Special psychology as a science about the developmental features of the psyche of children with ontogenesis disorders. Subject, branches of special psychology
Modern special pedagogy and psychology consist of subject areas that have historically formed in connection with the traditionally existing system of special educational institutions for children with special needs. educational needs. At the beginning of the twentieth century. these subject areas were just taking shape, today they are relatively independent, developed and finely differentiated spheres of scientific and practical pedagogical knowledge. These include the following: tiphl O pedagogy; deaf pedagogy; typhlo-surdopedagogy; speech therapy; branch of special pedagogy in relation to persons with disabilities I mi of the musculoskeletal system; branch of special pedagogy in relation to persons with disorders of the emotional-volitional sphere; pathopsychology; specialist b naya psychology (includes sections on types of violations) .
Deaf pedagogy(from lat. surdus - deaf and pedagogy) - the branch of special pedagogy, (defectology); a science that develops the problems of upbringing, training and education of children with hearing impairments (deaf, hard of hearing and late deaf). As a branch of pedagogical science includes the theory of education and upbringing of children with hearing impairments of preschool and school age, the history of deaf pedagogy, private methods, deaf technology.
deaf technology - a) technical means for the correction and compensation of hearing defects and speech disorders caused by these defects; b) the branch of instrument making, which develops audio equipment. Thanks to the technology of deafness, it is possible to more fully use the sensory capabilities of a person with complete or partial deafness, i.e. to increase the effectiveness of the upbringing and education of children with hearing impairments, to expand the range of professions for persons with hearing impairments, to facilitate their work and life, to simplify the possibility of communication between themselves and those who hear. The action of surdotechnical equipment is based on the conversion of speech and other sound information into signals perceived by residual hearing, sight and touch. To compensate for a hearing defect and the general underdevelopment of speech caused by this defect, a special purposeful pedagogical influence is needed, in which the means of deaf technology play an important, but auxiliary role. Deafness is rarely complete; more or less significant remnants of auditory sensitivity are usually preserved, constituting the sensory base, the effect of which is achieved by the effect of sound amplification. The first mention of devices that help to communicate with the deaf, according to the testimony of the ancient Roman physician Galen, dates back to the 2nd century BC. BC. These were auditory tubes, horns and other means of concentrating sound energy near the ear. In the 16th century, the Italian scientist G. Cardano suggested using a metal vessel, the vibration of which was perceived by the deaf with his fingers. The first hearing aids based on electroacoustic amplification appeared at the end of the 19th century. in the USA (M. Hutchinson). In Russia, an electric hearing aid was developed in 1903 by Brutus. A number of ideas related to speech visualization were proposed by A.G. Bell is one of the inventors of the telephone. The intensive development of sound technology began in the 1950s. and was due to the success of radio electronics. Microelectronics has made it possible to significantly expand functionality devices, to improve their operational and ergonomic performance. A significant contribution to the development of domestic surdotechnical equipment was made by V.A. Zuckerman. The most common means of amplification is the hearing aid. With small and medium hearing losses, such devices allow you to fully compensate for defects in hearing sensitivity. In case of profound impairment of the auditory function, individual speech elements are perceived with the help of the hearing aid, which supplement the information obtained when “reading” oral speech from the speaker’s lips. The most widely used devices are pocket-type and the so-called "behind-the-ears".
Tiflopedagogy(from Greek - typhlos - blind and pedagogy) - a branch of special pedagogy, (defectology), which develops the problems of educating and educating people with profound visual impairments (partially and visually impaired, blind, blind from birth). In schools for the blind, the effectiveness of teaching is achieved by using modern means of relief writing, a variety of visual aids that are perceived by touch, as well as the optimal use of residual vision that most students have. In schools for the visually impaired, printed books are provided for teaching general subjects. large print textbooks with revised illustrations that highlight the main features of the depicted objects; notebooks with a special line; visual aids of an enlarged scale with the highlighting of the main thing; optical and technical means. An important role in improving the quality of education in schools for the blind belongs to typhlography and typhlotechnics. All Methods academic work provide for the protection of residual and weak vision of students.
Tiflotechnika - a branch of instrumentation engaged in the design and production of tiflotechnological means (tiflopribors) for people with visual impairments (visually impaired, blind, deaf-blind, mute) in order to correct or compensate for impaired visual functions, as well as to develop and restore vision. Correction of defective vision is carried out by amplifying a useful optical signal (brightness, contrast, and other characteristics of an object) on the retina using ordinary (corrective) glasses. In cases where the usual correction is ineffective in low vision, special optical, television, and lighting equipment are used. To compensate for impaired functions of the visual analyzer, tiflo devices are used, with the help of which visual information is converted (recoded) into signals that are available for perception through hearing and (or) touch. In the development of tiflo devices, tiflotechnics relies on physiology, ophthalmology, tiflopedagogy, tiflopsychology, physiology and physical optics, and other technical sciences. Tiflotechnics plays a significant role in the labor and social rehabilitation of the visually impaired. Depending on the direction, there are educational, industrial and lifeOwuyu tiflotechnics. The task of the educational is the development of educational material and technical base, contributing to the improvement of the content and methods of training, optimization educational process, as well as industrial training of the blind. The optical means of correction used for the visually impaired include various types of magnifiers (manual, reference, stationary), glasses (microscopic, telescopic, hyperocular), mono- and binoculars, projection magnifiers. For the blind, devices and devices of various complexity have been developed: a “thread-puller”, special canes that facilitate orientation during independent movement, devices for hand writing according to the L. Braille system, devices for relief drawing and drawing, the so-called “talking books” - replicated on gramophone records and tape recordings of texts.
Oligophrenopedagogy(from the Greek oligos - small, phren - mind and pedagogy) - a branch of special pedagogy that develops the problems of education and training, ways to correct the shortcomings of the psychophysical development of mentally retarded children, as well as issues of their labor training. Oligophrenopedagogy as a science develops psychological and pedagogical problems of diagnosing mental retardation, ways to improve education, methods and principles for organizing the educational process, pedagogical classification and typology of mentally retarded children, the structure of special institutions, etc. One of the main areas of research in oligophrenopedagogy is a comprehensive study of mentally retarded children, carried out in comparison with the norm and various types of pathology. The most important and specific task of oligophrenopedagogy is to determine the optimal pedagogical means of correcting the shortcomings of the cognitive activity and personality of the child in order to adapt him socially and at work. An important role is played by a comprehensive and dynamic study of the characteristics of a mentally retarded child, which includes a wide range of clinical, neurophysiological, psychological and pedagogical research. Early detection of mental retardation and timely initiation of special education are essential. Training sessions with such children provide for propaedeutics and teaching the native language and elementary arithmetic, education of communication skills. A significant place is occupied by subject-practical activities, household work and self-service. Abroad, instead of the term "oligophrenopedagogy", the concepts of "curative pedagogy", "social rehabilitation pedagogy", "special pedagogy", "pedagogy of a special school", etc. are used. Such terminology does not contain a clear indication of what kind of child we are talking about, that gives rise to a significant expansion of the circle of persons included in the sphere of special education and upbringing.
speech therapy(from the Greek logos - a word, and paideia - education, training) is the science of speech disorders with normal hearing, methods of their prevention, detection and elimination by means of special training and education. Speech therapy studies the causes, mechanisms, symptoms, course, structure of speech disorders, and the system of corrective action. Disadvantages of speech are different in their manifestations, their nature, severity and impact on the mental state and development. Speech disorders make it difficult to communicate with others, often hinder the successful development of children's cognitive activity, and adversely affect the formation of their psyche. Children develop such traits as isolation, self-doubt, negativism, and others. in works on deaf pedagogy. As an independent branch of defectology, speech therapy began to take shape in the second half of the 19th century. Until the end of the 30s. 20th century Speech therapy was dominated by simplified ideas about speech as a set of specialized muscle movements and the corresponding methods of correction. In speech therapy studies, in addition to pronunciation defects, the level of lexical and grammatical development, the degree of mastery of the sound composition of the word and written speech, etc. are determined. The interaction between violations of phonetics, vocabulary and grammar has been established; pronunciation and phonemic formation; defects in oral and written speech. Of great pedagogical importance is also the identification of the connection between speech activity and the child's psyche. Today in speech therapy pedagogical science the study of an abnormal child is subordinated to the task of developing ways of special education and upbringing of children suffering from speech impediments. The task of speech therapy is also the re-education (elimination) of the consequences of a speech defect that negatively affects the psyche and behavior of the child. Serious attention in speech therapy is paid to the fight against academic failure caused by speech disorders, reactive personality changes. The results of studies of the abnormal development of speech contribute to the expansion of ideas in the field general psychology and pedagogy of speech. In particular, the achievements of speech therapy are successfully used in the methods of teaching languages.
If we take the principle of development as a basis, then psychology is divided into psychology: normalmental development;anomalousmentaledevelopment (surdo-, tiflo-, oligophreno-, patho-, etc.). Psychology studies the world of subjective (mental) phenomena, processes and states, conscious or unconscious by the person himself.
The Psychology of Abnormal Development, or special psychology, -branch of psychology that studies people who are characterized byTdeviation from normal mental development associated with congenital or acquired disorders of the formation nervous system. On the basis of such a study, the possibilities and ways of compensating for defects of varying complexity are determined, a system of training and education of people with mental developmental anomalies is being built. Special psychology is subdivided into the psychology of the blind (tiflopsychology), the deaf (audiopsychology), the mentally retarded (oligophrenopsychology), children with speech disorders, children with mental retardation, and other categories of children with developmental disabilities.
Messages about the peculiarities of the psyche of children and adults suffering from various developmental defects appeared irregularly in medical, philosophical and psychological writings until the middle of the 19th century. Subsequently, mainly in connection with the emergence of appropriate educational institutions, works on the problems of special psychology were published systematically by both foreign and domestic authors.
Tasks of special psychology: - detection general and specific patterns of mental development of an abnormal child in comparison with a normally developing child; - studying features of the development of certain types of cognitive activity of people with various types of disorders; - studying patterns of development of the personality of a person with disabilities; - studying psychological problems of integration and integrated learning; - psychological rationale the most effective ways and methods of pedagogical influence on the mental development of children and adults with various types of disorders.
The central issue of both special psychology and special pedagogy is the problem of function compensation. The task of specially organized training and education of children with impaired mental development is to find the most effective ways to compensate for impaired functions. Special education and upbringing are computernradiating directional. " Compensation mental functions- this is a compensation for underdeveloped or impaired mental functions by using preserved or restructuring partially impaired functions ”(Psychological Dictionary. - M., 1990. - p. 169).
There are two types of function compensation:
Most often, both types of function compensation are observed. This is of particular importance in the case of congenital or early onset disorders of mental development.
Higher, actually human forms of compensation provide opportunities for the full development of the personality. These are both opportunities for mastering the knowledge of the fundamentals of science and labor skills, as well as the possibility of forming a worldview, moral qualities of a person.
Thus, the significance of special psychology (for special pedagogy) is determined by the fact that on the basis of its data a system of training, education and social adaptation of people with various types of mental development disorders is built, the most effective teaching methods are determined, a system of professional consultation and professional orientation is built.
Deaf psychology is a branch of special psychology that studies the mental characteristics of deaf and hard of hearing children. Data on the psychology of the deaf were published by psychologists W. James and T. Ribot, deaf teachers V.I. Fleury, I.A. Vasiliev, N.M. Lagovsky, P. Schumann and others. The subject of surdopsychology is: establishing the originality of the mental development of a child with impaired auditory function; establishing ways and means of compensation for this anomalous development. The tasks of deaf psychology correlate with the tasks of special psychology, their solution is aimed at the mental development of a child with a hearing impairment.
Deaf psychology as a science took shape in the early 20th century. In Russia, the date of birth of deaf psychology is considered to be 1904, when the first article was published. Russian deaf psychology kept pace with the development of world deaf psychology: in the 20-30s. there was a surge in the study of the psychology of the abnormal development of the child, which is associated with the name of L.S. Vygotsky. In 1925, the work of L.S. Vygotsky, Fundamentals of the Psychological Education of a Deaf Child. The first laboratory for studying the psychology of a deaf child was organized by Ivan Mikhailovich Soloviev in 1935. The first monograph on deaf psychology was published in 1940. “Essays on the Psychology of a Deaf Child” by I.M. Solovyov. The development of deaf psychology went in line with the development of general psychology, which went through many difficult periods. (1936). In 1956, Solovyov again published a monograph and the revival of psychology began. Within the framework of the Research Institute of Defectology, the laboratory of deaf psychology worked, first under the guidance of I.M. Solovyov, then under the guidance Rozanova Tatyana Vsevolodovna. To date, the Research Institute of Correctional Pedagogy does not have a specialized laboratory for deaf psychology.
Tiflopsychology - a branch of special psychology that studies the characteristics of the psyche of blind and visually impaired children. The psychology of the blind was studied mainly by psychologists and typhlopedagogues V. Hayuy, K. Byurklen, P. Viley, I. Klein, A. Mell, and others. Zemtsova, B.I. Kovalenko, N.B. Kovalenko, A.S. Gandzhiy, N.G. Krachkovskaya, L.I. Solntseva, A.G. Litvak, A.I. Kaplan, V.A. Feoktistova, I.S. Morgulis and others.
Oligophrenopsychology- this is one of the areas of special psychology, which in dynamics considers the cognitive activity and personality characteristics of children, for one reason or another, deviating from the norm in their development. The subject of study of oligophrenopsychology is the developmental features of mentally retarded children of preschool and school age. It is located at the intersection of many sciences and largely depends on the degree of development of the theoretical problems of philosophy, child neurology and psychiatry, higher physiology. nervous activity, child developmental and special psychology, general and special pedagogy, sociology.
Oligophrenopsychology sets itself the task of determining the originality of general, special and individual features inherent in the psyche of children with reduced intelligence; identifying their characteristic shortcomings and existing positive opportunities that determine the direction of the child's development and his ability to adapt to the surrounding social environment. This branch of knowledge is directly related to the solution of the problem of differential diagnosis, i.e. with the delimitation of mentally retarded children with similar conditions, as well as with the issues of their correctional-oriented training and education, which provides for preparation for social and labor adaptation.
Education, training and work training for mentally retarded children are more significant, since oligophrenics have less ability to independently accept, comprehend, store and process information received from the environment, i.e. less than normal, the formation of various aspects of cognitive activity. The reduced activity of mentally retarded children, a much narrower range of their interests, as well as other manifestations of the emotional-volitional sphere, are also of certain importance.
For the advancement of an oligophrenic child in general development, for the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities, not any, but specially organized training and education is essential. Staying in a general education mass school often does not bring him any benefit, and in a number of cases leads to serious consequences, to persistent, sharply negative shifts in his personality. Domestic psychologists say that the correction of the defect should be carried out at the earliest possible age, relying on the child's preserved capabilities and paying special attention to the formation of his higher mental functions - thinking, speech, arbitrary memory.
At present, in various Western countries, the question of the integration of mentally retarded children into their social environment is being raised.
For children with mental retardation in Russia there are special educational institutions of different levels. Individual children, by virtue of their inherent individual characteristics or at the request of the parents are brought up and educated at home. Severely mentally retarded children are in residential institutions of the Ministry of Social Protection of the Population, some of these children live in families.
Pathopsychology - the subject of child pathopsychology are violations in the development of the child's mental activity. Child pathopsychology is a science whose subject belongs to an interdisciplinary, borderline area of research. On the one hand, it is a section of pathopsychology, which in turn is closely related to medical psychology and psychiatry; on the other hand, it relies on knowledge gained from other related disciplines: developmental and educational psychology, general psychology and personality psychology. When solving questions about a child's learning ability, a connection with research in the field of defectology and speech therapy is necessary.
It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "pathopsychology" and "psychopathology". The subject of pathopsychology is the structure of mental disorders in their comparison with the norm. The subject of psychopathology signs of mental illness and their dynamics in the course of the disease. Psychopathology is a branch of psychiatry, i.e. essentially is medical science. Therefore, medical terminology is used here: symptom, syndrome, etiology, pathogenesis, etc.
Pathology is a branch of psychology and uses psychological terminology, although sometimes clinical terms are used.
Pathopsychology and psychopathology have the same object of study - mental disorders. However, due to the fact that the subject of their study is different, these two sciences use different methods. Pathopsychology studies the structure and dynamics of mental disorders using the methods of psychology.
Specificity child pathopsychology, in contrast to the pathopsychology of adults) lies in the fact that here disturbances in mental activity are considered in the dynamics corresponding to the development of the child in the process of ontogenesis. This greatly complicates the study of the subject of research, since it becomes necessary to take into account two variables at once: the dynamics of mental activity disorders and the dynamics of the formation of the child's mental activity, determined by the maturation of brain structures. Therefore, for the correct interpretation of the results of the pathopsychological examination of children, it is necessary to constantly compare them with the indicators of the age norm in healthy children. Since the development of the child's psyche occurs under the influence of training and education, it is impossible not to take into account the data of pedagogical psychology. As well as the role of adults organizing the education and upbringing of children is often decisive in their future fate: the probability of compensating for a defect or its aggravation depends on the quality of pedagogical influence.
Child pathopsychology, like many sciences that arose at the intersection of related sciences, has a relatively short history. The first works devoted to disorders of mental development in children and the psychological mechanisms of these conditions date back to the 19th-20th centuries. These studies began both within the framework of pedagogy (M. Montessori) and psychiatry (S. Freud). In the course of the development of developmental psychology, in order to establish the norms for the intellectual development of a child, psychological tools appeared to measure the levels of underdevelopment of the intellect (Binet-Simon and Wexler tests). A structural approach to the issue of deformation and possible deviations in the development of thinking in children and adolescents is presented in the works of J. Piaget. At the same time, in the psychotherapeutic concepts of Z. Freud, A. Adler, attention is drawn to the childhood of patients, the system of their relationships with their parents, and sometimes the intrapersonal conflict that arises in connection with this.
Within the framework of the behavioral approach to the psychological correction of disorders, the purpose of a pathopsychological examination is to identify inappropriate forms of behavior and teach adequate interaction with the environment (M. Rutter). In our country, targeted research in the field of child pathopsychology was carried out by L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria. Later, the study of the personal and intellectual characteristics of children with developmental anomalies was presented in the works of B.V. Zeigarnik, S.Ya. Rubinstein. An extremely interesting synthesis of the pathopsychological, psychiatric and psychotherapeutic approach to the problem of neurosis in childhood is reflected in the articles and monographs of V.I. Garbuzova, A.I. Zakharova, D.I. Isaev. The study of the role of family relationships in the formation of various personality disorders in children and adolescents is carried out by E.G. Eidemiller.
Tasks child pathopsychology: - obtaining data on the mental state of a child with deviant behavior (on the state of his cognitive activity, emotional-volitional sphere and personality as a whole), in the work of a school psychologist, a pathopsychological examination of a child is necessary to distinguish between deviations in behavior that have arisen under the influence of a social situation of development , from those that are caused by a violation of mental activity.
important task early detection of symptoms of mental underdevelopment, distorted, disharmonic development, the onset of mental illness, neuropathy, neuroses, etc. Having discovered alarming symptoms, the psychologist should refer the child to the appropriate specialist for diagnosis and treatment.
Specific tasks arise when working with adolescents. This age period, being a difficult stage in development for all children, provokes sharp deviations in behavior in adolescents with mental disorders. This often occurs even with minimal, compensated (i.e., imperceptible for simple observation) earlier violations. So, for example, whenewhich types of character accentuations in adolescence clearly show signs of socialeadaptation: refusal to fulfill the requirements of adults, negativism in relation to socially approved norms of behavior, increased irritability, whichnconflict, etc. The same, at first glance, behavioral manifestations are also characteristic of an ordinary teenager in relation to their parents, if they do not want to change the style of relations with their son or daughter, trying to keep them within the framework of the childish “morality of obedience”. In this case adolescent behavior is not pathological, but acts as a reaction of emancipation, hypertrophied in response to the wrong behavior of parents.
Next task– use of pathopsychological examination data in the course of corrective actions. Thus, the identification of the child's personal characteristics, his interests, and intellectual level helps to establish contact with him, predict the features of the emotional response to psychotherapeutic influence, and flexibly build communication tactics.
Psychological measurements the dynamics of improvements in mental activity in connection with the ongoing psychocorrection are also task of the pathopsychologist. The data of these measurements act as objective indicators of the influence of psychotherapy and other corrective actions on treatment.
It is very important in practical terms and task is to obtain data on the mental activity of the child for the implementation of various kinds of examinations. First of all, it is necessary to decide where the child should study: in a regular or special school. The direction of the child to a special school is carried out by the PMPK. However, parents do not always turn to specialists for help in a timely manner. This is due to the fact that many types of mental underdevelopment of the child are not noticeable in everyday communication. Moreover, disorders such as dysgraphia, dyscalculia, dyslexia are not associated with a decrease in intelligence at all. Therefore, teachers perceive the child's lagging behind in school as a consequence of his unwillingness to learn and convince parents of this.
Thus, knowledge of the characteristics of the development of the child and the conditions of his upbringing, the implementation of interaction with the child based on the principle of humanism will help teachers and parents avoid many mistakes and contribute to the comprehensive development of a growing personality.
Questions for self-control:
Azbukina E.Yu., Mikhailova E.N. Fundamentals of special pedagogy and psychology: Textbook. - Tomsk: Tomsk State Publishing House Pedagogical University, 2006.- 335s.
Federal Agency for Education of the Russian Federation
in the discipline "Psychology and Pedagogy"
The main branches of psychology and connection with other sciences
At present, psychology is a very branched system of sciences. It highlights many industries that are relatively independently developing areas of scientific research. Bearing in mind this fact, as well as the fact that at present the system of psychological sciences continues to develop actively, it would be more correct to speak not about one science of psychology, but about a complex of developing psychological sciences.
They, in turn, can be divided into fundamental and applied, general and special. The fundamental, or basic, branches of the psychological sciences are of general importance for understanding and explaining the psychology and behavior of people, regardless of who they are and what specific activities they engage in. These areas are designed to provide knowledge that is equally necessary for everyone who is interested in the psychology and behavior of people. Due to this universality, this knowledge is sometimes combined with the term "general psychology".
Applied are the branches of science, the achievements of which are used in practice. General branches pose and solve problems that are equally important for the development of all scientific areas without exception, while special ones highlight issues of particular interest for the knowledge of one or more groups of phenomena.
Let's consider some fundamental and applied, general and special branches of psychology.
General psychology explores individual highlighting cognitive processes and personality in it. Cognitive processes cover sensations, perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking and speech. With the help of these processes, a person receives and processes information about the world, they also participate in the formation and transformation of knowledge. Personality contains properties that determine the deeds and actions of a person. These are emotions, abilities, dispositions, attitudes, motivation, temperament, character and will.
The study of the psychological sciences begins with general psychology, since without a sufficiently deep knowledge of the basic concepts introduced in the course of general psychology, it will be impossible to understand the material contained in the special sections.
General psychology includes the following sections:
Theoretical - contains basic concepts, categories about processes, properties and phenomena;
Psychology of personality - pathopsychology, neuropsychology.
Fig.1. The structure of general psychology
Special branches of psychology, closely related to the theory and practice of teaching and raising children, includes genetic psychology, psychophysiology, differential psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, educational psychology, medical psychology, pathopsychology, legal psychology, psychodiagnostics and psychotherapy.
Fig.3. Branches of psychological science related to training and education
genetic psychology (from Greek origin) - a branch of psychology that studies the origin and development of the psyche of animals and humans, studies the hereditary mechanisms of the psyche and behavior, their dependence on the genotype. It traces the changes in various mental processes in ontogenesis and phylogeny, explores the psyche of various animal species, the development of the child's psyche, and the conditions for the emergence of human consciousness. The methods of genetic psychology are aimed at identifying stages and stages in the development of the psyche, transitions from its lower forms to higher ones, which makes it possible to gain knowledge about mental phenomena in their dynamics. Until recently, researchers focused on childhood and adolescence. But gradually, in the sphere of interests of scientists, they move to aspects of life associated with maturity, old age and the approach of death, which is approximately 3/4 of a person's life path. One of the most famous scientists, whose work constituted an important stage in the development of genetic psychology, is the Swiss psychologist J. Piaget (1896-1980).
Psychophysiology - an area of interdisciplinary research at the intersection of psychology and neurophysiology. He studies the psyche in unity with its neurophysiological substrate - considers the relationship between the brain and the psyche, the role of biological factors, including the properties of the nervous system, in the performance of mental activity. In essence, the knowledge of the functions of the brain structures of the brain and the nervous system is just beginning. The term "psychophysiology" was proposed in early XIX century by the French philosopher N. Massias and was originally used to refer to a wide range of mental studies based on precise objective physiological methods (determination of sensory thresholds, reaction time, etc.).
Psychophysiology also studies the physiological and biochemical changes that occur in the nervous system. She tries to connect them with various aspects of activity: memory functioning, emotion regulation, sleep and dreams. Research methods are very diverse - from the implantation of electrodes into the brain to the use of special devices for recording physiological manifestations.
These studies elucidated the most important role of "primitive" brain structures present in animals and humans, which serve as centers of emotional processes, the manifestation of instincts, sleep, etc.
The main task of psychophysiology is a causal explanation of mental phenomena by revealing the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms. The successes of modern psychophysiology are due to the fact that, along with traditional methods- registration of sensory, motor, vegetative reactions, analysis of the consequences of damage and stimulation of the brain - electrophysiological methods - encephalography and others, as well as mathematical methods for processing experimental data, have become widespread in research.
Within the framework of psychophysiology, separate areas are distinguished related to the development of especially important problems:
1) sensory psychophysiology - psychophysiology of the sense organs, sensations and perceptions;
2) psychophysiology of movement organization;
3) psychophysiology of activity;
4) psychophysiology of voluntary actions;
5) psychophysiology of attention, memory and learning;
6) psychophysiology of speech and thinking;
7) psychophysiology of motivation and emotions;
8) psychophysiology of sleep, psychophysiology of stress;
9) psychophysiology of functional states, etc.
A special direction is differential psychophysiology, which studies the physiological foundations of individual psychological differences.
The achievements of psychophysiology are widely used in clinical practice, in the construction of cybernetic models of psychophysiological processes, as well as in such applied areas of psychophysiology as labor psychophysiology, sports psychophysiology, etc.
Unlike many Western studies that did not overcome the principle of psychophysical dualism (psychophysical problem) and limited themselves to establishing correlations between certain psychological and physiological parameters, domestic psychophysiology considered the mental as a product of the activity of the brain.
differential psychology - a section of psychology that studies individual psychological differences. A prerequisite for the emergence of "differential psychology" at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries was the introduction of experiment into psychology, as well as genetic and mathematical methods. The pioneer in the development of differential psychology was F. Galton (Great Britain), who invented a number of techniques and instruments for studying individual differences.V. Stern (Germany) introduced the very term "differential psychology" (1900). The first major representatives of differential psychology were A. Binet (France), A.F. Lazursky (Russia), J. Cattell (USA) and others.
The object of study can be both specific individuals and different social, class, ethnic, age groups. Most often, the focus of the study is on the personal and intellectual characteristics of the individual, correlated with neurophysiological ones.
In differential psychology, tests are widely used, both individual and group; they are used to determine mental differences, and with the invention of the so-called projective tests - to determine interests, attitudes, emotional reactions. Using test methods factor analysis factors that characterize the general properties (parameters, measurements) of the intellect or personality are identified. On this basis, quantitative variations in the psychological properties of individual individuals are determined. The facts and conclusions of differential psychology are important for solving many practical problems (selection and training of personnel, diagnosis and prognosis of the development of individual properties, inclinations, abilities of individuals, etc.).
IN developmental psychology these differences are presented by age. This branch of psychology studies also. Genetic, differential and developmental psychology together are the basis for understanding the laws of a child's mental development.
Age-related psychology - a branch of psychological science that studies the regularities of the stages of mental development and personality formation throughout ontogeny a person from birth to old age (i.e. changes that occur during the transition from one age to another). Developmental psychology took shape as an independent field of knowledge by the end of the 19th century. Having arisen as child psychology, mental development was for a long time limited to the study of the patterns of the mental development of the child, but the demands of modern society and the logic of the development of science have made obvious the need for a holistic analysis of ontogenetic processes and interdisciplinary research. Currently, the sections of V. p. are: child psychology (see. Childhood), psychology of youth (see. Youth), psychology. middle age(cm. Maturity); gerontopsychology (cf. Old age). V. p. strives to reveal the psychological content of the successive stages of ontogeny, studies age dynamics mental processes, which is impossible without taking into account the influence of cultural, historical, ethnic and socio-economic conditions on the individual development of a person. For V. p., differential psychological differences are very significant, which include the sex, age and typological properties of the individual. A significant number of studies are based on the method of age (transverse) sections: by comparing the properties of samples that differ from each other in chronological age. Longitudinal (longitudinal) studies, in which the development of certain psychological properties is traced on the same sample over a more or less long period of ontogenesis, have certain advantages over the age-comparative method. A special place in modern V. p. is occupied by a group of genetic modeling methods based on the causal genetic method. L.S. Vygotsky. The study of development using the method of active formative experiment ( P.Ya.Galperin) and other teaching methods are carried out in the process of directed influence on certain properties or aspects of the mental development of the subject. Among the most important practical tasks facing V. p., is the creation of a methodological basis for monitoring the progress, usefulness of the content and conditions of the mental development of the child, the organization of optimal forms of children's activity and communication, psychological help during periods of age crises, in adulthood and old age. Developmental psychology is the scientific basis educational psychology.
Social Psychology studies human relationships, phenomena that arise in the process of communication and interaction of people with each other in various groups, in particular in the family, school, in student and pedagogical groups. Such knowledge is necessary for the psychologically correct organization of education. This branch of psychological knowledge has a short but rich history of its development. As an independent branch of psychological science, it has existed for less than 100 years. Officially, the year of birth of social psychology is considered to be 1908, when two books with the same name were published simultaneously, declaring themselves to be the first textbooks in the new humanitarian discipline. Having arisen at the intersection of sciences - psychology and sociology, social psychology still retains its special status, which leads to the fact that each of the "parent" disciplines quite willingly includes it as an integral part.
In the process of development, social psychology has gone through a difficult path of searching for its subject of study. If at the beginning of the century the interest of researchers was mainly concentrated on the study of social psychology, mass social phenomena (crowd, infection in the masses, the nation and its mental warehouse, etc.), then in the middle of the century all attention was given to the study of small groups, social attitudes of people, ways to influence the microclimate of the group and the relationships between different people. At present, social psychology is faced with the acute problem of constructing a general theory of human social behavior. Since psychological science in our country, in defining its subject, proceeds from the principle of activity, it is possible to conditionally designate the specifics of social psychology as the study of the patterns of behavior and activities of people, due to their inclusion in social groups, as well as the psychological characteristics of these groups themselves.
Pedagogical psychology combines all information related to education and upbringing. Particular attention is paid to the justification and development of methods for teaching and educating people of different ages.
PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY(from the Greek pais (paidos) - child and ago - I lead, educate) - a branch of psychology that studies the psychological problems of education and upbringing. P. p. explores the psychological issues of the purposeful formation of cognitive activity and socially significant qualities of the individual; conditions that ensure the optimal developmental effect of training; the possibility of taking into account the individual psychological characteristics of students; relationships between the teacher and students, as well as within the educational team; psychological issues of pedagogical activity itself (psychology of the teacher). The emergence of psychological psychology as an independent branch of psychological science is associated with the penetration of developmental ideas into psychology in the second half of the 19th century. First successes experimental psychology allowed us to hope that taking into account the data obtained in psychological laboratories and their application in the learning process will significantly optimize the pedagogical process. This idea was reflected in the first works on P. p., focused on practice. However, knowledge of the laws psychophysics, some characteristics memorization And forgetting, indicators reaction time clearly not enough. The recommendations made by P. p. were vague and scholastic in nature. In addition to the paucity of experimental facts, the reason for this was the limited theoretical views of the representatives of the P. p. of that time. Application biogenetic law in psychology(along with other theories of spontaneous development), summing up the theoretical basis for the theory and practice of "free education", actually closed the way for the development of issues of purposeful formation of a person's personality. behaviorist (cf. Behaviorism) psychological and pedagogical concept (its modern version is the theory B.F. Skinner) suggested focusing on a rigid "behavior modification": without proper grounds, it was assumed that it was enough to organize an appropriate system of external influences - and all issues of training and education would be resolved. The theory of “two factors”, seeking a compromise between the biologization and sociologization approaches, could not create an adequate conceptual basis for P. p. and in the 20s. had a significant impact on pedology, which was successfully overcome by her in the early 30s. At the heart of modern Soviet mentality is the fundamental proposition that the essence of a person's individual mental development is his assimilation of socio-historical experience, recorded in objects of material and spiritual culture; this assimilation is carried out through active human activity, the means and methods of which are updated in communication with other people. Thus, the direction of research on mental health is dramatically restructured: the basis of its strategy is not the registration of the achieved level of mental development, but the active formation of mental processes and personality traits. In accordance with this general strategy, other issues of P. p. action,images And concepts underlying knowledge and skills are investigated by the theory gradual formation of mental actions(P.Ya.Galperin, N.F. Talyzina and others). The means and methods of developmental education are studied, the relationship between the organization of education and the course of mental development is analyzed (V.V. Davydov), the role of a differentiated approach to the problem learnability, means and methods of control and evaluation of educational activities. A special place is occupied by developments on the purposeful formation of the required personality traits. With a certain degree of conventionality associated with the real unity of education and upbringing, P. p. can be divided into the psychology of learning (exploring the patterns of learning knowledge, skills and skills) and the psychology of education (studying the patterns of active, purposeful personality formation). In recent years, the psychology of the teacher and the study of relationships in the teaching and upbringing team have stood out. According to the areas of application of P. p., one can single out the psychology of preschool education, the psychology of training and education at school age, divided into younger, middle and senior school ages, which have their own significant specifics (see. Age-related psychology), psychology of vocational education, psychology of higher education.
MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY(from Latin medicus - medical, medical) - a branch of psychology that studies the psychological aspects of hygiene, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, examination and rehabilitation of patients. The field of study of M. p. includes a wide range of psychological patterns associated with the occurrence and course of diseases, the influence of certain diseases on the human psyche, the provision of an optimal system of health effects, the nature of the relationship of a sick person with a microsocial environment. The M.'s structure of the item includes a number of the sections focused on researches in concrete areas of a medical science and practical health care. The most common of these is clinical psychology, which includes pathopsychology,neuropsychology and somatopsychology. Intensively developing branches of medical science related to psycho-correctional work: psycho-hygiene, psychopharmacology, psychotherapy,mental rehabilitation. Among the most important problems of M. p. - the interaction of mental and somatic (bodily, physiological) processes during the onset and development of diseases, the patterns of formation of the patient's idea of \u200b\u200bits disease, the study of the dynamics of awareness of the disease, the formation of adequate personal attitudes associated with treatment, the use of compensatory and protective mechanisms of the individual for therapeutic purposes, the study of the psychological impact of therapeutic methods and means (medicines, procedures, clinical and instrumental studies, surgical interventions, etc.) in order to ensure their maximum positive impact on the physical and mental state of the patient. An important place among the issues studied by M. items is occupied by the psychological aspects of the organization of the medical environment (a hospital, sanatorium, polyclinics, etc.), the study of the relationship of patients with relatives, staff, and with each other. In the complex of problems of organizing therapeutic measures, it is of particular importance to study the patterns of the psychological impact of a doctor in the course of his diagnostic, therapeutic, preventive work, rational building of relationships between participants in the treatment process iatrogenic.
PATHOPSYCHOLOGY(from the Greek pathos - suffering, illness) - a section of medical psychology that studies the patterns of decay of mental activity and personality traits in case of illness. The analysis of pathological changes is carried out on the basis of comparison with the nature of the formation and course of mental processes, states and personality traits in the norm. This is the main difference between P., who interprets research data in terms of psychological theory, and psychopathology, a field of psychiatry that studies the pathology of the psyche on the basis of general clinical categories (the onset and outcome of a disease as a clinically regular change of symptoms and syndromes). Moreover, if clinical (psychopathological) studies are detected, describe and systematize the manifestations of disturbed mental processes, then P. reveals the nature of the course and structural features of mental processes leading to the symptoms observed in the clinic. P. studies mental disorders primarily by experimental psychological methods. The applied significance of P. in the practice of medicine is manifested in the use of data obtained in the experiment for the differential diagnosis of disorders of the penis, establishing the severity of a mental defect in the interests of expertise (judicial, labor, military, etc.), evaluating the effectiveness of treatment based on objective characteristics of the dynamics of mental the condition of patients, analysis of the possibilities of the patient's personality from the point of view of its intact aspects and prospects for compensating for lost properties in order to select optimal psychotherapeutic measures, and conduct individual mental rehabilitation. The significance of psychological research for psychology lies in the possibility of a deeper understanding of the patterns of functioning and development of the normal psyche, the study of the categories of “mental norm”, “mental health”, as well as factors that activate or inhibit the development of the personality in the course of its onto- and sociogenesis. P. is one of the most intensively and fruitfully developed areas of domestic medical psychology. The foundations of modern P. are laid down in the works of Soviet psychologists. A.R. Luria,B.V. Zeigarnik and etc.
LEGAL PSYCHOLOGY(from Latin juris - law) - a branch that studies the patterns and mechanisms of people's mental activity in the sphere of relations regulated by law. Influenced by success experimental psychology V late XIX- early XX century. the first laboratory studies were carried out in the field of Yu. p. The main efforts were aimed at studying the psychology of testimonies and interrogation ( A. Binet, G. Gross, K. Marbe, V. Stern etc.), “diagnostics of involvement” in a crime ( K.Jung etc.), judicial and investigative work, the psychological foundations of professional selection and training of lawyers ( G.Munsterberg). Research on Yu. p. began to be intensively carried out in the USSR in the 20s. Numerous works were carried out on the study of the psychology of criminals and prisoners, the life of the underworld, the patterns of formation of testimonies and the causes of errors in them, on the theory and methodology of forensic psychological examination (A.E. Brusilovsky, M.N. Gernet, M.M. .Grodzinsky, Ya.A. Kantorovich, A.S. Tager and others), original experiments were carried out to detect traces of a crime by psychological methods ( A.R. Luria). Scientific research in the field of legal education became more active, its subject was specified, and legal principles were formulated (A.V. Dulov, A.R. Ratinov and others). The system of modern domestic Yu. p. form criminal psychology studying the psychological mechanisms of criminal behavior and the personality of the offender; forensic psychology, covering a wide range of issues related to legal proceedings (see also Forensic psychological examination); correctional psychology, which develops problems of correction of offenders; legal psychology, which studies legal consciousness, the principles of its upbringing, the reasons for its deformation. In Yu. p., all the main methods of psychology are used ( experiment,observation,conversation, survey (cf. Questionnaire), testing, etc.), methods specific to a given field of knowledge are also being developed (for example, psychological analysis of criminal case materials, etc.).
PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS(from the Greek psyche - the soul and diagnostikos - able to recognize) - a field of psychological science that develops methods for identifying and measuring the individual psychological characteristics of a person. P.'s formation as an independent area of research took place in the 20s of the 20th century. A significant contribution to the formation of P. was made by the works F. Galton, J. Cattell, G.Ebbinghaus, E.Krepelina, A. Binet and others. Starting with attempts to “encompass the operations of the mind” (F. Galton) and with the use intelligence tests, P., to measure individual psychological differences, developed methods for studying personality, which later served as the basis for the creation of projective methods and questionnaires. At the same time, the lag of the theoretical level of comprehension of phenomena from the methodological equipment affected the development of P.. The emergence and improvement of the mathematical and statistical apparatus and, above all, the correlation and factor analysis, the use of opportunities psychometry influenced the practical effectiveness of P. In Soviet psychology, there are two periods of development of L. The first refers to the beginning of the 20s - the middle of the 30s. 20th century These years were marked by the massive use of tests in public education, professional selection And career guidance. The level of P.'s development at that time was characterized by a fairly wide borrowing of foreign tests, since, as a rule, their own methods lacked a serious theoretical and experimental justification. The results of test examinations were often considered as decisive, they were absolutized. At the same time, Soviet scientists put forward a number of progressive ideas, the development of which was interrupted by the decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On Pedological Perversions in the System of People's Commissariat of Education” (1936) (see. Pedology). During this period, fruitfully worked in P. M.S. Bernshtein,M.Ya.Basov,P.P.Blonsky,S.G. Gellerstein, N.D. Levitov, A.M. Mandryka, G.I. Rossolimo, M.Yu.Syrkin, I.N. Shpilrein, A.M. Schubert and others. A significant contribution to the development of the doctrine of psychological diagnosis was made L.S. Vygotsky. The second period in the development of Soviet P. began in the late 1960s. and marked by discussions about its place in the system of psychological knowledge, about the principles and methods of research, about the attitude to foreign experience. The problems of P. are developed by V.M. Bleikher, L.F. Burlachuk, E.T. Sokolova, L.A. Venger, A.E. Lichko, K.M. Nepomnyashchaya, V.I. Lubovsky and others. One of the primary tasks of Soviet psychology is to bridge the gap between theory and practice, between academic concepts of personality and the reality of its research.
The problem field and the basic concepts of special psychology are reflected, psychological features development of children with various types of deviant development, and also contains a description of the principles, content, forms and methods of psychological correction of developmental deviations, the main activities of a psychologist in educational institutions. It is intended for students of psychological and pedagogical specialties of higher educational institutions. May be useful for school psychologists, teachers, educators preschool institutions, as well as defectologists.
A series: university. For students of higher educational institutions
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by the LitRes company.
1. General questions of special psychology
1.1. Special psychology as a psychological practice. Abnormal child in the structure of society
In the traditional sense special psychology - this is a branch of psychological science that studies the dynamics, patterns and mechanisms of mental development of individuals in conditions of psychophysical deprivation (from Latin deprivatio - deprivation) caused by organic and (or) functional impairments of hearing, vision, speech, motor sphere, emotional sphere, behavior , intelligence, forecasting their individual development, as well as determining the psychological foundations of correctional and developmental education and upbringing.
The subject of special psychology in other sources may sound differently. For example, in " Psychological Dictionary"it is defined as" a section of psychology devoted to the study of the psychological characteristics of abnormal children, the defect of which is due to diffuse lesions of the cerebral cortex (mentally retarded), impaired activity of analyzers (deaf, hearing-impaired, blind, visually impaired, deaf-blind), underdevelopment of speech while maintaining hearing (alaliki , aphasics)". IN study guide in special psychology, edited by V.I. Lubovsky, it is understood as "a branch of psychological science that studies the patterns of mental development and the characteristics of the mental activity of children and adults with mental and physical disabilities." Common to all existing definitions is an indication of the study of mental development in certain categories of people.
In accordance with this, the following parts are distinguished in special psychology:
Psychology of children with learning difficulties (studies the mental activity of children with mental retardation);
Oligophrenopsychology (explores the mental activity of mentally retarded children);
Tiflopsychology (studies the mental activity of people with visual impairments);
Deaf psychology (explores the mental activity of people with hearing impairments);
Logopsychology (explores the mental activity of children with speech disorders).
Studies of children with other developmental disabilities have been carried out relatively recently and have not yet taken shape in independent sections of special psychology (children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system, children with severe combined defects, etc.).
In connection with the definition of the subject of special psychology, the position of V.M. Sorokin. According to the scientist, such a traditional approach to defining the subject of special psychology has a number of shortcomings.
1. The subject of the study is determined collectively by listing the categories of people being studied. However, it is known that in the process of the formation of special psychology, the circle of developmental deviations studied was gradually expanded (if at first, children with mental retardation, visual and hearing impairments fell into the field of view of special psychology, then children with mental retardation, early childhood autism began to be studied later) . Among the most late categories of persons with developmental disabilities identified by special psychology are children with motor disorders and complex combined defects. Over time, the age range within which these categories of people were studied increased. So, if initially attention was focused on the study of children's abnormal development, then in recent decades it has also been given to the period of adulthood. It follows from this that the collective definition of the subject of special psychology is not clear enough.
2. The traditional definition of the subject destroys its integrity and breaks it into separate components tied to specific branches of practical activity (the psychology of persons with visual impairments, hearing impairments, mental retardation, etc.), which are the most well studied. Such utilitarianism (coming from a practical request), according to V.M. Sorokin, prevents the designation of clear boundaries of special psychology and narrows the subject area of its research. In addition to the above, the approach does not allow linking the individual sections of special psychology into a single whole. For example, one of the consequences of such a logic of understanding special psychology is the problem of identifying general and specific patterns of abnormal development (V.I. Lubovsky). If we compare the descriptions of the features of mental activity in various variants of mental development, then it is easy to detect a significant number of coincidences, which make it difficult to identify the specifics characteristic of this particular anomaly. So, for example, most deviations in development are characterized by violations of verbal-logical thinking and a decrease in the level of generalization, difficulties in the development of verbal visual-figurative thinking, problems of goal-setting, planning and control of activities, etc. However, what are the features of these disorders and which of them are specific often not clear. A systematic vision of special psychology is also necessary to improve the efficiency of solving applied problems, since only in this case, psychological assistance to people with developmental disabilities can turn from the use of a set of disparate techniques and methods that do not have a clear focus, into a meaningfully applied and influencing psychological key points. practice. In connection with the definition of the subject of special psychology, V.M. Sorokin also draws our attention to the term “special” itself, which does not clearly indicate the scope of this branch of science, unlike other branches of psychology, such as medical, pedagogical, legal, engineering, etc. In science, however, attempts have been made replacement of the term "special psychology" with other names, such as "correctional psychology" or "psychology of dysontogenesis", but the first name turned out to be more "tenacious" for some reason. The specificity of the name, according to the author, also indicates the subject uncertainty of this industry.
It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that special psychology is the property of exclusively domestic science. In foreign psychology, this subject area is considered as a section of clinical psychology (abnormal child psychology). Some separation of special psychology from clinical or medical, apparently, is also not accidental and indicates the specifics of the subject area of research.
Taking into account the features and problems expressed by V.M. Sorokin proposes to define special psychology as a branch that studies "various forms and aspects of the development of the psyche in adverse conditions." Thus, the author emphasizes the importance of the study of the mental development process that unites special psychology with developmental psychology. At the same time, the unfavorable conditions themselves are not limited exclusively to "internal" conditions, i.e. blindness, deafness, speech defects, cerebral disorders, etc. They may also include long-term changes in the social situation of the child's development, for example, education in boarding school, inadequate upbringing or training, etc. The last clarification seems important and interesting in two aspects. First, the development of children in adverse social conditions, in accordance with the traditional understanding of the branches of psychology, is not clearly related to one of them (they do not fall into the field of view of either developmental psychology, or special psychology, or medical psychology). Secondly, the proposed definition of the subject of special psychology expands it, including in the field of the subject the development of persons with borderline deviations that do not belong to any type of disorders included in the international classification of diseases. In this regard, special psychology faces the need to develop its own psychological tools for describing the corresponding deviations in development and determining the boundaries of normal and deviant development. This conclusion raises the problem of criteria for distinguishing between normal and abnormal, i.e., deviating from the norm, mental development. Its solution is aggravated by the fact that, on the one hand, the variants of normal development are quite diverse in their manifestations, and, on the other hand, by the fact that even under adverse external conditions, development can proceed normally due to the operation of compensatory mechanisms. Due to these circumstances, the distinction between special psychology and developmental psychology becomes a difficult task. The solution of this problem would make it possible to enrich our knowledge not only about deviant, but also about normal development.
It should be noted that the disclosure of the subject of special psychology with the help of the term "unfavorable conditions" poses a new problem - the problem of determining these conditions. The question arises: will we not come to the same enumeration with which we started (only now not the types of deviant development, but the conditions leading to them). Which conditions should be considered unfavorable and which favorable? Ultimately, the answer to this question depends on what we mean by normal and abnormal mental development and what criteria we use to distinguish between them. Won't such an understanding of the subject of special psychology lead to its excessive expansion? Indeed, in the life of any person there are adverse conditions.
Thus, it seems to us that a more precise definition special psychology is its understanding as a branch that studies the dynamics and patterns of abnormal (deviating from the norm) mental development, as well as its compensation and correction.
In accordance with this understanding of special psychology, the following can be distinguished: tasks to which it aims:
The study of patterns and mechanisms of various variants of deviant mental development;
Development of methods and means of psychological diagnosis of developmental disabilities;
Development of a strategy, tactics and methodological support for the psychological correction of developmental deviations;
Psychological substantiation of the content and methods of correctional and developmental education and upbringing of persons with mental disabilities in various pedagogical conditions;
The study of patterns and conditions of socialization of persons with deviations in mental development.
Placement in the center of attention of the special psychology of abnormal development, firstly, poses as one of the central problems the problem of determining the criteria normal and deviant development, because depending on them, the contingent of persons studied by this science, as well as the direction of psychological assistance (as a movement towards the norm) will be determined. Secondly, with such an understanding, it becomes necessary to identify the common for different types of deviant development and the laws of mental development specific for each of them, as opposed to studying them separately. Thirdly, the emphasis on development encourages us to understand psychological assistance to people with mental and psychophysical developmental disabilities as aimed at correcting its very course, and not just as eliminating the consequences or adapting (adaptation) to environmental conditions.
Psychological assistance in special psychology is revealed with the help of such concepts as correction, compensation and rehabilitation.
Under correction(from lat. correction - correction) is understood as the correction or weakening of deviations of mental and physical development through various psychological and pedagogical influences. It is important to emphasize that corrective work is aimed at bringing deviant development as close as possible to normal.
Compensation(from Latin compensatio - compensation) - correction of defects in the work of a particular function due to the activity of preserved functions. Allocate intrasystem and intersystem types of compensation. Intra-system compensation is associated with the correction of shortcomings in the work of any organ within one system. For example, the weakening of vision in one eye is compensated by the work of the other.
Intersystem compensation involves the involvement of other systems, for example, limitations in the ability to recognize speech due to hearing loss are compensated by relying on the visual analyzer (lip-reading, sign speech).
In addition, compensation can occur at different levels - biological, or bodily, and psychological. In the first case, it occurs mainly unconsciously, and in the second it is associated with the involvement of consciousness and purposeful retraining. The psychological level significantly expands the possibilities of compensation, since the psyche is able to form functional organs that are not rigidly tied to the work of specific morphological (bodily) systems. The concept of a functional organ was proposed by A.A. Ukhtomsky. He defined it as "any temporary combination of forces capable of realizing a certain achievement." Therefore, even the presence of certain deviations caused by an organic defect can be compensated for by the formation of the corresponding functional organs. So, for example, a decrease in mental performance can be compensated by the development of personal motives that encourage one to make significant efforts to solve a problem. Attention switching defects can be compensated by the development of the planning function. It is the psychological level of compensation that makes it possible to include it in the structure of psycho-correctional work, within which assistance is specifically provided for the formation of functional organs that compensate for the defect.
No matter how effective correctional work is, it is far from always possible to achieve the correction of deviations in development. An abnormally developing child, and then an adult, as a rule, turns out to be less effective and useful in terms of solving various social problems. This, in turn, affects the satisfaction of his needs, reduces his social status hinders social adaptation. In this context, it is of particular importance rehabilitation(lat. re ... + abilitas - fitness, ability) - measures aimed not only at correcting developmental deviations, but at bringing into line with each other the external conditions of the individual's life and his needs and opportunities to improve the quality of life, socialization and prevent permanent changes personality. It is important that rehabilitation affects not only the sphere of mental development, but is of a complex nature, including socio-economic, pedagogical, medical aspects, as well as activities related to professional training.
In recent decades, there has been a trend deinstitutionalization people with developmental disabilities. Even in relation to people with severe developmental disabilities, work is underway to create conditions for their maximum independence and full life. For example, when working with adults with a moderate degree of mental retardation in the US and Europe, the practice of creating communities for them to live together, where they are supported by specialists, is widespread. At the same time, a person himself can plan his life in everyday and professional plans, in the sphere of interpersonal relationships. Thus, the focus is not on creating special conditions in an institution that isolates a person from the outside world, but on expanding his autonomy and social integration. This approach is gradually beginning to gain supporters in our country. In relation to orphans, the experience of creating artificial families is becoming increasingly common, when a child lives and is brought up not in an orphanage or boarding school, but in a "children's village" consisting of several houses or apartments for several people each. Each house is assigned "parents", who are hired for this job for a long period. The introduction of this kind of deinstitutionalized forms of residence softens the process of socialization and largely prevents the development of secondary social disability.
Special psychology is practical psychology , because "is a psychological support" of one of the social spheres. This understanding makes it possible to consider this branch of psychology as applied psychological discipline focused on academic knowledge. Each of the applied branches of psychology (medical, pedagogical, etc.) is a scientific and psychological support and maintenance of the corresponding practical sphere. As an applied branch, special psychology borrows objective scientific research methods from academic psychology and is tied to the systems of general and special education, as well as health care.
The main social task that special psychology solves as an applied discipline is the study of the conditions that ensure socialization of persons with deviations in psychophysical development. On the one hand, socialization as a process of integrating a child into the structure of society involves not only and not so much the creation of "sparing" conditions that allow a child with disabilities in psychophysical development (and then an adult) to exist without adapting to social requirements and without overcoming his defect, how much the preparation of the child for the independent solution of the real life and social problems that arise before him. Socialization requires not the adaptation of external conditions to the characteristics of the child's defect, but a change in his mode of existence in accordance with social conditions and various forms of culture. On the other hand, of no small importance for the successful socialization of an abnormal child is the relation of society to him. In this context, it seems necessary to distinguish two types of society, proposed by V.I. Vernadsky: societies of "culture of utility" and societies of "culture of dignity". The main task of the "culture of utility" society is to create a human function that is useful to society, which implies a pragmatic attitude towards a person. Its value is determined by the social functions it performs. The leading value of the "culture of dignity" society is the value of the human personality, regardless of its social significance and functional usefulness. If the “culture of utility” refers to childhood solely as a stage of preparation for adulthood, then in the “culture of dignity” childhood is understood as a stage of life that has an independent value, the same, and perhaps even more significant, than adulthood. Attitude towards a child with disabilities in psychophysical development from the standpoint of a "culture of dignity", in our opinion, is the only possible condition for solving the problem of his socialization, since only in this case the abnormal child will be able to find his unique place in the structure of society.
Special psychology is closely related to the following branches of psychology:
General psychology;
developmental psychology;
Pedagogical psychology;
Clinical psychology;
Social Psychology;
Psycho- and neurophysiology.
The connection of special psychology with general psychology due to the fact that the latter develops a conceptual apparatus, explores the laws and mechanisms of the functioning of the human psyche, which underlie the study of a child with deviations in psychophysical development. Knowledge of the phenomenology and patterns of age-related changes in the child's psyche that make up the subject developmental psychology, gives special psychology, firstly, methods for studying the age dynamics of an abnormal child, secondly, an idea of the norms of a child’s development at each stage of his life, serving as a “starting point”, a standard in identifying the developmental features of an abnormal child, thirdly, a description mechanisms of the ontogenetic development of the psyche (or individual mental functions, personality) of the child, which determine the principles for constructing psycho-correction programs. Special psychology, by studying the patterns of abnormal development, makes it possible to more voluminously and accurately determine the patterns and norms of the functioning and development of the child's psyche, which indicates a two-way relationship between special psychology and other branches of psychological knowledge.
Since special psychology is actively developing psycho-corrective programs, creating models for teaching and educating children with various types of abnormal development, its connection with educational psychology. Educational psychology also helps to train specialists in the field of special psychology. One of the main tasks that special psychology solves is the task of socializing a child with deviations in psychophysical development in society. This makes the connection of special psychology with social psychology more and more relevant.
It was noted above that special psychology studies the patterns of development and functioning of the psyche in people who find themselves in conditions of deprivation due to organic or functional a defect (nervous system, organs of perception, etc.), which indicates the connection of special psychology with psycho- and neurophysiology.
Special psychology, being one of the branches of psychology, is simultaneously included in the structure of holistic knowledge about children with disabilities in psychophysical development, which is called defectology. Special psychology in the field of defectology occupies a place, on the one hand, bordering on psychiatry, and on the other hand, with correctional pedagogy. Child psychiatry does not have its own diagnostic and correction tools mild developmental disorders in children. Special psychology provides such a toolkit. However, it is impossible not to mention the enormous difficulties arising from the fundamental difference in methodological apparatus, and, consequently, interpretative schemes, the "languages" of special psychology and child psychiatry.
The connection of special psychology with correctional pedagogy is carried out through the psychological substantiation of methods, methods, techniques, conditions for correctional work with children with deviations in psychophysical development.
Under certain assumptions, special psychology can be considered as child pathopsychology, which is part of the structure medical (clinical) psychology. It should be noted that the connection between special psychology and neuropsychology, which helps to identify its localization in the cerebral cortex by the psychological picture of the disorder, as well as to develop methods for correcting and compensating the defect.
The emphasis on the study of abnormal development reveals the differences between special and medical (clinical) psychology. If medical psychology studies changes in the mental activity of people associated with the occurrence and treatment of diseases, then special psychology pays attention not only to abnormal development caused by diseases, but also to other factors, that is, it focuses its efforts not only and not so much on the features mental activity, as much as in the very process of its development.
Such an understanding of special psychology allows us to consider it as a special kind of psychological practice. The study of the dynamics and mechanisms of abnormal development, directions, conditions, forms and methods of psychological correction and compensation helps in solving problems related to the correction of existing deviations. In this regard, special psychology, unlike other applied branches of psychology (pedagogical, medical, economic, legal, etc.), is not rigidly tied to any social sphere. This is due to the fact that this industry is not included in the existing areas of practical activity, but creates a special area of psychological services - it forms its own psychological practice focused on working with a person.
1.2. Basic approaches to the definition of normal and deviant development
Selection of criteria normal and abnormal mental development has not only theoretical significance for characterizing the subject of special psychology, but also a direct practical meaning. Depending on what we consider to be the norm and what is an abnormal development, the criteria for psychological diagnosis and the direction of corrective work will be determined (the answer to this question is crucial for this industry).
In the history of the formation of psychological thought, various approaches have been formed to determine the criteria for normal and deviant development. Consider the main criteria that are used by specialists in both scientific research and in psychodiagnostic and psychocorrectional work.
First approach(most common) represents the norm of mental development as standard adopted in a given socio-cultural environment. In this case, a person is considered normally developing, whose mental functions and personality traits correspond to the average statistical standard of development at a given age. It is clear that behind this vision of mental health lies the cognitive-behavioral tradition in psychology. Two features of this approach should be noted. The first is that in research and psychodiagnostic practice, compliance with the developmental norm of a given particular individual is defined as the sum of the quantitative indicators of the development of individual mental functions and personality traits corresponding to the norm. At the same time, the vision of the psyche and mental development of the child as having a systemic character is lost. The second feature is that mental development begins to be considered in isolation from the person himself and his individual characteristics, which leads to the stereotyping of ideas about the norms of mental development (the understanding of the norm as a polyvariant phenomenon is lost, which has the possibility of multiple manifestations depending on the individual characteristics of the individual and the specifics social situation of the development of the individual). Unfortunately, often such a position of a specialist leads to the fact that an atypical variant of the norm is presented as a pathology, and some pathological variants are not singled out. Another consequence of the specialist's reliance on the indicated type of representations is the method of constructing psychological practice, which turns out to be focused not so much on helping the person himself, but on bringing into line with the average statistical standard of his individual mental functions and intellect as a set of intellectual operations (in the sense of their quantitative amplification).
Second approach presupposes the understanding of the norm as absence of pathology and originates in medicine and the psychodynamic approach. A psychologist who is guided in his professional activities by such ideas focuses on the clinical picture of the defect. Abnormal development is understood as the absence or underdevelopment of abilities, qualities inherent in a healthy individual. Abnormal development is presented solely as a "breakdown" of a normally functioning psyche, and not as a specific line of development that creates special conditions for the development of the individual. As a result, a child or an adult is perceived through the prism of a medical diagnosis, and psychological diagnosis is reduced to identifying clinical symptoms of developmental disorders. Thus, the specialist loses the actual psychological vision of not only the person himself, but also deviations in his development. Psychological correction turns out to be aimed at eliminating the defect, at fighting it. The use of compensation mechanisms in psychological practice based on normally functioning psychological formations in this case becomes difficult, and the attitude towards a person is replaced by an attitude towards his defect.
As noted by the famous neurologist O. Sachs, modern science(meaning neurology), which actively uses computer models, is more interested in the deficit of functions, but it completely ignores their strengthening, hypertrophy. Such a medical view largely determined the psychological understanding of abnormal development in special psychology. Indeed, most of the descriptions of various variants of deviant development (mental retardation, mental retardation, early childhood autism, etc.) presented in the psychological literature boil down to listing shortcomings, “deficiencies” in development. A person is considered in the dichotomy "health - disease". In this case, the first correlates with normal functioning, and the second with damage or weakening of functions. Other development options that could be understood as specific or providing special opportunities with this approach are not considered.
Third Approach in a sense is the opposite of the previous one. It can be designated as reduction of deviations in development to the specificity of the child. It has its roots in the existential-humanist tradition in psychology. Guided by this type of ideas about the norm of mental development, the psychologist directs all his efforts towards accepting a person in his specificity. However, for the analysis of the structure, content and mechanisms of formation of such specificity, his professional thinking is unsuitable. Practical work with a child or an adult (diagnostic and psycho-corrective) loses the possibility of an age-oriented approach that allows one to take into account the holistic logic and patterns of both normal and abnormal mental development, and correct the defect in accordance with them. Special mention should be made of the attitude towards a person that arises in this case. For all the specialist's focus on accepting the uniqueness and specificity of a person, it idealizes him, since the anomalies themselves, which belong to him and are part of him, are ignored. A paradoxical situation arises: with a pronounced desire to accept a child (adult) with all its individual manifestations, it is not really accepted, but is reduced to the idea of a child (adult).
Fourth Approach considers the norm of mental development as sociocultural ideal (reference) . This approach is most inherent in domestic special psychology and basically contains the positions of cultural-historical and activity approaches. The norm of mental development is not the average standard inherent in a given society, but the ideal that can be achieved by a child under certain social conditions. Examples of cultural standards can be samples of various types of activities, ways and strategies of emotional response and experience of certain situations, rules for constructing speech utterances, everyday functioning skills, sensory standards, etc.
Despite the fact that such an approach has been formed and is sometimes used in the practice of domestic special and medical psychology, it is clearly not discussed in the context of the problem of the “norm-pathology” dichotomy for some reason. Meanwhile, the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky regarding the diagnosis of child development obviously do not coincide with the traditionally distinguished and applied approaches in practice: the average statistical, individual-personal, and others noted earlier.
In particular, one of the key ideas that should be used in normative age diagnostics is the idea of the zone of proximal development. It shows the child's ability to master sociocultural experience by taking into account the assistance provided in solving diagnostic problems, and therefore allows us to assess the prospects for the mental development of this particular child in specific social conditions and the contribution of education and upbringing to the child's state, i.e., to determine the causes current level of development. Thus, the definition of the zone of proximal development involves:
Assessment of development dynamics;
Correlation of features of mental activity with sociocultural conditions of development;
Accounting for the unique developmental opportunities of this particular child;
Identification of social conditions that maximize mental development.
In addition, L.S. Vygotsky noted the need to assess the qualitative age-related changes in the child's psyche, which he associated with the appearance of neoplasms specific to each age period. Qualitative diagnostics of development, therefore, cannot be limited to a quantitative measurement of the level of development of mental functions, based on the use of tests. A qualitative assessment of the level and nature of mental development also involves taking into account the entire course of development as a whole, since it is possible to determine the role and specifics of individual neoplasms only by comparing them with the integral logic of development: its dynamics, systemic transformations of the psyche, mechanisms, purpose.
An important understanding arises that affects our ideas about the norm and deviant development. It is connected with the fact that different ages and age-related changes are not something initially given, predetermined and ontologically unchanged. As noted by L.S. Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonin and many other Soviet psychologists, age and age-related changes (mental development) is a given, it is a cultural task that life and society poses for a person, and which he solves more or less successfully in the process of socialization. In other words, mental development and age-related changes are a project, and not an a priori existing ontological given. Moreover, this project is culturally determined and varies from era to era, from one society to another, depending on social requirements, educational conditions, etc.
From the design nature of development it follows that the norm or deviations in development cannot be defined as something already existing in a child (and maybe in an adult too) (individual norm), or as something to which he must match(some standard), or something like what he shouldn't have(norm as absence of pathology). The concept of a norm as a sociocultural standard, on the one hand, does not coincide with any of the existing definitions, and on the other hand, it integrates them all. The norm in this sense is not only what is, but also what may appear, it is not only what is determined by the characteristics of the child himself, but also what depends on sociocultural conditions, not only knowledge about normal or abnormal options development, but also the presentation of possible development alternatives, i.e. understanding of all possible development options.
In other words, norm(as well as abnormal development) is a kind of ideal image or project representing the current state and possible prospects for the development of a particular person in certain sociocultural conditions.
I would like to pay special attention to the following nuance. Such a project should also take into account unique personality traits And mental activity the child himself. This refers to his attitude to social influences, for example, specific learning conditions or the teacher himself, as well as to his own development opportunities. In the works of L.S. Vygotsky, this moment was partially reflected in the concept of the social situation of development, which he defined as a system of relations between the child and other people.
It is especially important to take this into account when diagnosing persons with any developmental defects, since in this case the attitude towards the defect creates a unique situation for the formation of the psyche. Each deviation in development not only limits the child, but also creates a certain range of opportunities. From this point of view, not a single deviation in development has been studied. For example, O. Sachs draws our attention to the fact that we are accustomed to describing developmental disorders in terms of deficiency. At the same time, he called one of the chapters of his book about people with mental retardation "Naive consciousness" (thus highlighting the special picture of the world of these people). O. Sachs writes: “So, what are these special abilities? What properties of "naive" consciousness give a person such a touching innocence, such openness, integrity and dignity? What is this new quality, so vivid that one can speak of the "world" of the mentally retarded, as we speak of the world of a child or a savage? If I had to answer in one word, I would call this quality "concreteness". The world of "naive" consciousness is so bright, saturated and detailed and at the same time so direct and simple because it is concrete: it is not complicated, diluted and unified by abstraction. As a result of a strange reversal of the natural order of things, neurology (one might add psychology. - E.S., A.P.) often regards concreteness as something wretched and contemptible, as an area of chaos and regress that does not deserve attention. Kurt Goldstein, the greatest systematizer of his generation, associates thinking - the pride of man - exclusively with abstraction and categorization. Any violation of brain functions, he believes, throws a person out of this higher sphere into a swamp of concreteness unworthy of homo sapiens. Depriving the "abstract-categorical attitude" (Goldstein) or "propositional thinking" (Hulings Jackson), the individual descends to the subhuman level and disappears as an object of study. I call this the reversal of the natural order of things, because in thinking and perception I consider the concrete, not the abstract, to be more fundamental. It is this that makes the reality of a person “real” – alive, personal and meaningful.”
In addition, such an idea of the norm reflects not only the level of development of individual mental functions, but also implies characterization of the psyche How complex organized system. The essential point here is the interaction of various mental functions and personality traits. For example, does memory take a subordinate position in relation to thinking, or vice versa? Does speech regulate practice? Do emotions serve as a predictor of behavior? Does character dominate meaningful personal behavior, etc.?
Thus, normal development is not a given that is inherent in the majority of representatives of a given society or a unique individual, but a given, some social project, determined, on the one hand, by the requirements and tasks of socialization in a given society, and on the other hand, by the developmental opportunities of the child. In this case, the ontogenetic development of a child is understood as an integrity that has its own internal laws and mechanisms, its own direction. Development at each stage of childhood has its own structure, is filled with special content, and is also associated with special external (physical and social) conditions that contribute to (or hinder) it. Thus, the use of this approach in diagnostics and psychocorrection makes it possible to take into account both normal and abnormal developmental lines of the child.
Unfortunately, the variety of approaches to determining the criteria for normal and deviant mental development often leads to differences in the views of different specialists and confusion in their assessments. In addition, there are cases when a specialist builds professional activity on his own ideas, based on worldly unreflexive attitudes towards a child or an adult. In these cases, the subjective experience of a specialist becomes the criterion of normality. What does not coincide with this experience is identified with pathology, with all the ensuing consequences for psychological practice: its spontaneity, lack of purposefulness, illogicality, fragmentary vision of the psyche (as opposed to systemic vision), non-reflective grounds for using certain methodological procedures, etc. In our opinion, reflection by a specialist of his own ideas about the norm of a child's mental development is of great importance for building the practice of psychological correction, since they consciously or unconsciously regulate his professional activity, determining the goal, tasks, methods of the latter, types of attitude towards the child.
Denoting our own position, it is necessary to point out that in this work we rely on the idea of the norm of a child's mental development as a socio-cultural ideal (standard) that a child can correspond to at a certain age stage of his development.
1.3. General patterns of normal and abnormal mental development. The psychological structure of the defect
For special psychology, the question of the general patterns of abnormal development, that is, patterns that are not specific to individual variants of deviant development, but are inherent in all of them, is of particular importance. Knowledge of such patterns helps us to distinguish between the logic of normal and deviant development, as well as to diagnose and predict the latter. A broader category that characterizes all types of development - both normal and abnormal, are general patterns of mental development. The latter are studied by developmental psychology. These include the following rules:
unevenness - dissimilarity, inconstancy in the development of individual mental functions, processes, properties, its oscillatory nature. The stages of rise, stabilization and decline in the development of the individual are distinguished;
heterochrony - difference in time, asynchrony, mismatch in time of the phases of development of individual organs and functions;
unsustainable development - changing dynamics of development, manifested in development crises;
development sensitivity - the presence of separate periods of increased susceptibility of the development of mental functions to external influences (training and education);
cumulative development - the accumulation of the results of the development of each previous stage, in which they are included in the next stage, transforming in a certain way. An example is the process of transition from visual-effective to visual-figurative and verbal-logical thinking;
divergence-convergence the course of development - differentiation and increase in the diversity of mental functions, on the one hand, and their integration, curtailment, on the other.
It should be noted that the laws of mental development are subject to people not only with normal mental development, but also with those who deviate from the norm.
According to L.S. Vygotsky, any deviation in development distorts the relationship of the child with the world around him and, first of all, with other people. This is the most important general pattern of abnormal development. It has a specific expression in the five regularities identified to date.
1. decline cognitive activity (motivation). A child with developmental disabilities shows little activity and interest in exploring the world around him. This pattern may be associated with neurodynamic disorders, the lack of information received, and its fragmentation.
2. Violation of the reception, processing, storage and reproduction of information, reducing their speed. The regularity manifests itself in the limited capabilities of cognitive functions compared to the norm (in an increase in the thresholds of sensations; violations of the constancy of perception; spatial orientation; an increase in the time spent on processing information; a decrease in mental performance and attention disorders, narrowing the amount of memorized information, etc.). So, for example, in deaf children, there is a slowness in the perception of visual signals (with age, it increases and approaches the norm). The lack of development of one analyzer negatively affects the development of the activity of another. In addition, in deficient development (impaired hearing, vision), contrary to popular belief, the thresholds of sensations increase, not decrease. In oligophrenic children, visual perception disorders were revealed, manifested in slowness, narrowing of its volume (simultaneous perception of an almost twice smaller number of objects), non-differentiation (globality, syncretism), a decrease in color sensitivity (poor discrimination of color shades), poor recognition of well-known objects in an unusual perspective (for example, in an inverted image), deficiencies in spatial perception and spatial orientation.
3. Lack of representation of signs in the structure of consciousness (verbal mediation disorders). This pattern reflects disturbances in the work of consciousness, the development of which involves the mastery of sign-symbolic means, which is manifested in the underdevelopment of the meaningfulness of perception, the mental operation of generalization, arbitrary and volitional regulation of activity, verbal-logical thinking, etc. For example, with mental retardation, children can name fewer words related to the generic concept (flowers, animals), and on the other hand, inadequately expand the verbal categories (furniture is the decoration of the room, and electrical engineering, and radio equipment), often replace the generic concept with a description of the action that it performs (what what they listen to music on is a player). In this category of children, this regularity is also manifested in the underdevelopment of the substitution function in play activity.
With mental retardation, the development of verbal-logical thinking has its own peculiarities (children understand the content of texts approximately, do not grasp contexts and subtexts; they hardly comprehend the sequence of events, causal, temporal, conditional and other relationships; there is a stereotypy of thinking). In addition, violations of sign-symbolic activity find expression in the construction of grammatically correct statements without understanding their meaning (“tape recorder effect”), frequent agrammatisms, and difficulties in transferring methods for solving problems.
4. Decreased rate of mental development. The regularity is manifested in the development dynamics slowed down in comparison with the norm. Ideas about the pace of mental development are reflected in such concepts as "mental age" and "social age" (A. Binet, E.A. Doll and others). Accordingly, a decrease in the rate of development can be interpreted as a discrepancy between the mental development of an individual and the standards of his age. Such a discrepancy can be detected both in terms of quantitative indicators (correspondence of the level of development to an earlier age), and in terms of quality (inconsistency of age with the norm in structure and content). In the domestic psychological tradition, the latter approach to the assessment of mental development is largely accepted. So, for example, with a delay in mental development, there is a lag in the formation of a role-playing game, verbal and logical thinking, mediated memorization, and speech.
5. Greater than normal dependence of mental functions on each other. This pattern is associated with the difficulties in the formation of systemic connections and the interaction of individual mental functions. As a result, the problem of mediating the activities of individual functions with each other arises. The psyche works as an undifferentiated integrity. In fact, this regularity can be understood as a violation of the regularity of general mental development associated with the differentiation and integration of mental functions.
Examples of this pattern can be the lack of formation of the interaction of various types of perception (for example, visual and touch, which leads to a violation of the perception of space), violations of the mediation of memory by thinking (problems in the development of semantic and mediated memory), behavior and emotional sphere by speech (difficulties in voluntary regulation) with a delay mental development and mental retardation.
Studying psychological structure of the defect allows you to make a complete picture of a particular type of deviant development, revealing its key features and specific patterns. Knowledge of the psychological structure of a defect can be used to make a differential diagnosis of developmental deviations, since it helps to separate random or non-specific features of a person's mental activity from those that are essential for characterizing this type of deviant development. Since each type of abnormal development has its own special structure, knowledge of it makes it possible to identify qualitative, and not only quantitative, differences between different types of deviations. This is important, since quantitative indicators do not always make it possible to differentiate similar external manifestations types of development (for example, mental retardation and the norm). In addition, knowledge of the structure of the defect makes it possible to predict the mental development of the child, to assess its capabilities under certain social conditions (training, upbringing, support, correctional assistance). The practical meaning of studying the psychological structure of a defect also lies in the fact that it determines the main targets for psycho-correctional influence and special education. Without knowledge of the structure of developmental disorders, psychodiagnostics becomes symptomatic, focused on fixing and describing only external or secondary features of mental activity, and psychological assistance does not take into account the mechanisms and patterns characteristic of this type of deviant development.
The concept of the psychological structure of a defect, in our opinion, is related to the concept of a register syndrome used in medical psychology (A.I. Kudryavtsev, V.M. Bleikher, I.V. Kruk). The latter reflects the "nuclear disorders" of mental activity in a particular mental disorder. For example, with schizophrenia, there is a violation of the selectivity of information processing, with an organic syndrome - a decrease cognitive processes and mental performance, in psychopathy - affective conditionality of behavior in combination with partial uncriticality and instability of the level of claims.
The first attempts to structure mental activity for diagnostic purposes were made by G.I. Rossolimo. He identified three areas: 1) mental tone (attention and will); 2) memory; 3) higher processes. For each area, their own diagnostic tasks, methods were used in combination with the use of a clinical conversation and the collection of anamnesis (history of the disease). Later, the works of L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria, B.V. Zeigarnik, V.I. Lubovsky, V.V. Lebedinsky, in which the problem of the defect structure was touched upon in one way or another.
The concept of the psychological structure of a defect was actively developed in the psychology of V.I. Lubovsky. It is based on the idea of L.S. Vygotsky about primary and secondary defects in mental development. Primary defect directly related to organic or functional impairment. For example, damage to the cochlea of the hearing aid causes a loss of auditory perception (deafness) or its insufficiency (hearing loss), which acts as a primary defect. Diffuse damage to the cerebral cortex in oligophrenia leads to a decrease in the level of mental activity.
secondary defect is a consequence of the primary and in this sense is associated with organic damage indirectly. So, in case of hearing impairment, a secondary defect is a violation of the formation of speech. Without special training of the child, the formation of speech is significantly difficult or impossible. In this logic, we can talk about defects of the third, fourth orders, etc. So, violations in the development of verbal speech can lead to violations in the development of thinking (tertiary defect), and those, in turn, to violations of self-consciousness and personality.
According to L.S. Vygotsky, the farther the defect is removed from the primary violation, the more it is due to the social situation of the child's development and the more opportunities for its correction. He called defects of a high order "social dislocation", since their formation is associated with the creation of inadequate social conditions for development and the reaction of the individual to his defect. In this sense, the most important condition for preventing the occurrence of high-order defects is the formation of an adequate attitude both in the abnormal child himself and in the people around him to him and his defect, which consists in accepting the specificity of his development and recognizing the need for additional efforts to overcome the violation. It can be assumed that the higher the order of the defect, the less specific it is for this type of developmental deviation, since to a lesser extent it is caused by the initial factor.
Depending on the ratio of primary, secondary, etc. defects, as well as on the specifics of each of them, it is possible to determine the structure of abnormal development. For example, diffuse damage to the cerebral cortex (oligophrenia) is characterized by: 1) the totality of neuropsychic underdevelopment, i.e., a violation of the activity of all functions and organs (primary defect), a decrease in overall mental activity; 2) hierarchy of disorders: higher mental functions suffer to a greater extent than natural ones (lack of spatial gnosis and praxis, involuntary attention and mechanical memory is less pronounced than violations of verbal thinking, speech).
Despite the rather long history of the development of the concept of the psychological structure of a defect, it still remains not fully understood. In our opinion, this is largely due either to the lack of clear general psychological ideas about the activity and development of the entire psyche as a complexly organized and integral system, the elements of which are interconnected with each other, or to the fact that these developments are not used by special psychology. For example, on the one hand, the question of how the quality of intellectual activity depends on the personality and the emotional sphere, and how these relationships change with age, has not been sufficiently studied. The mechanisms of participation of consciousness in the integration of the activity of individual mental functions and compensation for their defects have not been sufficiently developed. On the other hand, within the framework of special psychology, many concepts and concepts are not involved. For example, personality traits in various types of deviant development are usually presented in a descriptive manner, without relying on any theory of personality. The characteristic of deviations in the emotional sphere is mainly reduced to a description of the revealed empirical facts related to the recognition or external manifestations of emotions. The features and patterns of the development of imagination in persons with developmental disabilities remain practically unexplored. The fragmentation of this kind of research prevents a systematic vision of mental activity in deviant development and, therefore, closes the way to determining the structure of disorders. In this regard, it is necessary to recall the thought of L.S. Vygotsky that practical psychology should not be understood utilitarian, but should be based on a holistic general psychological theory.
Summarizing what has been said, we can define psychological structure of the defect as a system of "nuclear" mental disorders that define the specifics and the entire spectrum of particular manifestations of a certain type of abnormal development.
It should be noted that the psychological structure of the defect in various types of deviant development is not well understood. Here we can note the works of V.V. Lebedinsky, who considers the structure of a defect from the standpoint of L.S. Vygotsky, i.e., singling out primary, secondary, and other disorders. The author correlates the specificity of each type of deviant development with an organic defect and the sphere of the psyche, which is primarily damaged - vision, hearing, motor skills, speech, intellect, need-emotional sphere - and designates it as an option dysontogenesis. In accordance with this, he identifies the following options: general mental underdevelopment (oligophrenia), delayed mental development (mental retardation), damaged mental development (dementia), deficient mental development (anomalies of hearing, vision, motor sphere), distorted mental development ( early childhood autism), disharmonic mental development (psychopathy).
The problem of the psychological structure of the defect in preschoolers with mental retardation was studied in the works of E.S. Slepovich. She singled out three main components of the structure of the defect in this deviation in development: 1) insufficient formation of the motivational-target basis of activity; 2) insufficient formation of the sphere of images-representations (their diffuseness, rigidity, concreteness); 3) difficulties in the formation of sign-symbolic activity. These features are manifested in all areas of the child's mental activity: play, communication, speech, self-image, moral regulation of behavior.
However, despite all these studies, the question of studying the psychological structure of a defect in various types of deviant development for special psychology remains relevant and poorly studied. Its importance is also associated with an understanding of the specific patterns of abnormal development.
1.4. Theoretical foundations of special psychology and the structure of the analysis of deviations in mental development
Cultural-historical theory L.S. Vygotsky and the theory of activity of A.N. Leontiev provided a unique opportunity to solve real practical problems related to the education and upbringing of children with disabilities in psychophysical development. On the one hand, special psychology was one of the sources of cultural-historical theory, and on the other hand, it itself became the methodological and theoretical basis of modern special psychology (A.A. Bubbles).
Cultural-historical theory is based on Marxist philosophy, in which a person is presented as an "ensemble of social relations." L.S. Vygotsky notes the leading role of education and upbringing in the mental development of the child. In accordance with this, the mental development of the child is considered as subordinate to the social factor, as conditioned by the cultural and historical situation.
Development is understood as the process of formation of higher mental functions, which the child masters in cooperation with another person and which are subsequently internalized. Higher mental functions are understood by L.S. Vygotsky as functions mediated by the use of sign-symbolic means. The latter can be words, objects that are given some meaning, symbolic images, etc. The use of sign-symbolic means allows a person to master his own mental functions and behavior, that is, to make them arbitrarily controlled. The simplest and clearest example of higher mental functions is the tying of memory knots. The knot on the handkerchief serves as a symbolic tool that allows us to manage our own memory. Similarly, we can use words to indicate the purpose of our actions and plan their sequence. Higher mental functions are functions of consciousness, since the use of sign-symbolic means is a conscious (meaningful) process. Higher functions are opposed by L.S. Vygotsky functions are natural or lower, the regulation of which is carried out directly, that is, bypassing the human consciousness. However, one should not think that specific mental processes belong to higher and natural functions (for example, thinking and speech are among higher functions, and sensation, perception are natural ones). This is fundamentally wrong, since any mental process can be both a natural function and a higher one, depending on whether it is mediated by sign-symbolic means or not. So, for example, sensations can proceed directly, or they can be consciously differentiated and designated by the subject (when he names these sensations). Accordingly, thinking is not necessarily associated with the use of sign means (verbal thinking), but can also be carried out at a lower (preconscious) level (recall about visual-effective thinking through trial and error, sensorimotor intelligence according to J. Piaget).
The doctrine of higher functions and their development has not only theoretical significance, but also a direct practical meaning. Special psychology, being an applied discipline focused on academic research psychology, is a scientific and psychological support for the practical sphere of work with children with developmental disabilities. Special psychology as an applied branch makes it possible to apply the general theoretical provisions of the cultural-historical theory and the theory of activity in a specific area of reality and is the basis for testing the truth of these theoretical premises. The concepts used by special psychology do not go beyond the categorical apparatus of traditional domestic psychology. At the same time, such concepts as, for example, “higher mental functions”, “social situation of development”, “zone of proximal development”, ideas about nuclear defect are of particular importance when considering them from the perspective of providing psychological assistance to a child with deviations in psychophysical development. Special psychology, figuratively speaking, can serve as an illustration of the general ideas of the cultural-historical concept.
Based on the methodology and conceptual apparatus of cultural-historical theory, special psychology has created its own practice, focused not so much on the study of the child's psyche, but on working with it. Within the framework of this practice, methods of direct work with a child with developmental disabilities were found, tested and described. Within the framework of this psychological practice, the child is considered holistically, in the unity of the specifics of his mental processes, qualities and social environment. The conceptual apparatus developed by the school of L.S. Vygotsky, allows you to evaluate both the current state of the abnormal child and the results of working with him (the path from pathology to the norm), and also creates the basis for the entire practice of psychodiagnostics and psychocorrection and the development of psychotechnical means. Particular attention should be paid to the concept of the norm of the mental development of the child, based on the age-psychological approach. The norm is considered here as a socio-cultural ideal (sample) that a child can correspond to at various stages of childhood.
When applying in the practice of special psychology methods and techniques of other psychological and pedagogical areas (behavioral, cognitive, etc.), they are “adjusted”, structured, translated into the language of Soviet psychology. Thus, special psychology as an applied science of the academic type, as well as all its practical procedures, were and are being built on the conceptual apparatus of the cultural-historical concept of L.S. Vygotsky and the theory of activity of A.N. Leontiev. In our opinion, special psychology operates with an effective method, which is both research and psychotechnical - it is a formative experiment. Thus, if we follow the logic of F.E. Vasilyuk, special psychology meets all the criteria of psychotechnical theory and can be considered as one of the practices of Soviet psychology.
Based on the understanding of special psychology as a psychotechnical theory that serves as a guide to building the practice of working with an abnormal child, we believe it is appropriate to consider the knowledge that was obtained within the framework of special psychology as a discipline of an academic type, in accordance with tasks of psychological practice. In the most general form, the psychological practice of working with an abnormal child solves two major problems - the diagnosis and psychocorrection of deviations in psychophysical development. Consider the theoretical positions and constructs that help solve the practical problems of special psychology, since they determine the structure of the analysis of various types of deviations in the psychophysical development of the child, on the basis of which it is possible to develop and describe the logic of diagnostics and corrective work.
The first and, perhaps, the central construct that sets the vision of the ontogenetic development of the child, and, consequently, the goals of his education, upbringing and correction, is socialization. Despite the fact that the concept of socialization in psychology is still not clear enough, this concept allows us to describe the purpose and process of the development of the psyche. The child develops to meet social requirements and be accepted into the system of social relations (L.S. Vygotsky). Along with this, socialization can be considered the main condition for the mental development of the child (at least in its highest, actually human manifestations). The whole process of ontogenetic development of a child is subject to the logic and tasks of socialization, i.e. socialization itself is considered as process and result of personal development. Consequently, the correction of the mental development of a child with deviations in mental development must obey the logic of his socialization.
For further reasoning, it is necessary to use and analyze the categories of the social situation of development and the mechanism of internalization, developed in cultural-historical psychology as a system of elements that mutually determine each other.
Under social development situation is understood as a system of relations between a child and the people around him, which develops at a certain age and sets the specifics of mental development during the next stage of life. Accordingly, it can be assumed that the concept of socialization reflects the dependence of the mental development of the child at each stage of childhood on the social situation of development.
The very social situation of development in the interpretation of L.S. Vygotsky has a dual content: it is determined, on the one hand, external (objective) changes in the life of a child (for example, a child becomes a schoolboy), and on the other hand, psychological (subjective) changes in the child himself and his experiences(for example, mastering a language fundamentally changes the child's perception and understanding of the world around him). The subjective aspect of the social situation of development allows us to say that the child's entry into the system of social relations, i.e., his socialization, involves a change in the forms and methods of experiencing these relations and participating in them. Such changes indicate the importance of creating an emotional atmosphere in the process of corrective work with the child that would be adequate to his understanding of the world.
Here it is appropriate to recall that, characterizing infancy, L.S. Vygotsky writes that for a child, any life situation and any event begin to exist only in the presence of an adult, who is the psychological center of any situation for the child. In other words, the child lacks the inner readiness and ability to be a full-fledged subject of social relations, but there is objective dependence these relationships from an adult. In this context, one can say that socialization - it is the process and result of the development of the child as a subject of human relations. This point of view was also shared by the author of the concept of the activity approach A.N. Leontiev, who pointed out that the child during childhood turns from an object of development into a subject of development. The concept of the social situation of development thus makes it possible to concretize the concept of socialization.
The mechanism of formation of the subject of social relations in the process of socialization of the child was designated by L.S. Vygotsky's term "interiorization". The internalization process is formation of higher forms behavior and mental activity of the child, i.e., his subjectivity, which is conceived precisely as a conscious manifestation of the personality, as a process of “transition” of the child’s relations presented outside (“divided into two”) with other people inside. Higher functions, subjectivity, therefore, initially exist outside, and their source and organizer is an adult. In the process of socialization, adapting to social requirements and mastering ideal cultural patterns mental activity and behavior, the child himself becomes the initiator and organizer of higher forms of behavior and mental activity, i.e., their subject. At the same time, it is noted that the highest forms of behavior and mental activity (hence, subjectivity) are neither something inherent in the child, nor a permanent attribute of his existence (L.S. Vygotsky, B.D. Elkonin). Their manifestation requires the activity of consciousness in the present and the application of appropriate efforts. It follows from this that when designing and implementing correctional and developmental programs, it is not enough to form in the child ways to solve certain problems, but it is necessary to develop in him the ability to independently organize and regulate his activities, i.e., the ability to create and implement an activity plan.
Understanding socialization as a process and result of the formation of the subject allows us to analyze and evaluate the mental development of the child, as well as to formulate the goals and objectives of psychological assistance to children with deviations in psychophysical development. It's obvious that mental development allows the child to become a full-fledged subject of higher, actually human, forms of behavior and mental activity, adequate to the ideal samples of the culture that he masters. This is precisely the necessary condition for the individual to independently build human relations with the world and participate in them, a condition for socialization.
Age-related psychological diagnostics as the initial stage of psychological correction as the main task should determine the development of the child's higher forms of behavior and mental activity, as well as their mastery in accordance with a certain age period. To do this, it is necessary to identify the types of higher forms of behavior and mental activity that are formed at each stage of ontogenesis.
Psychological help a child with any deviations in psychophysical development is aimed at creation of conditions conducive to the child's mastery of higher forms of activity, i.e., its formation as a subject of human relations. It should be added what higher forms behavior the most accessible psychological correction in comparison with the lower functions, since they are more removed from the organic defect of the child.
Let us turn to the analysis of the manifestations that form the subjectivity of the child, allowing him to become a full-fledged participant in human relations. To do this, it is necessary to consider aspects of the internalization of higher mental functions, identified by L.S. Vygotsky and his followers.
Internalization as the transformation of social forms of behavior and mental activity into individual ones.
According to the cultural-historical approach of L.S. Vygotsky, the starting point of the mental development of the child (both normal and abnormal) at each stage of ontogenesis is system of its social relations with the world(L.S. Vygotsky). First, social relations are the primary form of existence of higher mental functions and higher forms of behavior child. In accordance with this, if the formation of social relations is difficult for a child, then the process of development of his psyche in its highest manifestations is also disturbed. Secondly, social relations are set of requirements for the development of the child, the obedience to which becomes driving force its development. The internalization of social requirements reflects the process of transition from external sources of development to internal ones, the process of turning a child into a subject of his own development. Thus, internalization as the transformation of social forms of activity into individual ones reflects the transition from a system of relations to the world of other people to a system of relations to the world of the child himself. Social relations can be expressed in various areas of the mental: sensory standards, semantic codes of objects and the image of the world as a whole, ways of using various tools, meanings and motives of activity, social roles, norms and rules of behavior, and many others. The system of human relations to the world, mastered by the child, as a result becomes for him standard (exemplary), mediating the regulation of its own activity.
Internalization as the development of ideal forms of culture and the child's subordination of his activity to social patterns (standards ). The ideal forms of culture are the standards of human activity, which serve as models that regulate the behavior and mental activity of the subject. According to D.B. Elkonin, the socialization and mental development of the child is not an adaptation to the physical or social environment, but adaptation to samples human activity (D.B. Elkonin). The means of mastering and comprehending, internalizing the ideal forms of culture is productive action(B.D. Elkonin). Through productive action, the child reproduces cultural patterns in his own experience, his own activity, thus changing the already established forms of behavior. Thanks to the performance of productive actions, there is a transition from the reconstruction, reproduction of the methods of activity that have developed in the child to the production of new ones that meet ideally presented social requirements. Productive actions are of a probing nature (B.D. Elkonin), and the mental phenomena in which they are embodied are processes of building a plan and goal setting. In fact, the idea is a subjective form of reflection of the objectively presented ideal forms of culture, i.e. the embodiment of the purpose and meaning of the activity. The idea acts for the subject as the basis for the regulation of activity and serves as a prototype for any practical or mental action. It is through productive action that the child realizes What he should do. This “what”, in turn, serves as the basis for the formation of skills performed according to a specific program, a given algorithm of activity. Such skills can be designated as reproductive actions - a product, a result of productive actions.
In addition, the idea reflects a holistic image of the situation, the relationship between its elements that are significant in the context of general requirements, as well as the possibility of its transformation, and consists of a goal, in accordance with which the subject conditions change, and ways to achieve it in specific conditions (operations), sequence the implementation of which is determined by the goal. The goal, in turn, is an image that reflects the result of the transformation of the objective situation. The situation is understood by us as organized in accordance with general requirements a meaningful integrity that determines the connections and relationships of subject conditions with each other.
Internalization as the transition of external activity into internal. Considering internalization as the transition of external activity into internal activity, we characterize the process of mastering practical and mental actions. In the context of this work, by mental and practical actions we mean actions reproductive performed according to a certain already learned sample. In fact, these actions, as noted, are the result of productive actions, that is, already meaningful, conscious acts, skills. Here the child masters various ways of realizing, translating into reality the general idea-design. In this respect, genetically they follow productive actions. The logic of development (internalization) of practical and mental actions consists in their folding, thanks to transition from external to internal(P.Ya. Galperin), and automation. If we describe this process in terms of the structure of activity, then it will be a process of turning actions into operations. The leading point in this regard is the formation and use operational scheme of thought(P.Ya. Galperin), general way, algorithm for solving the problem (V.V. Davydov). Comprehension, understanding by a child of such algorithms is a creative, productive task for him, and their development, automation, going to the periphery of consciousness and embedding in new, more complex systems of actions is the task of developing skills. It should not be assumed that this task can be solved only through "training". On the contrary, the transition of external forms of activity to the internal plane of consciousness presupposes their further comprehension and generalization, and, consequently, substitution of objective actions by sign-symbolic reality(P.Ya. Galperin). It is important to note that this aspect of internalization involves following designation (and generalizations) mode of action after action, i.e., the child realizes the way to solve a problem as universal only after it has been solved. Thus, this aspect of internalization allows the child to move from the sensory-practical content of consciousness and activity to their ideal content (meanings and meanings).
Since the transition from external to internal activity affects the sphere of algorithmic actions, the analysis of their specificity in children of various categories will be presented through those areas of the mental that involve the mastery of a certain activity technology. This may concern the operational aspects of both mental activities (speech, memory, thinking, etc.) and individual objective activities (communication, play, learning, etc.).
Interiorization of sign-symbolic means of culture , allowing to master one's own activity, i.e., to replace spontaneous or natural forms of behavior and mental functions with arbitrarily regulated and mediated cultural means (tools). This aspect of the internalization mechanism describes the mental development of the child, on the one hand, as a transition from the use of external (physically represented) means of culture to the use of internal means (existing in the internal plane of the child’s consciousness), and on the other hand, as a transition from the spontaneous use of external or internal means. cultures to their conscious (meaningful) application. These changes reveal the mechanism mastering the child's own activities, i.e., the formation of the ability independently and arbitrarily plan and control it. As a result, the child acquires the ability, based on the meaning of the situation or task, i.e., the concept of the activity, to consciously organize his actions. Here, in the mind of the child, the meaning and technology of activity are combined, and the designation of the act performed by him now precedes its implementation.
The means of culture are understood as sign-symbolic means of activity that accumulate in themselves and generalize the experience of interaction with the world and act as an intermediary, a mediator between a specific subject and culture (L.S. Vygotsky, V.P. Zinchenko, D.B. Elkonin and etc.). Mediators of culture, therefore, in relation to the socialization of the child perform a dual function: on the one hand, they represent ideal forms, samples of culture for the subject, and on the other hand, they serve as a psychological tool for him to overcome spontaneous forms of behavior and the natural nature of mental functions (B. D. Elkonin). An analysis of the mental development of a child from the standpoint of the internalization of cultural means allows us to consider this process in logic the formation of mediation of behavior and mental functions by sign-symbolic means, that is, in the logic of the formation of arbitrariness, mastery of one's own activity.
Describing the features of the development of the child in a dichotomy natural behavior And mental functioning as well as behavior and mental functioning, mediated by sign-symbolic means(words, signs, symbols, models, codes, visual samples, etc.), three levels can be conditionally distinguished: 1) the absence of voluntary regulation (spontaneous behavior); 2) regulation of activity by externally (physically) presented means of culture (models, objects, movement, paintings, etc.); 3) construction of activity with the help of means presented in the inner plane of consciousness. At the same time, it should be noted that mastering the means of culture implies that the child has formed a certain level of generalization of his own direct practical And sensory experience allowing you to go beyond it. The latter, in turn, is associated with the formation of an internal plan of consciousness and activity. In accordance with this, we can say that the internalization of social relations through the development of ideal forms of culture through productive actions and the formation of practical and mental actions serve as a necessary prerequisite for mastering one's own behavior and mental activity.
The described aspects of the internalization mechanism do not exist autonomously from each other, but are different blocks of a single chain, which can be abbreviated as follows: development of social relations → development of ideal forms of culture through productive actions → formation of internal activity from external (mastery of practical and mental actions) → development of sign mediation (arbitrary mastery of activity). At the same time, the aspects of internalization themselves reflect the logic of the ontogenetic development of the child's psyche (in contrast to the logic of actualgenesis, according to which the described sequence of manifestation of various aspects of internalization would be different).
Let us pay attention to the fact that the description of the features of the mental development of children with developmental disabilities, presented in the following sections, is based precisely on these aspects of internalization, since the latter determine the direction of correctional work. Meanwhile, some psychological features of the development of these children can be associated simultaneously with several aspects of internalization. Thus, for example, the weakness of generalizations in mentally retarded children correlates both with the difficulties of mastering the ideal forms of culture through productive actions, and with the formation of mental actions (in particular, with mastering the general method of solving a problem), and with the difficulties of semiotic mediation of mental activity (the ability to use the sign as a means of generalization).
For greater clarity, we will give an example of the manifestation of the above aspects of internalization in the formation of spatial representations in a child. So, first aspect solving many problems (the definition of “there” and “here”, “above” and “below”, “front” and “behind”, etc.) suggests that the child needs to learn to navigate in space. The solution of such tasks makes the child perceive the adult as a model of appropriate actions (reach "to" something, go "there", etc.). A child can understand spatial relations only by mastering their general meaning (intent), which happens when he performs trial actions aimed at mastering physical space (locomotion, throwing objects, reaching out and grasping, etc.). These changes represent second aspect interiorization. Third aspect involves the development by the child of specific variants of spatial relations (“for”, “above”, “under”, “because of”, etc.) through reproduction and designation (it is important that the action be called a word) of the corresponding reference ones (according to a given model, accepted in this culture) actions (for example, “put a die for a book”) in various subject conditions (for the child to understand a generalized way of solving a problem). Finally, the child moves from meaning to action - fourth aspect, he learns to independently build spatial relationships (expressed in appropriate actions) in accordance with the concept of the task facing him. For example, when he is asked to hide some object “behind” some other object, he is able to arbitrarily reproduce the specified action.
The given example illustrates the mechanism of formation of only one, relatively simple, sphere of mental development. Of course, this mechanism will look much more complicated if we consider it on the example of the development of such areas as conceptual thinking, social forecasting, etc.
The presented scheme ends with the transition last block to the first, thus reflecting cyclical child's mental development process. Considering this scheme and using it in age-related psychological diagnostics and psychocorrection of the development of a particular child, on the one hand, it is necessary to remember such patterns of mental development as heterochrony, i.e., the property of various mental functions to develop differently at different ages, not simultaneously. Thus, it is impossible to evaluate the features of the mental development of the child totally, it is necessary to differentiate the development of various spheres of the psyche. However, on the other hand, this scheme makes it possible to take into account the systemic nature of the structure and development of the child's psyche. At the same time, the category of activity serves as a system-forming beginning, connecting various aspects of the internalization mechanism, as well as various spheres of mental development. It includes such aspects as the social relations of a person with the world (represented through the category of motive), the meaningfulness and purposefulness of behavior and mental functions (suggesting the ability of the subject to goal-setting and planning activities, i.e., building its plan), methods and means interaction with the objective world (operational-technical side), as well as conscious regulation and control (arbitrariness of activity).
Pointing out the specific features of the proposed scheme, one should pay attention to the fact that it does not cover all aspects and features of the child's mental development. It reflects the mechanism of development of only higher forms of behavior and mental functions. This is important to take into account, since this work analyzes the features of the mental development of children with an organic defect. We do not consider the features of the development of natural forms of behavior and mental functioning (involuntary attention, mechanical memory, regulation of muscle tone, synergy of movements, etc.), in which the psychophysiological (rather than the actual psychological) level of functioning is predominantly involved. Ignoring the psychophysiological aspect of the development of children with organic defects is primarily due to the tasks of the psychological practice of working with such children. Here it is appropriate to recall the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky about primary and secondary defects (L.S. Vygotsky). As is known, the primary defect is directly caused by an organic disorder (for example, blindness, diffuse lesions of the cerebral cortex, etc.). The secondary (tertiary, etc.) defect is an overlay on the primary one, due to the specificity of the social situation of development in which the abnormal child finds himself. Thus, the further a psychological defect is from the primary organic defect, the more it depends on the social conditions of the child's development and the more it is accessible to psychological correction.
In the logic of reasoning, L.S. Vygotsky, it is important to point out the connection between ideas about primary, secondary, etc. defects and the concepts of lower and higher mental functions. Between them, in our opinion, there is one significant similarity in the context of this work: the primary defect, like the lower mental functions, is due to the individual (biological and physiological) characteristics of the personality, while the defect of a higher order, like the higher mental functions, largely due to the specifics of the social relations of the child. Consequently, the formation of higher forms of behavior and mental functioning becomes the main counterbalance to secondary, tertiary, etc. defects. It is the development of the highest manifestations of the child's psyche that acts as compensatory mechanism, which resists organic defect and promotes socialization child. Of course, in each specific case, with various types of deviations in the development of the child and at different ages, a holistic picture of the development of higher forms of the psyche and a picture of the defect itself will have their own specifics. To identify and take into account this specificity in working with a child, age-psychological diagnostics is carried out. The strategy and tactics of diagnosis and correction follow directly from the logic of the analysis of the child's mental development presented above, based on the identification of various aspects of the internalization mechanism.
The described logic of mental development, built in line with the domestic psychological tradition, is relevant in the context of the problem of socialization of children with developmental disabilities and in connection with the understanding of development in Western psychology. So, in Western approaches to the study and diagnosis of deviations in mental development, two main indicators or criteria are used - IQ, determined using standardized methods (Stanford-Binet test, etc.), and adaptive behavior(adaptive behavior), which consists of perceptual abilities, social interaction skills and professional skills. In the process of socialization of children with intellectual disabilities, special attention is paid to teaching how to use the available potential of the situation in real life. For American psychologists, the term "adaptive behavior" reflects the adequacy of the subject's behavior in various life circumstances and is used to determine areas of support for a child with intellectual disability. Adaptive behavior, according to Leland, includes three aspects: independent functioning, personal responsibility for one's behavior, and social responsibility when interacting with other people. Some authors (P.J. Das and others) note that the scale of adaptive behavior has no theoretical basis, and make similar judgments (referring to the works of A.R. Luria) about the dependence of a child's adaptive behavior on his ability to consciously plan and structure his activities . In the works of J. Piaget, the idea sounds that the adaptation of the subject to the environment involves the setting and achievement of new goals. Thus, the characteristics of adaptive behavior can be associated with the processes of constructing an activity plan, conscious planning and control of mental activity and behavior by a person.
Western psychology recognizes the need to study purposeful, consciously organized activities of children with developmental disabilities. The ability to plan and consciously regulate one's own behavior is associated with the processes of socialization, adaptation to the outside world. Thus, we find a certain similarity of ideas regarding the development and socialization of children with developmental disabilities in Western and Russian psychology. Assistance in the implementation of the above aspects of the internalization mechanism is one of the most effective, in our opinion, means of shaping the adequacy of the subject's actions to social requirements, a means of teaching self-orientation and behavior in various situations.
List of sources for self-study
1. Asmolov, A.G. Path not traveled: from a culture of utility to a culture of dignity / A.G. Asmolov // Questions of psychology. 1990. No. 1.
2. Vygotsky, L.S. Collected works: in 6 volumes. T. 1–6 / L.S. Vygotsky. M., 1982–1984.
3. Korobeinikov, I.A. Features of the socialization of children with mild forms of mental underdevelopment: Abstract of the thesis. thesis ... Dr. of Psychology. Sciences: 19.00.10, 19.00.04 / I.A. Korobeinikov. M., 1997.
4. Lebedinsky, V.V. Disorders of mental development in childhood / V.V. Lebedinsky. M., 2003.
5. Leontiev, A.N. Problems of the development of the psyche / A.N. Leontiev. M., 1972.
6. Lubovsky, V.I. L.S. Vygotsky and special psychology / V.I. Lubovsky // Questions of psychology. 1991. No. 2. S. 118–124.
7. Lubovsky, V.I. Psychological problems of diagnosing abnormal development of children / V.I. Lubovsky. M., 1989.
8. Mesh, E. Children's pathopsychology. Child mental disorders / E. Mash, D. Wolf. SPb., 2003.
9. Fundamentals of special psychology / ed. L.V. Kuznetsova. M., 2002.
10. Slepovich, E.S. Competence-based approach in the system of helping children with developmental disabilities as a condition for their socialization / E.S. Slepovich, A.M. Polyakov // Special education. 2011. No. 3.
11. Slepovich, E.S. Ideas about the norm and pathology as a factor in the practical activity of a psychologist working with children with mental retardation / E.S. Slepovich, A.M. Polyakov // Vestnik MELU. Series 2. Pedagogy, psychology, methods of teaching foreign languages. 2011. No. 1 (19).
12. Sorokin, V.M. Special psychology / V.M. Sorokin; under teach, ed. L.M. Shipitsyna. SPb., 2003.
13. Special psychology / ed. IN AND. Lubovsky. M., 2005.
14. Frolova, Yu.G. Medical psychology / Yu.G. Frolova. Minsk, 2009.
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The following excerpt from the book Special Psychology (Authors, 2012) provided by our book partner -
Psychology of a mentally retarded child. historical course
Starting from the XVIII century. the attention of such psychiatrists as J. Esquirol, E. Seguin,F. Galton, A. Binet, E. Kraepelin, J. Kattal, focused on
study and analysis of severe mental disorders.
Their main task was to determine the connection
intellectual insufficiency with mental, mental
diseases and assess the depth of these disorders.
Since the middle of the 19th century, when many European countries began to introduce
universal primary education, the issue of identifying
intellectual insufficiency preventing the assimilation
school knowledge, attracted the attention of not only physicians, but also
educators and then psychologists. At the same time also applies
the emergence of auxiliary classes and schools where they were sent
children without signs of mental illness, not assimilating
general education program.
In domestic science, consideration of various manifestations
mental retardation, delimitation of oligophrenia as a form
congenital mental underdevelopment from mental illness
progressive (progredient) character began
a little later - at the beginning of the 20th century. and became the subject of a wide
studies not only in medicine (I.P. Kashchenko, G.I. Rossolimo and
etc.), but also in defectology, which arose in the 20s. 20th century Through the efforts of L.S.
Vygotsky, which combined the studies of doctors, psychophysiologists,
psychologists, educators and developed in the works
students and followers of the outstanding psychologist.
Subject and Tasks:
The psychology of mentally retarded children is one of thedirections of special psychology, considering
dynamics of cognitive activity and personality
mentally retarded children of preschool and school
ages.
A mentally retarded child is one who has
there is a persistent impairment of cognitive activity
due to organic brain damage.
The psychology of mentally retarded children is at the crossroads
many sciences and largely depends on the degree
development of theoretical problems of philosophy,
child neurology and psychiatry, physiology, higher
nervous activity, children's, age and special
psychology, general and special pedagogy, sociology.
The task of the psychology of mental retardation is the definition
originality of general, special and individual features,
inherent in the psyche of mentally retarded children, identifying
their characteristic shortcomings and the existing
positive opportunities for development
child and his ability to adapt socially.
The psychology of mental retardation directly
related to the solution of the problem of differential
diagnostics, as well as with issues of correctional education and training,
providing consistent training
mentally retarded student to integrate into the environment
Wednesday.
Psychology of children with mental retardation. historical course
The problem of mild deviations in mental development arose and acquiredof particular importance both in foreign and domestic science only in the middle of the 20th century, when
due to the rapid development of various fields of science and technology and the complication of programs
comprehensive schools appeared big number children who have difficulty in
learning. Teachers and psychologists attached great importance to the analysis of the causes of this
underachievement. Quite often it was explained by mental retardation, which
was accompanied by the placement of such children in special schools (FOOTNOTE: From present
schools for mentally retarded children are designated as special schools of type VIII.),
which appeared in Russia in 1908-1910.
However, on clinical examination, increasingly in many of the children who did not learn well
program secondary school, could not find specific
features associated with mental retardation. In the 50-60s. this issue has taken on a special
significance, as a result of which, under the guidance of M.S. Pevzner, a student of L.S. Vygotsky,
a specialist in the field of mental retardation clinic, a versatile
research into the causes of failure. A sharp increase in academic failure against the background
complication of training programs led her to assume the existence of some forms
mental insufficiency, manifested in conditions of increased educational requirements.
Comprehensive clinical-psychological-pedagogical examination of persistently underachieving students
from schools in different regions of the country and the analysis of a huge amount of data formed the basis
formulated ideas about children with mental retardation (ZPR).
Subject and Tasks
Psychology of children with mildmental retardation (delayed
mental development) - one of the directions
special psychology, dealing with the study
peculiarities of mental development of children with lungs
developmental disorders that are
dysfunctions and minor injuries. In the center
attention of this direction - identification
specific features inherent in the ontogeny of children
this category, the definition as characteristic of
their shortcomings, as well as development resources,
causing compensatory possibilities
child.
To the tasks of paramount importance in the psychology of children
with slight deviations can be attributed
the following:
development of principles and methods for early detection
mild deviations;
issues of differential diagnosis, development
principles and methods of psychological correction;
development of the psychological foundations of the concept
prevention and elimination of imbalances between
learning and development processes and individual
opportunities for children in this category.
Psychology of persons with hearing impairment (audiopsychology). Historical course.
Features of the behavior and psychology of people withhearing impairments first attracted attention
educators and psychiatrists in approximately
middle of the 19th century At the beginning of the XX century. the first
actual psychological research. To their
among them is published in 1911 in Russia
the work of A. N. Porosyatnikov, devoted to the study
features of the memory of deaf-mute schoolchildren. In the 20s
d. systematic development of special problems
psychology (and deaf psychology, in particular)
was held under the direction of L.S. Vygotsky and under
the influence of his ideas. His students L.V. Zankov and
I.M.Soloviev with employees spend
research on the development of perception, memory,
thinking and speech of children with hearing impairments.
The results of these studies have been summarized in
the first monograph on deaf psychology "Essays
Psychology of the Deaf and Dumb Child, published in 1940
d. Further research in the field
deaf psychology continued under the leadership of I.
M. Solovyova. At different stages of development
deaf psychology a great contribution to its development
introduced by such scientists as A.P. Gozova, G.L. Vygodskaya,
N.G. Morozova, M.M. Nudelman, V.G. Petrova,
T.V. Rozanova, L.I. Tigranova, Zh.I. Shif and others.
Subject and Tasks:
The subject of deaf psychology is the studypeculiarities of the mental development of people with
deficiencies in auditory function and the establishment
possibilities and ways to compensate for hearing impairment
of varying complexity.
The tasks of surdopsychology are as follows:
identify patterns of mental development of people
hearing impaired as common, also characteristic
and people with a good hearing, and
specific;
study the developmental features of individual species
cognitive activity of people with disabilities
hearing;
to study the patterns of development of their personality;
to develop methods of diagnostics and psychological
correction of disorders of mental development of people with
hearing impairments;
give a psychological justification
effective ways and methods of pedagogical
impact on children and adults with impaired
hearing, to study psychological problems
integrated learning and integration of people with
hearing impaired in society.
Psychology of persons with visual impairment (tiflopsychology). Historical course.
The formation and development of tiflopsychology as a science is associated with the organizationeducation of the blind in special schools.
The first school was opened in Paris by V. Gayuy in 1784. In the 80s. 19th century already by
There were about 150 educational institutions for the blind around the world.
We find the first attempt to analyze the psychology of the blind in the work
the founder of French materialism D. Diderot “Letter on the Blind in
edification to the sighted” (1749).
The first studies of the features of mental development in blindness
belong to the 70s. 19th century They were conducted by the blind themselves
introspection (introspection). One of the most famous works of that time
is the monograph of M. Sizeran "The Blind about the Blind". It describes
the inner world of a blind man on the basis of introspection.
The formation of scientific psychology is associated with the works of T. Geller, M. Kunz, K.
Byurklen, P. Willey, A.A. Krogius, M.I. Zemtsova, Yu.A. Kulagina, A.
G. Litvak, L.I. Solntseva and others.
Until now, there are two positions in the world tiflopsychology
as to how close the psychology of the blind is to development
normally seeing or how peculiar it is.
These two positions differ in their view of the role of a defect in the mental and
human social development. One of them takes as a starting point
position determining the role of visual impairment in mental development
child with visual impairment. This position leads to underestimation
possibilities of polysensory rearrangements in children of this category and
postulating a specific standard of mental development, as
as a rule, underestimated in comparison with the level of development of the sighted (S. Hayes, M.
Tillman, D. Wills and others). The presence of features in cognitive activity
the blind were noted by A.I. Skrebitsky (1903), A.M. Shcherbina
(1916). Exaggeration of the specifics of mental
development of the blind led F. Zech to the statement about
the need to create a special "language of the blind",
different from the language of the sighted, and K. Bürklen (1924) to
the conclusion that as a result of isolated life
the blind arises a special type of people. However
features of mental processes in children with
visual impairments are not permanent.
Another group of scientists (T. Kasfors, B. Gomulitsky, K.
Maxfield, A.G. Litvak, M.I. Zemtsov, L.I. Solntseva and
etc.), tracing the dynamics of mental development
children, came to the conclusion that noticeable differences
between the general mental status of the blind and the sighted in
at an early age are gradually smoothed out due to
improving the dynamics of mental development of children
this category. Moreover, there are data
regarding the possible advanced development
children with visual pathology (M. Tobin, 1972).
Studies of the features of mental development
blind and visually impaired children in the 80s and 90s. 20th century
based on the work of the founders
national defectology L. S. Vygotsky, A.R.
Luria, M.I. Zemtsova, A.G. Litvak, A.I. Zotov and
aimed at further development of the theory and
practice of compensation and correction of visual
defect in the process of remedial education and
education.
Subject and Tasks:
Tiflopsychology studies the patterns and features of the development of persons withvisual impairment, the formation of compensatory processes,
providing compensation for the lack of information, the deficiency that
associated with impaired activity of the visual analyzer, as well as
the impact of this defect on the mental development of children with disabilities
vision.
Typhlopsychology got its name from the Greek tiphlos - blind
and how science at first included only psychology in its content
the blind. Currently, the focus of her attention is not only
the blind, but also persons with profound visual impairments, as well as children,
with amblyopia and strabismus. The main tasks of modern
tiflopsychology are:
the study of common, also characteristic of a normally developing
child of specific patterns of mental development of children with
profound visual impairment, mechanisms that provide
compensation for blindness and low vision;
study of the dependence of mental development on the degree, nature and
the time of occurrence of a defect in visual function;
identifying the potential of persons with visual impairments, their
abilities to overcome deviations in the formation of mental
processes and personality deviations;
development of psychological foundations for effective correctional and pedagogical assistance to children with visual impairments;
development of socio-psychological foundations for effective integration
persons with visual impairments in society.
Psychology of children with speech disorders (logopsychology). Historical course.
Logopsychology is one of the least developedbranches of special psychology. Traditional speech
violations were the subject of study of speech therapy.
The beginning of the study of children with speech pathology dates back to the end of the XIX century.
- the beginning of the XX century. Terminological design of this pathology
ambiguous: so, if in the domestic literature in 1920 for
designation of severe speech underdevelopment due to
organic damage to various parts of the brain in
the period before the appearance of speech in a child, the term "alalia" was introduced
(D.V. Feldberger), then abroad the same pathology is indicated
as "developmental aphasia", "constitutional speech delay",
"congenital aphasia" (A.L. Benton, F. Zhiyar, F. Kocher, etc.) - From the point of
view of providing an adequate system of correctional and pedagogical
assistance and socialization of children in this category is important
addressing the issue of the impact of primary speech underdevelopment on
intellectual development of the child.
In the history of this issue, there were diametrically
opposite points of view: for example, A. Kussmaul, P. Marie, M. V.
Bogdanov-Berezovsky (1909), as well as modern researchers
- R.A. Belova-David, E.A. Kirichenko (1977) prove that the leading
in these violations is "general organic
intellectual disability." The authors believed that the leading role in
underdevelopment of speech and other mental processes in
non-speaking and poorly speaking children belongs to deep
primary violations in their intellectual sphere, in connection with which
with underdevelopment of speech, mental retardation can be observed
or mental retardation. In this direction
research was dominated by the descriptive principle of considering
underdevelopment of mental processes without revealing internal
patterns of speech disorders. Another point of view is that the primary speech defect,
manifested in severe underdevelopment of speech function
up to its complete absence does not mean that the level
mental development of children with this pathology can be attributed
them to the mentally retarded category. One of the first studies
speech and mental insufficiency in children with speech disorders
belong to R.E. Levina (1936). The author described four groups
non-speaking children - alaliks of school age (1951),
selected depending on what mental functions
were predominantly disturbed in them along with speech and determined
features in the development of all cognitive activity. These are kids
who had speech impairments and predominant impairments
motivational-required sphere (mental activity).
R.E. Levina considered deviations in the development of cognitive
activities with severe speech disorders as a secondary
delay, the structure of which depends on the nature of the primary
speech defect. This point of view is reflected in the works
many domestic researchers (T. A. Vlasova, 1972;
V.I. Lubovsky, 1975; L.S. Tsvetkova, 1985; I.T. Vlasenko, 1990; and etc.).
The third approach in assessing the ratio of underdevelopment of speech and
cognitive processes in speech disorders belongs to E. M.
Mastyukova, who believes that this issue should be resolved
differentiated, since a group of children with speech disorders
quite polymorphic and has a variety of forms. Each
of them may correspond to their own picture of unformedness
cognitive sphere, which depends on the severity and localization
organic and functional insufficiency of the central
nervous system.
Subject and Tasks:
Logopsychology is a branch of special psychology thatstudies the mental characteristics of a person with speech
primary disorders.
The subject of logopsychology is the study of the originality
mental development of people with various forms of speech
pathology.
The tasks of logopsychology.
The study of the specifics of mental development in primary
left violations of varying severity and etiology.
Studying the features of personal and social development
children with speech pathology.
Determination of development prospects for children with speech disorders
effective means of upbringing and education.
Development of differential diagnosis methods,
allowing to distinguish primary speech underdevelopment among
conditions similar to external manifestations (autism, disorders
auditory function, mental retardation, complex
developmental deficiencies).
Development of methods of psychological correction and prevention
speech disorders in childhood.
Logopsychology relies on the Russian
psychologists (L.S. Vygotsky, A.V. Zaporozhets, A.R. Luria, R.E.
Lezina and others) the principle of the relationship of speech with other parties
mental development, asserting its leading role in
mediation of mental processes.
Psychology of children with musculoskeletal disorders. Historical course.
The study of the clinical and mental characteristics of people withmovement disorders, as well as the study of the possibility of their
social adaptation began in the middle of the XIX century. W. Little first
described not only the clinical characteristics of motor
disorders in children with intrauterine and birth paralysis, but also
gave a description of their speech disorders, personality traits
development.
in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. helping children and adolescents with
GI Turner dealt with movement disorders. He tried
perform orthopedic correction of the affected limbs. Under
under his patronage, a labor workshop was organized, in which
boys with movement disorders were trained in professions.
World War I and subsequent epidemics
poliomyelitis have led to a significant increase in people with
disorders of the musculoskeletal system that arose in them in
different ages and due to different reasons (illness, military injury
etc.). Rehabilitation and social adaptation of persons with motor
violations acquired the significance of socio-political
Problems. People played an important role in trying to resolve it.
themselves had a pathology of the motor sphere. Among them
American President F. Roosevelt, Australian writer and
journalist A. Marshall, American physician D. Phelps. Their life and
activity serves as an example of the fact that a person with motor
violations, even deprived of the possibility of independent
movement, can achieve success in different types public
activities. Dr. Phelps from the USA suffered from severe paralysis, but between
two world wars, he received the specialty of a doctor and began
studying the development of children with cerebral palsy. He was able to show
society that many children with cerebral palsy (even
seriously ill) may have high level intelligence, subtle
receptive psyche. The scientific data he collected attracted
public attention and contributed to the awakening of compassion for
such children, as well as the awakening of scientific interest and aspiration
involve children with cerebral palsy (CP) in active
social process. This has changed the attitude of society towards
categories of persons with physical disabilities, aroused the interest of doctors,
teachers, psychologists to study the characteristics of the psyche of people with
disorders of the musculoskeletal system, led to the development
methods of medical and psychological-pedagogical correction of violations.
In the 50s and 60s. 20th century in Hungary there was a special direction
rehabilitation work, focused on the development of methods
education of movements in children with dysfunctions of the musculoskeletal system - conductive pedagogy, which showed the leading
the role of special education in overcoming movement disorders.
In our country, a great contribution to the development of treatment methods for such children
introduced K.A. Semenova, and in the creation of a special system for their education and
education - M. V. Ippolitova. To date, a large
factual material characterizing clinical and psychological
characteristics of children with disorders of the musculoskeletal system, as well as
issues of education and upbringing of children with movement disorders (K. A.
Semenova, E.M. Mastyukova, I.V. Ippolitova, N.V. Simonova, I.I. Mamaychuk,
I.I. Panchenko, E.S. Kalizhnyuk and others).
At the moment, this branch of special psychology is intensively
develops both abroad and in our country.
Subject and Tasks:
The subject of study of this branch of special psychologyare the features of the formation and development of the psyche of people
with disorders of the musculoskeletal system.
The tasks of this area of special psychology:
to study the general patterns of mental development of children with
normal and impaired motor development;
to study the specific features of the development of the psyche of children with
disorders of the musculoskeletal system;
reveal compensatory possibilities, allowing
overcome the effects of musculoskeletal disorders
apparatus for mental development;
4) identify the most effective methods of corrective
impact on the development of a child with disorders of the musculoskeletal system, giving them a psychological justification.
The focus of the direction of special psychology is children
with disorders of the musculoskeletal system. To this category
children include:
with cerebral palsy;
with the consequences of poliomyelitis;
with progressive neuromuscular disease
(myopathy, multiple sclerosis, etc.);
Psychology of children with early childhood autism syndrome. Historical course.
The term "autism" (from the Greek, autos - itself) was introduced by E. Bleiler fordesignation of a special kind of thinking, characterized by
“the detachment of associations from this experience, ignoring
real relationship." Defining the autistic type
thinking, E. Bleiler emphasized his independence from the real
reality, freedom from logical laws, captivity
own experiences.
Early Childhood Autism Syndrome was first described in 1943.
American clinician L. Kanner in his work “Autistic
violation of affective contact”, written on the basis of
generalizations of 11 cases. They concluded that there is
a special clinical syndrome of "extreme loneliness",
which he called early childhood autism syndrome and which
later became known as Kanner's syndrome after the scientist,
who opened it.
Autism occurs in all countries of the world, on average in 4-5 cases
per 10 thousand children. However, this figure only covers
called classic autism, or Kanner's syndrome, and will
significantly higher if other types of violation are taken into account
behaviors with autistic-like and manifestations. And early
Autism is 3 to 4 times more common in boys than in girls.
In Russia, the most intensive issues of psychological and pedagogical
help for children with RDA began to be developed from the end of the 70s.
the further result of the research was the original
psychological classification (K.S. Lebedinskaya, V.V. Lebedinsky,
O.S. Nikolskaya, 1985, 1987).
Subject and Tasks:
The focus of this areadevelopment of a system of integrated
psychological support for children and
adolescents experiencing adaptation difficulties
and socialization due to violations in
emotional and personal sphere.
To the tasks of paramount importance of this
section of special psychology
include:
development of principles and methods of early
detection of RDA;
issues of differential diagnosis,
differentiation of waste states, development
principles and methods of psychological
corrections;
development of psychological foundations for eliminating
imbalance between learning processes and
development of children.
Psychology of children with disharmonious personality. Historical course.
The beginning of the doctrine of psychopathy refers to the 80-90sgg. 19th century and is associated with the names of H. Kandinsky,
V.M.Bekhtereva, E.Koch, S.S.Korsakov, E.Krepelin.
The latter proposed a classification of psychopathy,
including 7 types, such as excitable,
impulsive, unstable, "eccentrics",
pathological liars, public enemies,
conflict.
The further development of the doctrine of psychopathy went on, with
on the one hand, in the direction of clarification and
differentiation of clinical typologies (P.B.
Gannushkin, O. V. Kerbikov, G. E. Sukhareva, V. V.
Kovalev), and on the other hand, was aimed at
development of the doctrine of individuals with
borderline (accentuated) character
(K. Leonhard, A. E. Lichko). last direction
gave impetus to research on the creation of a system
psychological and pedagogical methods of prevention,
detection and correction of these conditions
(E.M. Aleksandrovskaya, S.A. Belicheva, I.N. Gilyasheva,
I. A. Korobeinikov and others).
Subject and Tasks
The section is devoted to psychological characteristicschildren and adolescents with various types
disharmonic development of personality.
The main objectives of this direction
special psychology are:
development of methods aimed at early
identification of signs of pathocharacterological
child development;
description of "weak" and "strong" sides
psychosocial development of children and adolescents in
various types of pathocharacterological
development;
development of a system of psychological and pedagogical
methods of correction and prevention
pathocharacterological development in childhood
age.
When talking about different types
disharmonic personality development, about the degree
personality deviations from normal development,
we are talking about pathological types of character.
Psychology of children with complex developmental disorders. Historical course.
In Russia in the 80s. XIX century, thanks to the publication of translations of the "Americannotes "Ch. Dickens and some other messages, became known
the story of the American deaf-blind Laura Bridgman, who received
education at the Perkins Institute for the Blind in Boston. Then to the whole world
thundered the story of the education of another deaf-blind, Helen Keller,
pupils of Anna Sullivan from the same Perkins Institute. From 1884 to
In 1913, 11 publications were published in Russia concerning the history of life and
creativity E. Keller. The facts of successful training became known
deafblind people in Belgium, France, Norway, Scotland and Sweden.
Thanks to close scientific contacts with Germany, specialists in Russia
followed the progress of education for the deaf and blind at the Shelter for the Crippled in Novoves
near Potsdam, where they studied from 1887 and where in 1906 a
special school for the deaf and blind. In 1908, in the Russian monthly
magazine "Slepets" published a translation of the book of a German teacher and
researcher G. Riemann "Psychological observations on the deaf and dumb
the blind”, published in Berlin in 1905.
Successes in teaching the deafblind in different countries peace awakened in
certain circles Russian society keen interest in issues
deaf-blind children. In 1909, the Society for the Care of
deaf-blind, and at the St. Petersburg kindergarten for the deaf-mute began
teaching three children. In the summer of the same year, teachers and educators
of the mentioned institution got acquainted with the experience of teaching the deaf-blind in
Sweden and Germany and started working in a shelter for deaf and blind children,
opened at the expense of the Society in 1910 and has already received seven
children with severe visual and hearing impairments. Domestic experience in teaching deaf-blind people enjoys great
fame and recognition in other countries. Since 1969 there has been
international organization coordinating the development
research and services for the deafblind in the world, in events
which Russian specialists also participate.
According to this organization, the number of deaf-blind people in the world
is about one million people. to them at present
time it is customary to attribute all people with visual impairments and
hearing: these are children with congenital or early acquired deaf-blindness; children with congenital visual impairments
age and hearing; people who are deaf or hard of hearing from birth,
visual impairments that appear with age; People,
lost hearing and sight in adulthood or old age.
The modern definition of deafblindness varies from country to country.
It largely depends on how the content of this concept
interpreted in the normative documents adopted in one or another
state. For example, classifying a child or adult with a disability
classified as deaf-blind in the USA or Scandinavian countries
guarantees him a place for free education in a special
school and special social services (translation,
escort, transport, etc.). In these countries, the category "deaf-blind" is included in the state register of persons with disabilities. Deafblindness is defined as a combination of visual impairment and
hearing, which creates special communication difficulties and requires
ensuring the special educational needs of these children.
In our country, there is no official
definitions of deafblindness and other types of complex impairment as
special type of disability. Disability is still defined
on one, the most pronounced violation.
Subject and Tasks:
Psychology of children with complex developmental disorders -is a relatively new branch of special psychology,
which studies the features of mental development
a person with two or more disorders. Most
a large scientific tradition in this area has the science of
features of the mental development of the deaf-deaf
child - a child with dual sensory impairment.
The subject of this area of special psychology
is the study of the originality of mental development
people with complex disabilities and identifying ways
psychological and pedagogical assistance to these people and their
families.
Tasks of the psychology of children with complex disorders
development are:
description of the general and specific patterns of their
development;
development of methods for their diagnostic study;
psychological substantiation of the content and methods of their
training and education;
studying the characteristics of socio-psychological
adaptation of this group of people in society.
Literature:
1) Fundamentals of special psychology: textbook.allowance for students sredn. ped. educational
head., ed. L. V. Kuznetsova.
2) Special psychology: textbook. Benefit
for higher education students ped. educational institutions, V.I.
Lubovsky. - 4th edition.
Special psychology is a branch of psychology that studies people who are characterized by deviations from the norms of mental development associated with congenital or acquired defects and establishing the possibility and ways of compensating for defects of varying complexity.
Tasks (Bogdanov):
Identification of general and specific patterns of mental development of the child in comparison with normally developing ones.
The study of the features of the development of certain types of cognitive activity of people with various types of disorders.
The study of the patterns of development of the personality of a person with disabilities.
Development of diagnostic methods and methods of psychological correction of various types of mental development disorders
Psychological substantiation of the most effective ways, methods of pedagogue. impact on the mental development of children and adults with various types of impairment.
Branches of special psychology:
Defectology
Specific branches of psychology:
Tiflopsychology (visual impairment)
Deaf psychology (mimic speech, tactile speech)
Logopsychology (speech disorders)
Oligophrenopsychology (UO, ZPR)
Tyflosurdopsychology
L.G. Goncharova, special psychology is “a field of developmental psychology that studies the problems of the development of people with physical and mental disabilities that determine the need for children in special conditions for training and education and the need for adults in special forms of psychological support”
The formation of special psychology, initially, took place within the framework of defectology, as an applied discipline that provided the optimal solution to the problems of the correctional pedagogical process, as well as diagnostic methods that determine the characteristics of the child's mental development, his need for detours in learning. Historically, such areas of special psychology as the psychology of the blind (tiflopsychology), the deaf (auditory psychology), and the psychology of the mentally retarded (oligophrenopsychology) people were the first to emerge. Now it is addressed to children with mental retardation, with early childhood autism, to children with motor disorders, with a complex structure of the defect, etc.
The main task of special psychology is the formation of an adequate personality in the conditions of using special methods and techniques of education and training, due to which the replacement and restructuring of impaired functions occurs. Currently, the most urgent task is the development of diagnostic methods.
1. Clinical psychology as a scientific discipline. History of development, state of the art, content, subject, tasks.
Clinical psychology is an applied field between medicine and psychology, uses the theoretical foundations of psychology and applies psychological methods.
Tasks of clinical psychology:
The study of mental manifestations of various diseases;
The study of the role of the psyche in the occurrence, course and prevention of the disease;
Study of the influence of various diseases on the psyche;
The study of developmental disorders of the psyche;
Development of principles and methods of psychological research in the clinic;
Development of mental methods of influencing the human psyche for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes.
Clinical psychology has theoretical implications for general psychology:
Brain and psyche;
Mental norms and pathology;
The ratio of biological and social in a person;
The problem of the conscious and the unconscious;
The problem of development and decay of the psyche.
2.Methods of clinical psychology
1. Method of observations. Observation is the perception and selection of information about an event or phenomenon. For observation, it is necessary: the presence of a clear target setting and planned and systematic observation.
2. Method of natural experiment. Proposed by V. Lazursky in 1910. A person is studied in natural (and not artificial, as in an experiment) conditions.
3. Psychophysiological method. It is a combination of physiological methods with psychological ones. They complement each other and help to objectify mental disorders. (EEG, polygraph)
4. Projective methods.
5. Biographical method. Allows you to get info. about the stages of the life path, to trace the features of personality formation. It is an important addition to the interpretation of experimental data.
Scheme: Early stages of child development. What is the number, brothers, sisters, relative. with parents. The presence of psychotrauma. factors. Attachments in early childhood, adolescence.
6. Analysis of products of activity. Drawings, modeling, diaries, letters. For example, the drawings of those suffering from depression are distinguished by weak pressing, black-brown tone, and low dynamics. schizophrenics draw an eye in the foreground, and various parts of the face are added to it; usually do not use semitones.
7. Analytical method.
11. Pathopsychology as a branch of psychological science. Tasks, problems.
The subject is a violation of the psyche, a violation of an adequate reflection of the world as a result of a brain disease.
Pathopsychology studies the laws of the decay of mental processes, as well as the preserved aspects of the psyche.
1. Analysis of the structure of mental disorders;
2. Establishment of the degree of decrease in mental functions;
3. Differential diagnosis is carried out when there are signs of various diseases in the patient's clinical picture. Pathomorphosis - the pathological structure of the disease, i.e. the disease is atypical.
4. Studying the characteristics of the patient's personality. It is possible to reveal the pathogenesis in this way (important for neuroses)
Accounting for the effectiveness of therapeutic interventions. (That's not all - will be added).
13. Pathology of personality and character.
Degradation and disintegration of personality as a result of illness. For example, with a stroke, former character traits are exaggerated. Traits that corresponded to personality characteristics before the disease are premorbid. Acquired during illness or after - morbid. The pathological reaction of the individual to society, life (in particular, to illness) - neuroses. Pathological development of personality - psychopathy.
1. Accentuation x. - extreme vars of the norm, in which the individual features of character are excessively enhanced, as a result of which selective vulnerability is found in relation to the definition. a number of psychogenic influences with good and even increased resistance to others. Degrees of A.: Hidden and Explicit.
2. Pathological development of the personality is shown in patol. traits of har-ra, non-ur-ti, disharmony l-ti. Psychopathy (see 16) long-term, persistent patol. state, for life. Deviation from the vars of the norm:
1. P. har-but the severity of patol. especially har-ra to such an extent that the adaptation of l. to the social environment. The rules are broken. relationship with others.
2. The totality of a psychopath. special l., when patol. is not a department. traits l., and the whole psycho. stock.
3. Relative mental stability. especially of a person, their low reversibility.
Pathology in psychopathy mainly concerns the emotional-volitional sides, the intellect is preserved, it does not lead to dementia, although combinations do occur.
3. Neurosis (see 14) - a psychogenic neuropsychic race, which occurs as a result of violations of especially significant life relationships of a person, manifesting itself in a specific. wedge. phenomena in the absence of psychotitis. yavl-th
14. Neurosis and the problem of psychological mechanisms of emotional stress.
Neurosis is a psychogenic neuro-psychic race, which occurs as a result of violations of especially significant life relationships of a person, manifesting itself in specific. wedge. phenomena in the absence of psychotitis. yavl-th.
Etiological factors of n-s:
1. Biologist. nature: inheritance, constitution, type of GNI
2. Psycho. nature: premorbid saints, psycho. childhood trauma, psychotrauma. situations and conditions of their pathogenicity.
3.Social. nature: give birth. family, sexual education individuals, marital status, education, profession, employment.
Physiologist. fur-we neuroses: According to Pavlov: N. - chronic, long. violation of VND caused by an overstrain of nervous processes in the cerebral cortex by the action of external divisions that are inadequate in strength and duration. General psycho. neurotic personality factors: indecision, inclination to reflection, the search for approval, the desire for normativity, low self-esteem, unsatisfactory. oneself, own low value, the contradiction I-real. and I-ideal., emots. trouble, several conflict situations.
General neurotic symptoms:
1. Asthenia - a state of nerve-psych. weakness, increase fatigue.
2. Sleep disturbance - disturbed. falling asleep, sleeping on top, nightmares.
3. Headache - dull, post., compressing har-ra.
4. Pain in the heart - r-tion is stronger than true pain
5. Decreased performance
6. Lability of emotions, impatience
7. Vegetative disorders: Ps lability, blood pressure, tendency to hypo- or hypertension, cold wet palm, gastrointestinal dysfunction. tract.
Forms of neuroses:
1. Neurasthenia - "weakness of the nerves" - irritation and excitability. It has the character of a constant feeling of fatigue, psychophysical unity, when it is difficult to separate mental fatigue from physical. Sick as if after hard work. Muscular pains of vegetative character. Lack of concentration of attention, weakened memory, feeling absent-minded, lack of interest in the environment, everything is depressing, does not understand what is being read. Tired immediately after waking up. Personal tendencies: pathogenicity in the inability to correctly correlate their activity in ext. and ext. the environment of the task being performed and the goal set. Decrease in strong-willed qualities. Physiologist. bases: in people with weak or strong neuro-th type of n.s. and increased brake type. Medium in relation to sig. systems. Type of conflict: “I don’t have enough strength, but I want to” - claims are higher than possibilities.
2. Hysterical neurosis - general neurosis. picture + footprint race:
In the engine sphere (while maintaining the musculoskeletal system) paresis, paralysis, hyperkinesis, writing spasm
Speech disorder: aphonia, astasia, abasia
Sensory disturbances - insensibility, decrease or increase. feeling, innervation does not correspond to us, hysterical blindness, deafness.
Autonomic disorders: feeling of constriction of the throat, intestinal obstruction, bloating. hyster. vomiting, anorexia
Psycho. violations: psychogenic amnesia, increased suggestibility, selfishness, pride, resentment, vulnerability, conflict. Physiol. basics: weak type n.s., preobl. 1 sig. systems.
3. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: - obsessive thoughts, actions, fears.
Har-but: timidity, insecurity, low self-esteem → overprotection. The choice in a significant situation is difficult, because contradictions between duty and desire, morality. principles and affections; they destroy the personality. Physiol. basics: patol-th inertia of nervous processes, the predominance of 2 sig. systems.
18. Pathogenetic concept of neurosis V.N. Myasishchev.
L-Th Myasishchev understood as a system of relations. Relationships are a conscious, experience-based elective ψ-th connection of a person with various aspects of life. It is expressed in his actions, p-tions, experiences. Relationships characterize the degree of interest, the strength of emotions, desires and needs, and therefore relationships act as the driving force of l-ti. 3 points:
Har-r relations l-ti with external conditions
special l-ti and har-ra
neurophysiologist. special people, type VND.
If a breakdown occurs in a system of relations that is significant for the individual, then this is the path to the emergence of a neurosis. The contradiction itself does not create a neurosis, a neurosis arises from an unproductive solution to a broken relationship (conflict). The very resolution of the conflict is derived from l-ti. Neuroses, mainly in people with a weak type of NS.
25. Disorders of consciousness. In ψ, consciousness is considered as the highest function of the brain associated with speech, reflecting the action and regulating the activity of a person. Rubinshtein: consciousness is the process of the subject's awareness of objective reality. From a clinical point of view, Snezhnevsky said about consciousness: the concept of consciousness lies in the fact that with any mental illness, the highest form of reflection of the world is violated.
Properties of consciousness: 1. Dynamics. characteristics of the psyche in the waking state. 2. The ability to correctly orientate in the pr-ve, place and concret. sit.3. Ability to manage their usual automatisms in the sensorimotor and mental areas.4. Having habits. skills to logically right. comprehension and awareness of the environment. environment. 5. Constant readiness to be aware of thoughts, activities, attitudes towards the world and people. 6. Ability to regulate emotions and feelings. 7. Orientirovka in his personality.
