types of highly specialized farms, of which the largest ones are usually the most efficient. An example is the agriculture of Kalmykia, which is represented almost exclusively by sheep breeding, or agriculture in the Orenburg region, where you can’t drive around the land of one state farm, sometimes even in a day. Characteristically, almost all of these regions are located in conditions of high natural instability, significant fluctuations in atmospheric moisture and river flow volumes.

The nature management systems of Kalmykia, Dagestan, Orenburg and Astrakhan regions (agriculture, mining of minerals and water use) are characterized by the maximum level of use of scarce natural resources and structural monotony.

The most balanced, harmonized with the available natural resources is the system of nature management in the Nizhny Novgorod and both metropolitan regions, in Bashkiria, Ryazan, Smolensk, Vologda regions, Khakassia, Krasnoyarsk Territory. In these regions, stable proportions have developed between reserves and the intensity of use of different types of resources. Nature management is carried out in the most comprehensive way, there are industry leaders, but other enterprises are quite developed. In the economic structure, there is a place for diversified enterprises, and single-industry, and highly specialized nature users.

Resource self-sufficiency of regions

It is obvious that the regions that supply some key resource for the needs of the whole country differ high level integration into the all-Russian economic space. Equally integrated is the position of the regions, the resource supply of which to a large extent occurs at the expense of other territories of Russia. Thus, both the interregional sale of excess resources and the need to cover their deficit through imports act as factors for the integration of regions into a single state. At the same time, of particular interest is the selection of the most self-sufficient regions of the country, the system of nature management in which allows an autonomous existence with a minimum import and export of resources.

The resource self-sufficiency of the regions is calculated through the need of each region for the import of products from the natural resources sectors (in % of the total need for material resources) and the excess of natural resource extraction over intra-regional needs (in % of the total production of goods), the sum of these indicators reflects the degree of involvement of the region's economy in domestic the Russian exchange of natural resources, and the degree of resource self-sufficiency is characterized by the amount of production that is not associated with either the import or export of natural resources. Thus, it becomes possible to objectively assess the real potential for the sovereignization of individual regions, due to the low level of integration into the all-Russian resource space.

In the Sakhalin and Arkhangelsk regions and in the Norilsk industrial region, the degree of resource self-sufficiency of material production reaches 85 percent. About 80 percent is the value of this indicator in the Koryak district, Kamchatka, Irkutsk, Kaliningrad and Murmansk regions, the Komi Republic, the Taimyr district, Primorsky Krai and the northern part of Khabarovsk. It is characteristic that most of these regions are coastal. On the opposite flank in terms of the degree of integration into the all-Russian resource space are Evenkia, Kalmykia, the Yamalo-Nenets District, the hinterland of Yakutia, Kuzbass, Moscow, the Lipetsk, Orel, Ryazan regions, Kabardino-Balkaria. The level of resource self-sufficiency of the production complexes of these regions, which does not depend on external supplies, is 55-58% of the total commodity mass. With the exception of Yamal, not a single region from this list has direct access to the external border of the country.

However, for Yamal, the border position is only nominal, since the entire transport system of this region operates through continental regions - there is not a single functioning one on the peninsula. seaport, even such as the Yenisei Games and Dudinka, which open a window to the outside world for the Norilsk Industrial District.

It is obvious that the high self-sufficiency of coastal regions with a high diversity of natural resources and the increasing role of interregional interactions in continental regions is a particular case of the general trend considered earlier on the example of independent states. It follows from this that it is the coastal regions from among those listed that need the increased attention of the federal authorities as real candidates for isolation from Russia. In fact, during the collapse of the USSR and in subsequent integration processes, the same pattern is observed. The Baltic republics were the first to secede, which even today are characterized by an extremely low degree of integration into the post-Soviet economic space. Of the CIS countries, Belarus and Kazakhstan, which are landlocked and predominantly located on the plains (low diversity), have the greatest integration tendencies today. On the contrary, Ukraine, which has its own ports and a high diversity of territory, as well as the mountainous republics of Central Asia and the Caucasus, suffer much less from the consequences of sovereignization.

The severity of resource depletion problems

Traditionally, the category of non-renewable resources includes fuel and mineral, the geological time of the formation of deposits of which significantly exceeds the time of the existence of civilization. However, the classification of water, environmental and forest resources as renewable is quite problematic today, since the actual rate of their withdrawal in many cases exceeds the renewal period. From the list considered, only climatic, hydropower and agricultural resources can be unequivocally considered as renewable, since the current technology of their use is characterized by almost complete cyclical renewability.

A comprehensive assessment of the severity of the problems of depletion of natural resources is based on a comparison of the intensity of use and potential reserves. The criteria for unfavorable conditions for the group of non-renewable resources are high production volumes with low reserves. For renewable resources, such a criterion is a low level of production with a high potential for its annual increase. The integral index was constructed using the same set of weight coefficients as in the integral assessment of the resource potential.

The most alarming situation with the depletion of the natural resource potential is developing in the south of the European part of Russia, in the Stavropol and Krasnodar region, Kalmykia, Chechnya, Rostov, Volgograd, Saratov, Orenburg and Chelyabinsk regions.

This conclusion confirms the conclusion made above about the danger of the upcoming cyclic deterioration of the climate and water situation for the economy and society of these regions. Without the creation of effective mechanisms for optimizing nature management in the Ciscaucasia and the Lower Volga, drought and the beginning of a drop in the level of the Caspian Sea can provoke an aggravation of an already difficult socio-economic situation here. Of the northern regions, the most dangerous is the situation in the Murmansk region.

The situation with the conservation of resources is most favorable in Evenkia, Altai, Koryak, Nenets, Komi-Permyak districts, Yakutia, Sakhalin and Tomsk regions. The situation can also be considered satisfactory in Kamchatka, Kaluga, Pskov, Amur regions and in Udmurtia.

The concept of nature management

The concept of "nature management" entered the scientific circulation in the late 60s, when interest in environmental problems, the problems of the relationship between nature and society, began to increase significantly. For a long time it was widely used without being substantiated as an important scientific concept.

N. Fedorenko, Yu. Efremov (Fedorenko, 1973; Efremov, 1975) interpret this concept more fully and broadly as “purposeful human intervention in the natural processes occurring in the Earth’s biosphere”, defining the essence of the process of nature management as “the totality of human impact on the geographic shell of the Earth”, which is considered in a complex (in contrast to sectoral concepts: water use, land use, forest use, etc.). Similarly, but more extensively, this concept was formed by a group of authors (Gvozdetsky et al., 1975) at the VI Congress of the Geographical Society of the USSR, although their definition did not become generally accepted. N. Reimers defines nature management as a "special branch of the economy" (Reimers, 1974). B. Rodoman invests in the concept of "nature use" the relationship between human activity and spontaneous nature. N. Chepurnykh by this concept means "the whole range of environmental and social problems associated with maximizing the quality of life of the population in the region under consideration while ensuring the necessary level of protection and rational use of natural resources" (Rodoman, 1978; Chepurnykh, 1979).

The role of Y. Mikhailov in the development of the concept of "nature management"

The above definitions reflect only certain aspects of the complex process of nature management. Moreover, nature management is considered either as a science, or as an exploitation, development of natural resources, or as a rationalization or optimization of this exploitation or the use of the natural conditions of society. At the same time, the consequences of human exploitation of nature often remain beyond consideration.

Yu. Mikhailov believes that only the unity of the anthropogenic impact on nature and the response of nature to it constitutes an indivisible process of nature management. By nature management, he understands not only the use of natural goods, but also the nature, scale and consequences of human impact on nature (Yu. Mikhailov, 1980).

Depending on the nature of management of the process of nature management, its types and consequences caused by it, one can speak of planned and spontaneous, rational and irrational, passive and active nature management, etc. It follows from this definition that nature management should also be determined by such indicators as spatial and temporal scales, qualitative and quantitative results, the intensity of disturbances in natural systems, etc.

A. Sheingauz believes that nature management is a practical activity associated either with the direct use of natural resources and the conditions of territorial complexes, or with the impact on them, which consists not only in involving these resources and conditions in cost-effective production, but also provides for their restoration and transformation. Nature management is understood as an open system emerging at the intersection of megasystems (first-order systems): "nature" and "society". The systems of the second order for nature are the biosphere, pedosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere; for society - social and economic (economic) spheres (Sheingauz, 1984). Nature management consists in the use of resources, components, natural processes by a person for the purpose of functioning of public spheres and acts as a communication channel between two megasystems.

Since not one, but all branches of the economy are connected with the use of natural goods, then, according to Yu. Mikhailov's definition, nature management cannot be considered as a special branch of the economy. The same can be said about nature management as a special science, since the area of ​​its interests should be infinitely wide, which no single branch of knowledge is able to cover completely.

The versatility of the process of nature management, according to Yu. Mikhailov, determines the plurality of approaches and perspectives from the standpoint of which the processes of nature management should be studied. The most important are natural-historical, economic, social, technical, geographical, ecological and other approaches. Each of them, in turn, excludes a number of other, more specific ones, while each science covers its own facet of processes. Among the many approaches, a geographical approach stands out, in which one or another type of use of nature is considered not only in itself, but also as an integral part of the integral process of nature management with its specific location on the territory. At the same time, special attention is paid not only to achieving the immediate goal of using natural resources, but to studying the consequences, the impact that it has on nature and the environment as a whole.

In general, nature management can be represented as a pyramid, consisting of: direct human actions related to the exploitation of natural resources; the consequences of human actions, which through geophysical, geochemical and other natural-anthropogenic chains of connections can be removed from the zone, the place of direct use of the natural resource; institutional and technological structures that ensure the interaction of society with natural resources and the natural environment, which include management and control bodies at various levels, scientific and design support, technical facilities and facilities, etc.

Thus, nature management is understood as various forms of direct interaction and relationships between a person (with his technical means and technologies) and natural systems and processes on the appropriate spatio-temporal scales in order to obtain socially (socially) significant products, services, energy.

Regional nature management is understood as a combination of various forms of direct interaction and relationships between a person (with technical means and technologies) and natural systems and processes within a certain territory of the region in order to obtain socially significant products, services, and energy.

Regional nature management is more strictly distinguished in the system of sectoral or integral zoning of the territory, within individual regions. For example, regional nature management can be considered in the systems of industrial, agricultural, forestry, water management zoning, and in the most complete form - in the system of economic or natural economic zoning.

Subjects and objects of nature management

The main content of the process of nature management lies in the interaction of two systems: natural, containing certain natural resources, and social, socio-economic. The object of regional nature management is a multicomponent natural, including natural resource system, which is subject to human impact. If a natural system is considered in the appropriate geographical dimensions and in its multicomponent structural content, then such a system becomes geographical, i.e., a geosystem.

The subject of the regional nature management are territorial socio-economic systems and their components. It is from the socio-economic systems that the process of influence and interaction proceeds, aimed at natural geographical systems.

In general, nature management consists of the following processes:

Removal of resource components from natural systems and their subsequent use for public purposes;

use of the energy of natural processes - wind, solar energy, water currents, etc.;

The use of individual properties and characteristics of natural systems: temperature, humidity, solar radiation, relief, etc.;

· the release into the environment of various waste products of production and human activity: solid, liquid, gaseous;

creation and use of natural and technical systems: reservoirs, dams, forest plantations, etc.;

Changes in the components of nature as a result of different forms of its use.

There are two types of nature management: without the withdrawal of natural resource components from their natural connections in geosystems, for example, the use of land in the form of pastures, under roads, buildings and residential areas; the use of wind forces, water moving in the river, etc., and with the withdrawal of natural resource components from natural systems: mining, logging, haymaking, fishing, etc. After removal, these components of nature are included in specific socio-economic systems, in production, technological and economic processes. At the same time, the substances of nature undergo complex physical and chemical transformations, processing and use, which is no longer, in the strict sense, nature management. In the secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy, resources, substances processed by man are used, and nature management is implemented in the primary sector of the economy.

In general, the process of regional nature management begins immediately from the moment of the formation of the territorial socio-economic system, its elements and their inclusion in the natural geographical system: the construction of roads, power lines, infrastructure facilities, mining installations and enterprises, buildings and structures. At the same time, a number of natural resource components are withdrawn and used: land, raw materials, building materials, water, forests, air, etc. After the formation of the territorial socio-economic system, the second stage of nature management begins - mining, withdrawal of mineral raw materials, forests, fish, oil, gas, as well as the exploitation of natural and anthropogenic systems.



9. Anthropogenic loads and their measurement

To study the anthropogenic impact on the environment, it is necessary to quantify this impact and identify patterns of spatial distribution.

- a quantitative measure of the anthropogenic impact on natural ecosystems in the form of the introduction, withdrawal or movement of matter and energy. Allocate targeted load(to maintain the functioning of the landscape in a certain mode, for example, plowing, fertilizing, etc.) and side load(in the form of various pollution of the natural environment, destruction of the structure of natural complexes, etc.).

To determine the magnitude of the load, the following indicators are used: resource intensity, land intensity, waste production.

By BUT.G. Emelyanov(2004) resource intensity- an indicator that reflects the size of the substance (mineral, organic, water, air) and energy withdrawn from nature.

Earth capacity considered as an indicator that determines the size of the territory violated or used by a person in a particular type of activity; as a spatial basis for the development of production and resettlement of people, which can be conditionally defined as "local capacity"; as a source of renewable biological resources (the only component of nature with fertility), which is associated with the transformation of natural areas into agricultural, forestry and commercial lands.

Waste- an indicator that reflects the size of production and consumption waste entering nature in the form of substances (solid, liquid and gaseous) and energy.

The quantitative expression of these indicators can be the coefficients of use of the resources of the territory ( To ir) and its lands (K out), as well as the coefficient of introduction of matter and energy (K pv). They are defined by the following relations:

Of great importance is the determination of the norm of load on landscapes and ecosystems. Ultimately permissible load(critical) is considered such a load, above which the structure and functions of natural ecosystems are destroyed.

The nature of anthropogenic impacts and the magnitude of pressures on ecosystems and landscapes depend on the types of nature management: agricultural, forestry, industrial, etc.

The mining industry, various branches of the processing industry and energy are a powerful factor influencing the natural environment. Thus, in Russia, industry consumes about 30% of the water taken from water sources, discharges 50% of the volume Wastewater and emits 60% of all pollutants into the atmosphere.

10. Systems of nature management and their classification

Environmental management systems- historically established forms of human interaction with the natural environment, due to the characteristics of this environment and the socio-economic structure of society. They are formed under the influence of a complex of factors: the natural resource potential of the territory, geographical, socio-economic, cultural and historical conditions regions. Combinations of these factors cause a wide variety of nature management systems in terms of their specialization, organization of production, the magnitude of the anthropogenic load on natural complexes, the size and ecological state of territories. In this regard, it is proposed a number of classifications of environmental management systems, which are created taking into account:

1) the dominant branch of economic activity;

2) features of the territorial structure of nature management systems;

3) the hierarchical level of the territorial structure;

4) the degree of adaptability or destructiveness of nature management systems in relation to the natural environment (G. G. Runova et al., 1993).

According to the features of the territorial structure, due to the nature of the connection between economic activity and nature, the following can be distinguished main groups of nature management systems(on A. G. Emelyanov, 2004):

1) background systems geographically widely using nature as productive land (agricultural, reclamation, recreational, etc.), closely related to the zonal properties of the natural environment and in need of the preservation and development of the reproducing properties of natural landscapes that they need;

2) large focal systems, forming areal, nodal or group types of nature management industries that extract, use and process natural material (mining, metallurgy, energy, etc.). In those landscapes where they are located, in addition to the reserves of extracted raw materials, the relief and soils are important, i.e. the landscape for them is the place of functioning of large engineering structures and the placement of mass production waste;

3)focal systems nature management. Associated with the location of settlements and use the recycled material of nature to produce the so-called end products. At the same time, as a rule, less stringent requirements are imposed on nature as a location for production, but there are problems with waste processing;

4) dispersed systems- systems for which a certain combination of the natural properties of the landscape is the main condition for their placement in a given place, include some types of recreation, conservation, scientific research of natural objects, especially fine and precise production in a number of industrial areas.

11. Water resources of the planet

Hydrosphere- one of the shells of the Earth, including the vast World Ocean, flowing and stagnant reservoirs, groundwater. The water cycle is in constant motion and unites all components of the hydrosphere, forming a closed system "ocean - atmosphere - land". Of the total surface of the planet, water occupies about 71%.

Water volume oceans is 1338 million km 3, which is 96.5% of all water on Earth. Among other sources of water, the first place is occupied by the ice of the Arctic and Antarctic, which makes up 24 million km 3.

The amount of water in the rivers constantly changing and fluctuating with the seasons. According to hydrological calculations, the channels of the Earth's rivers at an average water level contain approximately 2120 km3. During the year, rivers carry more than 45 thousand km 3 of water into the ocean. The water resources of rivers are unevenly distributed across the continents: only 39% of the world's river reserves are located in Europe and Asia. The importance of rivers in the history of human society is great: they serve as means of communication, are a source of mechanical energy, water supply, are used to create irrigation systems, etc.

In lake waters 176.4 thousand km 3 of water are concentrated.

Atmosphere contains 12,900 km 3 of water in the form of water vapor.

fresh water planets occupy 28 million km3, of which only 4.2 million km3 are available for economic use, which is 0.3% of the volume of the hydrosphere.

ground water make up 14% of fresh water reserves and their volume is approximately 23.4 million km3. Groundwater forms aquifers, strata and hydrogeological basins. Such water is cleaner than river and lake water, as it is naturally protected from the penetration of pollutants.

The volume of annually renewable water resources can be equated to the total annual flow of rivers into the ocean and amounts to 45 thousand km 3 of water per year. Humanity has this amount of water to meet its various water needs. River waters are most suitable for human use, as they are easily accessible and can be renewed annually.

As you know, water is also part of the cells and tissues of any animal and plant organism, and its approximate volume is 1120 km 3.

However, more than 98% of all water resources are waters with high salinity, unsuitable for economic activity.

The oceans could become an almost inexhaustible source of fresh water, but this requires the development of efficient and reliable methods of desalination. Therefore, the problem of rational, integrated use of fresh water resources and their protection is one of the most important scientific and technical problems.

12. Natural and anthropogenic landscapes

Landscape- a natural geographical complex in which all the main components (upper horizons of the lithosphere, relief, climate, water, soil, biota) are in a complex interaction, forming a homogeneous under development conditions single system (V. I. Korovkin, 2003).

By origin, two main types of landscapes are distinguished: natural and anthropogenic.

Natural landscapes are formed only under the influence of natural factors. There are the following natural landscapes:

1) geochemical- areas identified on the basis of the unity of the composition and quantity of chemical elements, compounds. The time interval of their accumulation in the landscape or the rate of its self-purification serve as indicators of the stability of the landscape to anthropogenic impact;

2) elementary- areas composed of certain rocks located on the same relief element, in the same conditions of occurrence of groundwater, with the same plant communities and the same types of soils;

3)protected- areas where all or certain types of human economic activity are prohibited.

According to many modern scientists, now mainly anthropogenic landscapes prevail.

Anthropogenic landscapes- former natural landscapes, modified by human activities. In anthropogenic landscapes, there are:

1) agricultural, or agricultural- most of the vegetation of these landscapes has been replaced by crops and plantings of horticultural and agricultural crops;

2) technogenic- their structure has been changed by man-made human activities, as a result of the use of technical means (for example, deforestation, soil pollution with industrial waste and emissions, etc.); technogenic landscapes also includes industrial, which is formed under the influence of large industrial complexes;

3)urban- landscapes of modern cities, in which elements introduced as a result of anthropogenic activity prevail over natural (natural). Urban landscapes are often called urbanized landscapes, emphasizing the extreme forms of their transformations and signs of artificiality.

In cities, stone, asphalt, concrete predominate, the number of natural elements (trees, shrubs, etc.) decreases, and as a result, the composition of the air and people's health deteriorate. Therefore, when designing cities, it is necessary to link the terrain, water surfaces, rocky areas into a single whole, it is important to preserve as many natural areas as possible that have a positive effect on human health. It should be noted that the architectural and landscape assessment of the territory should not be limited only to landscaping and watering, it is necessary to form the landscape of the city as a whole.

13. Biosphere. Structure and boundaries of the biosphere

Biosphere(from gr. bios-"a life", sparia-"ball") - the shell of the Earth, in which the life of various organisms develops, inhabiting the surface of the land, soil, lower layers of the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. The concept of "biosphere" in science appeared in the second half of the 19th century. and literally meant the doctrine of the existence of living organisms on Earth. The formation of the doctrine of the biosphere is associated with the names of such prominent natural scientists as J. Lamarck, A. Humboldt, V. V. Dokuchaev, K. A. Timiryazev, N. I. Vavilov, V. N. Sukachev, A. P. Vinogradov and etc.

The term "biosphere" for the area of ​​the earth's surface inhabited by life was first introduced by an Austrian geologist. E. Suessom in 1875

The founder of modern ideas about the biosphere is the Soviet academician V. I. Vernadsky (1863-1945).

The biosphere is the largest (global) ecosystem on Earth.

The boundaries of the biosphere cover completely hydrosphere(the water shell of the Earth) to a depth of 12 km and lower atmosphere height up to 15 km. The lower boundary of the biosphere in lithosphere passes, as they say, at a depth of up to 5 km. The limits of the biosphere are determined primarily by the field of existence of life. According to the latest data, the "field of existence of life" is limited in the vertical limit to a height of about 6 km above sea level, where positive temperatures remain in the atmosphere and chlorophyll-bearing producing plants can live (6.2 km in the Himalayas).

Above (in the eolian zone), only spiders and some mites live, feeding on grains of plant pollen, plant spores, microorganisms and other organic particles blown by the wind.

Above the aeolian zone, living organisms can only get by chance (microorganisms can survive in the form of spores). The lower limit of the existence of active life is traditionally limited by the ocean floor and the 100 °C isotherm in the lithosphere, located respectively at about 11 km and, according to ultra-deep drilling on the Kola Peninsula, at about 6 km (in fact, life is common in the lithosphere to a depth of 3–4 km) .

The maximum thickness of the biosphere is 33–35 km, since its boundaries on the continents do not fall below 11 km and do not rise above the highest ozone screen densities (22–24 km).

Theoretically, the limits of the biosphere are much wider and are determined by the critical temperatures at which water turns into steam (at any pressure) and protein denaturation occurs, and under these conditions life is impossible. Important for the biosphere:

1) the presence of living matter;

2) the presence of a significant amount of liquid water;

3) perception of a powerful flow of energy from the sun's rays;

4) the presence of interfaces between substances in three phases: solid, liquid and gaseous.

14. The role of V. I. Vernadsky in the formation of the modern concept of the biosphere

Modern ideas about the biosphere are based on the doctrine V. I. Vernadsky (1863-1945). However, his teaching began to be actively applied only in the second half of the last century, since it was at this time that global ecology began to develop, which is based on the concept of "biosphere".

According to V. I. Vernadsky, the biosphere includes the following substances:

1) alive(all living organisms);

2) biogenic(oil, limestone, etc.);

3)inert(igneous rocks);

4) bio-inert(formed by living organisms);

5) radioactive;

6) space(meteorites, etc.);

7) scattered atoms.

All these types of substances, despite differences in origin, are geologically related to each other.

The main aspects of the doctrine V. I. Vernadsky:

1) "living matter" is involved in changing the appearance of the planet (since it is living organisms that are able to capture and convert solar energy);

2) the organization of the biosphere is manifested in the coordinated interaction of living and non-living things, the mutual adaptability of the organism and the environment;

3) the biosphere arose and developed as a result of a long evolution under the influence of biotic and abiotic factors.

Briefly ideas of V. I. Vernadsky about the evolution of the biosphere can be represented like this:

1) the lithosphere formed first, and after the appearance of life on land, the biosphere formed;

2) throughout the entire geological history of the Earth, there are no geological epochs devoid of life. Therefore, modern living matter is genetically related to the living matter of previous geological epochs;

3) living organisms carry out the migration of chemical elements from the lithosphere to the hydrosphere and soil, the exchange of elements between the hydrosphere, soil and atmosphere, between land and sea, the cycle of water, carbon and other substances that make up living matter;

4) the geological effect of the activity of living organisms is due to their huge number and duration of their action;

5) the main factor in the development of the biosphere is the biochemical energy of living matter.

V. I. Vernadsky introduced the concept of noosphere(the sphere of intelligent life) as a new shell of the Earth, since it was with the advent of man that the biosphere acquired a new quality. Human activity is a powerful environmental factor. Plowing vast territories, deforestation, mining, construction of reservoirs, etc., all this significantly affects the climate, terrain, atmospheric composition, etc.

Based on the doctrine of the biosphere by V. I. Vernadsky modern ideas on the relationship and interaction of animate and inanimate nature, as well as ways of rational nature management and environmental protection.

15. Functional integrity of the biosphere

The integrity of any complex system is general characteristics given system or object.

Law of integrity of the biosphere can be formulated as follows: the biogenic current of atoms between the components of the biosphere binds them into a single material system, in which a change in even one link entails a conjugated change in all the others. Consequently, the integrity of the biosphere is due to the continuous exchange of matter and energy between its constituent parts.

The idea of ​​integrity is due to the depth of previous knowledge about the object. So, from the ecological point of view, ideas about the integrity of an organism as an individual can be more fully discussed by considering it at the population level, and the most holistic ideas about ecological features populations can be identified only on the basis of their relationships in the biocenosis. If we consider this chain further, it turns out that it is impossible to get a fairly complete picture of the relationship between communities if we do not study the biocenosis in the same system as the biotope, i.e. we get a system with even more environmental information - biogeocenosis. (V. I. Korovkin, L. V. Peredelsky, 2003).

Since natural ecological systems and landscapes as a whole represent a single energy field, the integrity of the biosphere is also the integrity of the landscape shell of the Earth, and vice versa. Changes in the overall energy of an ecosystem or landscape lead to associated changes in all components of the biosphere in the form of a chain reaction (for example, changes in temperature or precipitation).

The processes of ecological systems of the Atacama Desert can serve as an example of the operation of the law of the integrity of the biosphere. This desert is on the west coast South America and its desertity is caused by the cold Peruvian current. It is known that the cold ocean waters are rich in zooplankton, phytoplankton and contain a huge amount of fish. But when a warm current begins to spread from the equator, and this happens every 8-12 years, the ecosystem changes dramatically: there are very few fish, which leads to the mass death of marine bird species that feed on fish, as well as the death of marine animals (for example, fur seals). The period of distribution of the warm equatorial current is also the period of tropical downpours, causing floods and contributing to the reproduction and spread of ephemeral plants and numerous insects. This state of the ecosystem usually lasts 3–5 months, then the warm current goes to the equator and is replaced by the cold Peruvian current, which returns this ecological system to its original state.

16. Soil. Its composition, properties and factors of formation

One of the components biosphere is an lithosphere, which, in turn, is subdivided into soil, rocks, their massifs and subsoil.

The soil is a special natural formation that has the properties inherent in animate and inanimate nature, formed as a result of a long-term change surface layers lithosphere with the joint interaction of the hydrosphere, atmosphere and organisms.

The concept of soil as an independent natural body with special properties appeared only in late XIX in.

founder modern scientific soil science is V.V. Dokuchaev. He developed new methods for studying and mapping soils and proposed the first scientific genetic classification of soils.

There are the following soil horizons:

1) horizon A - upper (dark layer, contains humus);

2) horizon A 2 - eluvial (ash or light gray);

3) horizon B - illuvial (brown);

4) horizon C - parent rock, modified by the processes of soil formation;

5) horizon D - the original rock.

The soil consists of solid (mineral and organic), liquid (soil solution) and gaseous (soil air) phases.

The main property of soil is fertility. The fertility of natural soils is determined by the factors of soil formation and is estimated by the productivity of vegetation.

Soil formation depends on the following factors:

1) substrate or soil-forming rocks; the physical properties of the soil (chemical and mineralogical composition, water and thermal regime, soil type, etc.) depend on the characteristics of the substrate;

2) plants, the main producers of primary organic substances; absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, water and minerals from the soil and using light energy, they form organic compounds available for animal nutrition;

3)animal organisms, transformative organic matter into the soil (for example, earthworms feed on dead organic matter, affect the composition and thickness of humus, soil structure);

4) microorganisms(bacteria and viruses, unicellular algae and lower fungi that are capable of decomposing complex mineral and organic substances into simple ones and accessible to microorganisms and higher plants; soil microorganisms are involved in the decomposition of toxic metabolic products of higher plants, animals and microorganisms proper);

5) climate(affects the water and thermal regime of soils, and consequently, the biological, physical and chemical processes of the soil);

6) relief(participates in the processes of distribution of heat and water on the surface of the Earth).