Pedagogical psychology and pedagogy. The subject and methods of educational psychology What is educational psychology in brief

Item educational psychology

Pedagogical psychology- ϶ᴛᴏ a branch of psychology that considers psychological mechanisms, patterns, factors in the development of the psyche in terms of training and education.

Pedagogical psychology- ϶ᴛᴏ the science of the formation and development of the psyche in the educational space.

The beginning of the formation of this science dates back to the last third of the 19th century. The term "pedagogical psychology" itself appeared in 1877, it was introduced by the Russian psychologist and teacher P.F.Kapetev. He wrote the book "Pedagogical psychology for folk teachers, educators and educators." After the publication of this book, educational psychology was recognized as an independent scientific direction. The epigraph of this book was taken by Pestalozzi's statement "I want to reduce all learning to psychological soil." Today, this problem is extremely relevant, very popular among researchers, but still ambiguous, having a number of contradictions that need to be addressed.

The subject of educational psychology is psychological foundations personality formation in the process of training and education.

Tasks of educational psychology:

Ø revealing the patterns of development of the psyche in the process of education and upbringing;

Ø establishing the conditions for the success of the development of the psyche in the educational space;

Ø determination of the basic mechanisms of the functioning of the psyche in the process of training and education;

Ø the establishment of factors influencing the psychological sphere of the individual in the course of training and education;

Ø creation and development of methods and techniques for studying the features of the functioning of the psyche in the process of education and upbringing;

Ø popularization scientific knowledge in society.

Sections of educational psychology:

Ø psychology of learning; This direction is engaged in the study of the psychological patterns of cognitive activity of students. One of the most important problems in this area is the issue of mental development of students. An important issue is the individualization and differentiation of the learning process. Today, a student-centered approach in the process of teaching and educating schoolchildren is very in demand and applied. This approach contributes to solving the problem of development to a certain extent. creativity person. For educators, the issue of diagnosing mental development and the issue of developing methods aimed at improving the productivity of students' cognitive activity are extremely relevant.

Ø psychology of education; This section studies the main psychological mechanisms and patterns of formation of personal parameters of students within the framework of educational process. This section is aimed at identifying factors that affect the system of relations:

Ø student-student;

Ø teacher-student;

Ø parents - student;

Ø teacher - administration;

Ø parents - school;

Ø student - administration;

Ø adults - children. This section examines the psychological conditions for the formation and development of morality, worldview, personality orientation. A very important aspect is the psychology of self-development and self-education of a person.

Ø teacher psychology. This direction studies the features of the functioning and development of the teacher's psyche in the course of his professional activity. Of particular importance are the studies of the pedagogical abilities of individual typological qualities of a person that affect professional activity, the issue of the formation of pedagogical skills, as well as the psychological aspects of professional interaction. All three areas of educational psychology are developing very actively, having a significant impact on the holistic educational process.

The main patterns of the formation of the child's personality

It is well known and indisputable that a personality is formed throughout life, and personality formations can appear at any age. The basis of personality formation, according to Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev, is socialization- appropriation by a person of social experience in ontogeny. It should be noted that socialization is an objective process. (I invite everyone to answer for themselves why).

Any society prefers that its citizens acquire the desired social experience that does not contradict social norms and moral principles. Although gaining such experience is an individual process subject to certain laws:

Ø recognition of education as the basis for the formation of personality; Upbringing- ϶ᴛᴏ purposeful influence on a person in order to form her desired personal parameters. Those changes that occur in the personality and will be the result of education. Without the process of upbringing, spiritual change, observance of traditions, development of norms of behavior and communication is impossible, that is, that qualitative change in personality is impossible, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ will provide her with a comfortable stay in society.

Ø recognition of the child as the subject of the educational and training process; The independent activity of the child is one of the characteristics of the subjective attitude to the world. This means that only a personal desire, a personal desire for a particular action leads to a positive result. Without individual activity, the process of personality formation is extremely inefficient. For this reason, the attitude to the developing personality of a person as an object of development does not bring the desired results. The educator must remember that he is obliged to organize the child's activities in such a way that he is convinced that he himself wants it. The role of the teacher, according to Vygodsky, is only to organize the conditions, the environment, and to control the results of the child's independent activity.

Ø the inclusion of the motivational-need sphere of the child; In the life of any creature, needs play a huge role. In addition to natural needs, a person also has socially significant ones. Οʜᴎ arise against the background of specific socio-economic relations, formed interests and internal incentives. Given the dependence of motives, personality traits are formed. The basis for the practical implementation of motives is activity. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the following scheme is implemented: Activity à Need à Motive à Activity à Need à home… home à For a teacher, parent, adult who influences a developing personality, the basis is the formation of needs and motives.

Ø taking into account the "tomorrow of the developing child"; These are the potential, objectively existing, reasonable possibilities of the child, on which the parent, teacher, and educator should be guided. In this case, the process of personal development becomes purposeful, individual, manageable and productive. Moreover, knowledge of this regularity makes it possible to design the development of the personality and painless, without great mental stress of its development.

Ø taking into account the principle of psychology: the development of the psyche occurs only in activity. A teacher, parent, educator should remember that not any activity develops a personality, contributes to the emergence of new formations of the psyche, but only the leading activity of its age period of development.

Psychology of learning

Ø The subject of the psychology of learning, characteristics of learning;

Ø Psychological theories of learning, development and organization of learning activities;

Ø Psychological components of knowledge acquisition;

Ø Psychological reasons for the failure of children.

Literature:

Ø L.V. Fridman, K.I. Volkov " psychological science teacher";

Ø KN Volkov "Psychologists about pedagogical problems";

Ø ZI Kalmykova "The problem of poor progress through the eyes of a psychologist".

Subject of Learning Psychology

The learning process itself is the prerogative of didactics. At the same time, pedagogical research concerns the content, methods, organization of the learning process, which, in relation to the child, act as external attributes of activity. The inner world of students (for example, abilities) = the subject of psychology research. For this reason, subject of learning psychology- questions of the development of cognitive processes of the student.

For the effective construction of the educational process, the teacher is obliged to study the internal mechanisms of the assimilation of knowledge, the level of development of thinking, memory, attention, and creative abilities of children. As a scientific branch of educational psychology, The psychology of learning operates with the following concepts:

Ø teaching;

Ø learning;

Ø training;

Ø teaching;

Ø assimilation;

Ø appropriation of knowledge;

The broadest of these is learning. Everything that a person acquires during his life, all the changes that occur in his activity and behavior - everything is connected with the concept of learning. Learning takes place in a person from the moment of his birth. Learning(according to Itelson) - ϶ᴛᴏ stable expedient change in physical and mental activity or behavior that arise due to previous activity, but are not caused by innate physiological reactions of the body.

Types of learning:

Ø sensory learning; Sensory learning develops:

Ø Mental processes: perception, observation, recognition, reminiscence, etc.

Ø The ability to reflect the subject as a whole;

Ø The ability to characterize individual qualities of phenomena, etc.

Ø motor learning; The child learns to walk, coordinate his body, speak.

Ø Sensory-motor learning; The child is learning to read.

Ø Intellectual learning. This is the mastery of thinking, most often in the process of learning. Most complex view learning, but some children are given without much effort.

Ways of learning:

Ø Elemental; The easiest way. It is in this way that a person receives a lot of information - he receives it easily, naturally, without doing it on purpose. It happens through communication with adults, the media, the social environment, being in nature.

Ø Passing; Unintentional, non-basic learning, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ Jean-Jacques Rousseau called "the path of free education."

Ø Purposeful // specially organized. It differs from teaching in that an indisputable goal is not set for the child (and sometimes no goal is set), people just want to see it in a person, to teach it. Purposeful learning eventually translates into learning.

Education- ϶ᴛᴏ the process of active interaction between the teacher and the student, as a result of which the student develops completely certain given skills, knowledge, and skills. Learning Components:

Ø teaching- the activities of the teacher;

Ø Doctrine- student activity.

Doctrine- ϶ᴛᴏ type of activity carried out by a person independently for the assimilation and appropriation of knowledge, skills, abilities.

The joint activity of the teacher and the student is called scientific activity. Learning activities- ϶ᴛᴏ a form of individual activity of the student, aimed at the assimilation and appropriation of knowledge, skills, skills according to a certain developed algorithm. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the next stage is carried out - assimilation.

Psychological theories of education and organization of educational activities

Ø One of the first theories that touched upon the problem of the correlation and priority of development processes, on the one hand, and training and education, on the other, was Thorndike's theory. Thorndike's theory was to recognize the identity of the processes of development and learning. His followers still believe that every step in learning is a step in development, every step in development is a result of training and education. Moreover, representatives of this direction still believe that there is no difference in the learning (and development) of humans and animals. Over time, this movement developed into behaviorism. Representatives (for example, Skinner, Maslow and their followers) believe that the basis of human development is the formation of behavioral skills. They are the basis of human socialization, adaptation and intellectualization. These scientists believe that even intellectual skills can be instilled, which will gradually develop into skills. Thus, it is possible to instill, for example, the skill of being attentive, the skill of thinking, etc.

Ø Theory of Jean Jacques Piaget. Piaget theoretically substantiated and practically tried to prove that development is absolutely independent of training and education. These processes, in his opinion, are like rails - absolutely parallel, nowhere and never intersect. Moreover, Piaget believed that development goes ahead of learning and pulls it along.

Ø Theory of two factors. Proposed and substantiated by Soviet scientists. The theory is based on the teachings of Vygotsky as his cultural and historical concept. The essence of the theory is that development and learning are equivalent processes that are closely intertwined and constantly influence each other. In the formation of a personality, a biological factor is important, that is, a certain natural predisposition to any activity. No less important is the social factor, that is, the possibility of mastering the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities required by society. "If a person has a natural hearing loss, then, no matter how much we want, he will never become a composer, however, if a person never sees musical instrument͵ He also cannot be a composer" © Khrebkova.

Ø Theory of Lev Semenovich Vygotsky " Cultural-historical concept". At a certain stage of a person's life, development is the predominant factor determining the formation of the psyche and personality. Starting from the complication of the self-concept of a person (from 6 years old), education and upbringing gradually begin to lead development. From that time, Lev writes Semenovich, learning is simply obliged to go ahead of development and lead it.This theory of Vygotsky turned the content of the organization of the educational process, but in order for it to work effectively, it is extremely important to remember that our psyche constantly characterized by two levels:

Ø Zone of actual development; This is cash available on this moment the level of development is characterized by the ability of a person to independently, without any help, perform certain external and internal actions.

Ø Zone of proximal development. The dominant one is, of course, the second level, but without relying on the first, it makes no sense.

Ø Pedology. The theory appeared in Russia in the 19th century and was very popular among progressive educators and psychologists.

Psychological components of assimilation

As a result of properly organized activity, the student acquires knowledge, skills and abilities, due to which the mental development of the student takes place. The main thing in this process is the assimilation and, in the future, the appropriation of previous experience.

Assimilation - ϶ᴛᴏ organized cognitive activity of the student, activating a number of mental processes.

Nikolai Dmitrievich Levitov singled out the main components of assimilation, which form the basis of personal mastery of knowledge, skills and abilities (assignment). Assimilation - ϶ᴛᴏ the main way for an individual to acquire socio-historical experience.

Components of assimilation:

Ø Positive attitude of the student to the learning process; From the point of view of mental reflection, the effectiveness of any mental process will be quite high if the sthenic emotional background prevails. The speed and strength of assimilation will be based on the non-negation of what a person is doing, that is, the psyche will not erect barriers, sometimes even in addition to the desire of the individual. In recent years, there has been a sharp decline in the positive attitude of children towards learning. Why?

Ø Unfavorable socio-economic relations;

Ø Increasing the amount of extremely important information;

Ø Very frequent predominance of a negative emotional background. For example, school fear is a state that ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ depresses mental processes, which puts a barrier in terms of assimilation and appropriation of knowledge. Children, driven by fear, practically do not think, remember very poorly, and their attention is extremely scattered.

A positive attitude is formed:

Ø Interest in knowledge and information;

Ø Accepting information as extremely important;

Ø Developing the ability to overcome difficulties.

A huge role in cognition is played by the feeling of satisfaction from obtaining knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as the presence of positive motivation, that is, an internal absolute conviction of the extreme importance of acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities. In this process, one cannot beg anyone's role: neither the student, nor close adults, nor the teacher.

Ø Activation of the processes of direct sensory familiarization with the material; Consider only sensations and perceptions as the most effective for mastering the material. The task of the teacher is to ensure that the student in the lesson not only looks, but also sees, not only listens, but also hears everything that happens in the lesson. This helps the child to create the most complete and comprehensive image of the subject being studied in the brain. The object of perception in the learning process is everything that surrounds the child. It is in connection with this that every teacher should begin with the fact that the educational space does not include unnecessary objects that do not matter at a given moment in time. If the teacher's speech suffers from any errors (such as speech defects, fast pace, high tone, unusual phonemic consonance), then the perception of meaning is significantly impaired. The appearance of the teacher (especially at the first meeting) is of great importance. Very often, sympathy or antipathy arises in the first minutes of communication. With long-term communication with the teacher, his appearance completely loses its meaning. Everything that the teacher uses as visual material must meet the requirements:

Ø Tables should be clear;

Ø Contrast must be observed (for example, diagrams);

Ø The best version of the board is a dark brown background and white chalk;

Ø The main material should always be in the center;

Ø Familiar material should always be in the same place;

Ø Educational films should last no more than 10 minutes;

Ø During the entire educational process, it is imperative to use almost all types of perception: hearing, sight, touch, .. For most children, perception is best in a complex of sensations.

Ø Theorized learning process is always less effective than a process with elements of practice.

Ø The process of thinking as a process of active processing of the received information; Thinking plays an important role in the process of learning. A special place is occupied by:

Ø Forms of thinking and the ability to master them;

Ø Thinking operations should be developed in accordance with age;

Ø Types of thinking should also be at a level of development sufficient for a given age;

Ø Development of the qualities of the mind.

Ø The process of memorizing and preserving material; As a rule, students with memory deficiencies study worse than those with a well-developed memory. The following memory parameters are subject to development:

Ø types of memory (especially figurative = sensory memory);

Ø memory processes (especially memorization, assimilation, reproduction).

The types of memory, as a rule, do not change (there are four types: quickly remembered - quickly forgotten, quickly remembered - slowly forgotten, etc.). The teacher just needs to take into account what type of memory the child has and treat it with understanding.

Ø Attention as an extremely important condition for the success of all the previous components. Attention - ϶ᴛᴏ mental state, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ ensures the success of all mental forms of reflection. For this reason, it is extremely important to pay special attention to the formation and development of attention. In the educational process, it is important to develop types of attention, especially secondary voluntary. To do this, it is extremely important to involve the processes of awareness, motivation and the volitional sphere.

Reasons for the low level of assimilation:

Pedagogical reasons;

Ø Weak teacher;

Ø Overcrowding of classes (the norm for the beginning class is 15 people, for the older ones - 17-22);

Ø Imperfection of programs;

Ø Very low level of textbooks and teaching aids;

Ø Inefficient construction of the school day;

Ø Ineffective forms of conducting classes.

psychological reasons.

Ø Failure to take into account the current level of personality development;

Ø Developmental delay in accordance with the age norm - ZPR;

Ø Insufficient development of mental forms of reflection (especially thinking, perception, memory);

Ø Lack of reliance on individual typological personality traits;

Ø Poor genetic heredity;

Ø Underdevelopment of the child's ability to self-regulation.

Psychology of education

Psychology of educational influences

Education and educational tasks in educational institutions are decided largely on the basis of how the teacher knows how to influence students. Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky once said: "Without the personal direct influence of the educator on the pupil, true education is impossible." All educational influences affect the inner world of a person. It is in connection with this that they must be built in accordance with the laws of the functioning of the psyche.

Types of educational influences:

Ø Impact "request"; This is one of the softest effects. The request does not imply any pressure on the child. The main characteristic of the request is the consideration of the child's ability to fulfill it. When making a request, it is important to remember:

Ø The request should not exceed the child's capacity;

Ø The child should not be an intermediary between the teacher and the performer;

Ø Refusal to comply should not adversely affect the child;

Ø Any request should be based on future gratitude for fulfillment.

Ø Impact "requirement"; This is a tougher impact, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ implies its mandatory implementation. The requirement must be subject to some administrative regulation. The requirement must be reasonable. The unreasonableness of the demand will cause opposition and non-compliance. When making demands, one should not use a requesting tone, one should not allow lack of control and lack of evaluation. Failure to comply with the requirements should carry any reprimand or punishment.

Ø Impact "order"; This is the most severe of the imposed impacts. It is in this connection that the order is always based on legally accepted provisions. These provisions are adopted at the level of institutions or government bodies. The execution of the order is not discussed. It is mandatory for all participants in the process.

Ø Impact "score":

Ø Evaluation-praise; The only difference between evaluation and praise: praise is verbal encouragement, and true encouragement has a material basis. From the point of view of psychological perception, encouragement causes a positive emotional background.

Ø Evaluation-encouragement; When applying incentives, it is extremely important to remember:

§ The business is encouraged, not the person;

§ Encouragement must be adequate to what has been done;

§ It is not necessary to encourage several times for the same thing;

§ Encouragement must necessarily cause the approval of others;

§ It is better to encourage and praise in public, and not tete-a-tete;

§ It is often necessary to encourage melancholic and phlegmatic people, and not choleric people;

§ It is necessary to encourage even for the desire to do something;

§ Don't reward too often.

Ø Evaluation-punishment. Punishment is the opposite of reward. Requirements for punishment:

§ It is better to punish one than in front of all;

§ Cannot be punished for what has not been proven;

§ Don't just punish bad behavior;

§ Punishment should correspond to the degree of misconduct;

§ It is impossible to punish for the same thing several times;

§ You can not punish rashly;

§ Cannot be punished by labor;

§ Punishment must be just.

It is easy for a teacher to make a mistake when applying rewards or punishments. Undeserved constant encouragement leads to arrogance, hostility from others. Improper punishment can cause humiliation of the individual, a feeling of anger and hatred towards the teacher. All this leads to distortion. personal growth child.

Ø Impact "shortcut"; The teacher has no right to hang labels or invent nicknames for students. This has a very negative effect on children and others. More often than not, such an action causes a similar reaction.

Ø Influence "suggestion". Suggestion is a very complex type of influence, which is built on a significant reduction in a person's critical attitude to incoming information. Among all the people suggested - 70%. For this reason, the teacher must be very careful in using suggestion as a measure of influence. Suggestion is always deliberate, most often carried out verbally. Suggestibility is affected:

Ø Age; The most suggestible are children and the elderly.

Ø State of the body; Tired, weakened, sick people are more suggestible.

Ø A large crowd of people acting in sync;

Ø Level of intellectual development The lower the level, the easier it is to inspire.

Ø Character traits; Credulity-suspicion, kindness, simplicity...

Also The effectiveness of suggestion depends on:

Ø From the environment where the person inspires;

Ø From character social relations; In a bullying society, suggestibility is stronger. Those who are in need are more suggestible.

The teacher must remember suggestion rules:

Ø you need to look into the eyes of the suggested;

Ø you need to stay absolutely calm, uninhibited and relaxed;

Ø speech should be clear, intelligible, slightly slowed down;

Ø In no case should you show any nervousness.

The subject of educational psychology is the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Subject of pedagogical psychology" 2017, 2018.

Stages of formation of educational psychology as an independent science.

General didactic stage (mid-18th - late 19th centuries). Experimental stage (late 19th century - mid-20th century). Formation of pedagogical psychology into an independent science. Pedagogical psychology(mid-20th century, at the present stage). Development theoretical foundations educational psychology. Computerization of the educational process and the development of pedagogical psychology.

Object, subject and tasks of modern pedagogical psychology. The structure of modern educational psychology. Relationship between developmental and educational psychology: integration and differentiation. Pedagogy and psychology in the structure of the discipline. Communication of educational psychology with other sciences.

Subject. Methods of educational psychology

Methodological bases and methods of pedagogical psychology. General and special, theoretical and empirical methods. Classification of methods of psychological and pedagogical research Basic methods in educational psychology Formative experiment as one of the main methods of psychological and pedagogical research and features of its application.

Topic 1. Educational psychology as a science

Topic 1. Pedagogical psychology as a science.

The subject of educational psychology

1. The subject and structure of educational psychology

The term "educational psychology" denotes two different sciences. One of them is basic science, which is the first branch of psychology. It is designed to study the nature and patterns of the process of teaching and education.

Under the same term - "pedagogical psychology" applied science is also developing, the purpose of which is to use the achievements of all branches of psychology to improve pedagogical practice. Abroad, this applied part of psychology is often called school psychology.

The term "pedagogical psychology" was proposed by P.F. Kapterev in 1874 (Kapterev P.F., 1999; abstract). Initially, it existed along with other terms adopted to designate disciplines that occupy a border position between pedagogy and psychology: "pedology" (O. Khrisman, 1892), "experimental pedagogy" (E. Meiman, 1907). Experimental pedagogy and pedagogical psychology were first interpreted as different names for the same field of knowledge (L.S. Vygotsky, P.P. Blonsky) (see Media Library). During the first third of the XX century. their meanings have been differentiated. Experimental pedagogy began to be understood as a field of research aimed at applying the data of experimental psychology to pedagogical reality; pedagogical psychology - as a field of knowledge and the psychological basis of theoretical and practical pedagogy. (see Cross. 1.1)

Pedagogical psychology- This is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of human development in terms of training and education. It is closely connected with pedagogy, child and differential psychology, and psychophysiology.

When considering educational psychology, like any other branch of science, it is necessary, first of all, to distinguish between the concepts of its object and subject.

In the general scientific interpretation, the object of science is understood as that area of ​​reality, to the study of which this science is directed. Often the object of study is fixed in the very name of the science.

The subject of science is that side or sides of the object of science by which it is represented in it. If an object exists independently of science, then the subject is formed together with it and is fixed in its conceptual system. The subject does not capture all aspects of the object, although it may include what is missing in the object. In a certain sense, the development of science is the development of its subject matter.

Each object can be studied by many sciences. Thus, man is studied by physiology, sociology, biology, anthropology, and so on. But each science is based on its own subject, i.e. what exactly she studies in the object.

As the analysis of the points of view of various authors shows, many scientists define the status of educational psychology in different ways, which may indicate the ambiguity of resolving the issue of the subject of educational psychology (see animation).

For example, V.A. Krutetsky believes that pedagogical psychology "studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, explores individual differences in these processes ... the patterns of formation of creative active thinking... changes in the psyche, i.e. the formation of mental neoplasms" (Krutetsky V.A., 1972, p. 7).

A completely different point of view is held by V.V. Davydov. He proposes to consider educational psychology as a part of developmental psychology. The scientist argues this by the fact that the specificity of each age determines the nature of the manifestation of the laws of assimilation of knowledge by students, and therefore the teaching of a particular discipline should be built differently. Moreover, some disciplines at certain ages are generally inaccessible to students. This position of V.V. Davydov is due to his emphasis on the role of development, its influence on the course of education. Education is considered by him as a form, and development - as the content that is realized in it.

There are a number of other points of view. In the future, we will adhere to the generally accepted interpretation, according to which the subject of educational psychology is the facts, mechanisms and patterns of the development of sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of the intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activity organized and managed by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process (Zimnyaya I.A. , 1997; abstract).

Structure of educational psychology

The structure of educational psychology consists of three sections (see Fig. 2):

1. psychology of learning;

2. psychology of education;

3. teacher psychology.

1. The subject of the psychology of learning is the development of cognitive activity in the context of systematic learning. Thus, the psychological essence of the educational process is revealed. Research in this area is aimed at identifying:

1. interrelations of external and internal factors that determine the differences in cognitive activity in the conditions of various didactic systems;

2. ratio of motivational and intellectual plans of teaching;

3. opportunities to manage the processes of learning and development of the child;

4. psychological and pedagogical criteria for the effectiveness of training, etc. (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-uchen.html; see the laboratory of psychology of teaching of the PI RAE).

Psychology of learning explores, first of all, the process of acquiring knowledge and adequate skills and abilities. Its task is to reveal the nature of this process, its characteristics and qualitatively unique stages, conditions and criteria for a successful course. A special task of pedagogical psychology is the development of methods that allow diagnosing the level and quality of assimilation.

Studies of the learning process itself, carried out from the standpoint of the principles of domestic psychology, have shown that the process of assimilation is the performance by a person of certain actions or activities. Knowledge is always assimilated as elements of these actions, and skills take place when the assimilated actions are brought to certain indicators according to some of their characteristics.

Doctrine- this is a system of special actions necessary for students to go through the main stages of the assimilation process. The actions that make up the activity of learning are assimilated according to the same laws as any others (Ilyasov II, 1986; abstract).

Most studies on the psychology of learning are aimed at identifying the patterns of formation and functioning of cognitive activity in the context of the current system of education. In particular, rich experimental material has been accumulated that reveals typical shortcomings in the assimilation of various scientific concepts by secondary school students. The role of life experience of students, the nature of the educational material presented in the assimilation of knowledge was also studied.

In the 70s. 20th century in pedagogical psychology, they increasingly began to use a different path: the study of the patterns of the formation of knowledge and cognitive activity in general in conditions of specially organized training. Studies have shown that the management of the learning process significantly changes the course of mastering knowledge and skills. The studies carried out are of great importance for finding the most optimal ways of teaching and identifying the conditions for the effective mental development of students.

Pedagogical psychology also studies the dependence of the assimilation of knowledge, skills, the formation of various personality traits on individual features students (Nurminsky I.I. et al., 1991; abstract).

In domestic pedagogical psychology, such theories of learning as the associative-reflex theory, the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions, etc. have been created. Among Western theories of learning, the behavioral theory is most widely used (1. -podjun.html; see laboratory for the study of mental development in adolescence and youth; 2. http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-ps-not.html; see laboratory for the psychological foundations of new educational technologies) .

2. The subject of the psychology of education is the development of the individual in the conditions of the purposeful organization of the activities of the child, the children's team. The psychology of education studies the patterns of the process of assimilation of moral norms and principles, the formation of a worldview, beliefs, etc. in the conditions of educational and educational activities at school.

Research in this area is aimed at studying:

b. differences in the self-consciousness of students brought up in different conditions;

c. structures of children's and youth groups and their role in the formation of personality;

d. conditions and consequences of mental deprivation, etc. (Lishin O.V., 1997; abstract, cover).

3. The subject of teacher psychology is the psychological aspects of the formation of professional pedagogical activity, as well as those personality traits that contribute to or hinder the success of this activity. The most important tasks of this section of educational psychology are:

a. determination of the creative potential of the teacher and the possibilities of overcoming pedagogical stereotypes;

b. studying the emotional stability of the teacher;

c. revealing the positive features of the individual style of communication between the teacher and the student, and a number of others (Mitina L.M., 1998; abstract).

(http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-prof.html; see the laboratory of professional development of the personality of the PI RAO), (http://elite.far.ru/ - Department of Acmeology and Psychology of Professional Activities of the RAGS under the President of the Russian Federation).

The results of psychological and pedagogical research are used in the design of the content and methods of teaching, the creation of teaching aids, the development of diagnostic tools and the correction of mental development.

2. Goals and objectives of educational psychology

There are a number of problems in educational psychology, the theoretical and practical significance of which justifies the allocation and existence of this field of knowledge (see Fig. 3). Let's review and discuss some of them.

1. The problem of the relationship between training and development. One of the most important problems of pedagogical psychology is the problem of the relationship between learning and mental development.

The problem under consideration is a derivative of a general scientific problem - the problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in a person or as a problem of genotypic and environmental conditioning of the human psyche and behavior (see Chrest. 1.2). The problem of genetic sources of psychology and human behavior is one of the most important in the psychological and pedagogical sciences. After all, the fundamental solution of the question of the possibilities of teaching and raising children, a person in general, depends on its correct solution (Biological ..., 1977.; abstract) (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-teor-exp.html ; see Laboratory of Theoretical and Experimental Problems of Developmental Psychology).

According to modern science, it is practically impossible to directly influence the genetic apparatus through training and education, and, therefore, what is given genetically is not subject to re-education. On the other hand, education and upbringing in themselves have enormous potential in terms of the mental development of the individual, even if they do not affect the actual genotype and do not affect organic processes.

In domestic psychology, this problem was first formulated by L.S. Vygotsky in the early 1930s. 20th century (Vygotsky L.S., 1996; abstract). (http://www.vygotsky.ru/russian/vygot/vygotsky.htm; see server dedicated to Vygotsky).

He substantiated the leading role of learning in development, noting that learning should go ahead of development, be the source of new development.

However, this raises a number of questions:

a. How does training and education lead to development?

b. Does any training contribute to development or only problematic and so-called developmental?

c. How are the biological maturation of the organism, learning and development related?

d. Does learning affect maturation, and if so, to what extent, does this influence affect the fundamental solution of the question of the relationship between learning and development?

(http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/g-ob-raz.html; see the group of psychology of learning and development of junior schoolchildren of the PI RAE).

2. The problem of the relationship between education and upbringing. Another problem, which is closely related to the previous one, is the problem of the relationship between training and education. The processes of training and education in their unity represent the pedagogical process, the purpose of which is education, development and formation of the personality. In essence, both proceed through the interaction of a teacher and a student, an educator and a pupil, an adult and a child, who are in certain conditions of life, in a certain environment.

The scope of the problem under consideration includes a number of questions:

a. How do these processes mutually condition and interpenetrate each other?

b. How do different types of activities affect learning and upbringing?

c. What are the psychological mechanisms for the assimilation of knowledge, the formation of skills, and the assimilation of social norms, norms of behavior?

d. What are the differences in pedagogical influence in training and education?

e. How does the process of education and upbringing proceed directly? These and many other questions are the essence of the problem under consideration (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/g-fak.html ; see the research group of the factors of formation of the individuality of the PI RAO).

3. The problem of taking into account sensitive periods of development in education. One of the most important in the study of child development is the problem of finding and making the maximum possible use for the development of each child of a sensitive period in his life. In psychology, sensitive periods are understood as periods of ontogenetic development, when a developing organism is especially sensitive to certain kinds of influences of the surrounding reality. So, for example, at the age of about five years, children are especially sensitive to the development of phenomenal hearing, and after this period this sensitivity decreases somewhat. Sensitive periods are periods of optimal terms for the development of certain aspects of the psyche: processes and properties. An excessively early start of learning something can adversely affect mental development, just like a very late start of learning can be ineffective (Obukhova L.F., 1996, abstract).

The difficulty of the problem under consideration lies in the fact that all sensitive periods of the development of the intellect and personality of the child, their beginning, duration and completion are not known. Approaching the study of children individually, it is necessary to learn how to predict the onset of various sensitive periods in the development of each child.

4. The problem of gifted children. The problem of giftedness in domestic psychology began to be studied more closely only in the last decade. General giftedness refers to the development of general abilities that determine the range of activities in which a person can achieve great success. Gifted children are "children who show this or that special or general giftedness" (Rossiyskaya ..., 1993-1999, vol. 2. p. 77; abstract).

In this regard, a number of questions arise related to the identification and training of gifted children:

a. What is characteristic of the age sequence of manifestation of giftedness?

b. By what criteria and signs can one judge the giftedness of students?

c. How to establish and study the giftedness of children in the process of education and upbringing, in the course of students performing one or another meaningful activity?

d. How to promote the development of gifted students in the educational process?

e. How to combine the development of special abilities with broad general education and comprehensive development of the student's personality? (Leites N.S., 2000; abstract); (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-odar.html; see the laboratory of psychology of giftedness of the PI RAO), (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/lab-tvor.html ; see the creativity diagnostics group).

5. The problem of readiness of children to study at school. The readiness of children to study at school is "a set of morphological and psychological features a child of senior preschool age, ensuring a successful transition to systematic organized schooling" (Rossiyskaya ..., V.1. P. 223-224).

In the pedagogical and psychological literature, along with the term "readiness for schooling", the term "school maturity" is used. These terms are almost synonymous, although the second one reflects the psychophysiological aspect of organic maturation to a greater extent.

The problem of children's readiness for schooling is revealed through the search for answers to a number of questions:

a. How do the conditions of a child's life, his assimilation of social experience in the course of communication with peers and adults influence the formation of school readiness?

b. What system of requirements imposed on the child by the school determines the psychological readiness for schooling?

c. What is meant by psychological readiness for schooling?

d. By what criteria and indicators can one judge the psychological readiness for schooling?

e. How to build correctional and developmental programs to achieve readiness for schooling? (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l_det_p.html ; see the laboratory of the scientific foundations of child practical psychology of the PI RAE).

The solution of these and other psychological and pedagogical problems requires a teacher or educator to have high professional qualifications, a large part of which is psychological knowledge, skills and abilities (http://www.voppsy.ru/; see the website of the journal "Questions of Psychology").

Tasks of educational psychology

The general task of educational psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the context of educational activities, the educational process. Accordingly, the tasks of educational psychology are (see animation):

a. revealing the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educating influence on the intellectual and personal development of the student;

b. determination of the mechanisms and patterns of learning by the student of socio-cultural experience (socialization), its structuring, preservation (strengthening) in the individual mind of the student and use in various situations;

c. determination of the relationship between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educating influence (cooperation, active forms of learning, etc.);

d. determination of the features of the organization and management of educational activities of students and the impact of these processes on intellectual, personal development and educational and cognitive activity;

e. study of the psychological foundations of the teacher's activity;

f. determination of factors, mechanisms, patterns of developmental education, in particular the development of scientific, theoretical thinking;

g. determination of patterns, conditions, criteria for the assimilation of knowledge, the formation on their basis of the operational composition of activities in the process of solving various problems;

h. development of psychological foundations for further improvement of the educational process at all levels of the educational system, etc.

3. The relationship of educational psychology with other sciences

The relationship of educational psychology with other sciences

Clarification of the subject of pedagogical psychology also requires determining its place among other sciences, first of all, establishing its relationship to pedagogical disciplines, to general and developmental psychology.

According to B.G. Ananiev, pedagogical psychology is a borderline, complex branch of knowledge, which "occupied a certain place between psychology and pedagogy, became the sphere of joint study of the relationship between education, training and development of the younger generations" (Ananiev B.G., 2001; abstract).

In connection with such a "boundary" nature of pedagogy and psychology, we consider it necessary, first of all, to clarify the relationship between these two sciences.

Psychology is organically connected with pedagogy (see Fig. 5).

There are several "nodes" of communication between them (see Fig. 6).

The main communication node is the subject of these sciences. Psychology studies the laws of development of the human psyche. Pedagogy develops the laws governing the development of the individual. The upbringing and education of children and adults is nothing more than a purposeful change in this psyche (for example, thinking, activity). Consequently, they cannot be carried out by specialists who do not possess psychological knowledge.

The second link between the two sciences is the indicators and criteria for the training and upbringing of the individual. The degree of advancement of schoolchildren's knowledge is recorded by changes in memory, stocks of knowledge, abilities to use knowledge for practical purposes, possession of cognitive activity techniques, speed of knowledge reproduction, terminology, skills of transferring knowledge to non-standard situations, etc. Education is fixed in motivated actions, a system of conscious and impulsive behavior, stereotypes, skills of activity and judgments. All this means that the symptoms of achievements in the educational work of adults with children are shifts in the psyche, in the thinking and behavior of students. In other words, the results of pedagogical activity are diagnosed by changes in the psychological characteristics of students.

The third node of communication is research methods. Interscientific communications between the two branches of knowledge also take place in the research methods of pedagogy and psychology. Many psychological tools scientific research successfully serve to solve pedagogical research problems (for example, psychometrics, pairwise comparison, rating, psychological tests, etc.).

The relationship of educational psychology with branches of psychology

The relationship of educational psychology with related sciences, including developmental psychology, is two-way (see Fig. 7). It is guided by research methodology, which is a "projection" of general psychological science; uses data supplied by developmental psychology and other sciences. At the same time, pedagogical psychology itself supplies data not only for pedagogical science, but also for general and developmental psychology, labor psychology, neuropsychology, pathopsychology, etc.

Recently, developmental psychology has become increasingly important as the foundation for educational psychology. Age-related psychology- This is a theory of the development of the psyche in ontogenesis. She studies the patterns of transition from one period to another based on a change in the types of leading activities, changes in the social situation of development, the nature of human interaction with other people (Obukhova L.F., 1996; abstract). (http://flogiston.ru/arch/obukhova_1.shtml; see the electronic version of the book by Obukhova L.F.).

Age is not characterized by the ratio of individual mental functions, but those specific tasks of mastering the aspects of reality that are accepted and solved by a person, as well as age-related neoplasms.

Based on this, V.V. Davydov formulated a number of principles of developmental psychology (see Fig. 8):

Each age period should not be studied in isolation, but from the point of view of general development trends, taking into account the previous and subsequent age.

Each age has its own reserves of development, which can be mobilized in the course of the development of the child's activity organized in a special way in relation to the surrounding reality and to his own activity.

Features of age are not static, but are determined by socio-historical factors, the so-called social order of society, etc. (Psychology ..., 1978).

All these and other principles of developmental psychology are of great importance in creating a psychological theory of the assimilation of sociocultural experience within the framework of educational psychology. For example, on their basis, the following principles of educational psychology can be distinguished (using the example of its section - the psychology of learning):

a. Training is built on the basis of developmental psychology data on age reserves, focusing on the "tomorrow" of development.

b. Education is organized taking into account the individual characteristics of students, but not on the basis of adaptation to them, but as the design of new types of activities, new levels of development of students.

c. Education cannot be reduced only to the transfer of knowledge, to the development of certain actions and operations, but is mainly the formation of the student's personality, the development of the sphere of determination of his behavior (values, motives, goals), etc.

4. The history of the formation of educational psychology

Historical aspects of educational psychology

1.4.1. The first stage - from the middle of the XVII century. and until the end of the XIX century.

1.4.2. The second stage - with late XIX V. until the beginning of the 50s. 20th century

1.4.3. The third stage - from the middle of the XX century. and up to now

The first stage - from the middle of the XVII century. and until the end of the XIX century.

I.A. Zimnyaya identifies three stages in the formation and development of educational psychology (Zimnyaya I.A., 1997; abstract).

a. The first stage - from the middle of the XVII century. and until the end of the XIX century. can be called general didactic.

c. The third stage - from the middle of the XX century. and up to the present. The basis for highlighting this stage is the creation of a whole series of psychological theories learning, i.e. development of the theoretical foundations of pedagogical psychology. Let us consider in more detail each of these stages in the development of pedagogical psychology.

I.A. Zimnyaya called the first stage general didactic with a clearly felt need to "psychologize pedagogy" (according to Pestalozzi).

The role of psychology in the practice of education and upbringing was recognized long before the formation of educational psychology as an independent scientific branch. Ya.A. Comenius, J. Locke, J.J. Russo, I.G. Pestalozzi, F.A. Diesterweg et al. emphasized the need to build the pedagogical process on the basis of psychological knowledge about the child.

Analyzing the contribution of G. Pestalozzi, P.F. Kapterev notes that "Pestalozzi understood all learning as a matter of creativity of the student himself, all knowledge as the development of activity from within, as acts of self-activity, self-development" (Kapterev P.F., 1982, p. 293). Pointing to the differences in the development of the mental, physical and moral abilities of the child, Pestalozzi emphasized the importance of their connection and close interaction in learning, which moves from simple to more complex, in order to ultimately ensure the harmonious development of a person.

The idea of ​​developmental education K.D. Ushinsky called "the great discovery of Pestalozzi" (Ushinsky K.D., 1948, p. 95). The main goal of teaching Pestalozzi considered to excite the mind of children to active activity, the development of their cognitive abilities, the development of their ability to think logically and briefly express in words the essence of the concepts they have learned. He developed a system of exercises arranged in a certain sequence and aimed at setting in motion the desire for activity inherent in the natural forces of a person. However, Pestalozzi to some extent subordinated to the task of developing students another, no less important task of teaching - equipping students with knowledge. Criticizing the school of his day for verbalism and cramming, which dull the spiritual powers of children, the scientist sought to psychologize learning, to build it in accordance with the "natural way of knowing" in the child. The starting point of this path, Pestalozzi considered the sensory perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

A follower of I.G. Pestalozzi was F.A. Diesterweg, who considered nature conformity, cultural conformity, and amateur performance to be the basic principles of education (Disterweg F.A., 1956).

Diesterweg emphasized that only knowing psychology and physiology, the teacher can ensure the harmonious development of children. In psychology, he saw "the basis of the science of education", and believed that a person has innate inclinations, which are characterized by a desire for development. The task of education is to ensure such independent development. The scientist understood self-activity as activity, initiative and considered it the most important personality trait. In the development of children's amateur performances, he saw both the ultimate goal and an indispensable condition for any education.

F. Diesterweg determined the value of individual subjects based on how much they stimulate the student's mental activity; contrasted the developing method of teaching with the scientific (reporting) one. He formulated the basics of didactics of developmental education in clear rules.

Of particular importance for the formation of pedagogical psychology was the work of KD Ushinsky. His works, first of all the book "Man as an Object of Education. Experience of Pedagogical Anthropology" (1868-1869), created the prerequisites for the emergence of pedagogical psychology in Russia. The scientist considered upbringing as "the creation of history." The subject of education is a person, and if pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first get to know him in all respects. This meant studying the physical and mental characteristics of a person, the influences of "unintentional education" - the social environment, the "zeitgeist", his culture and social relations.

K.D. Ushinsky gave his interpretation of the most complex and always topical issues:

a. about the psychological nature of education;

b. the limits and possibilities of education, the ratio of education and training;

c. the limits and possibilities of learning;

d. correlation of education and development;

e. a combination of external educational influences and the process of self-education.

The second stage - from the end of the XIX century. until the beginning of the 50s. 20th century

The second stage is associated with the period when pedagogical psychology began to take shape as an independent branch, having accumulated the achievements of pedagogical thought of the previous centuries.

As an independent field of knowledge, pedagogical psychology began to take shape in the middle of the 19th century, and developed intensively from the 80s. 19th century

The significance of the initial period of development of educational psychology is determined primarily by the fact that in the 60s. 19th century fundamental provisions were formulated that determined the formation of educational psychology as an independent scientific discipline. At that time, tasks were set on which the efforts of scientists should be concentrated, problems were identified that needed to be investigated in order to put the pedagogical process on a scientific basis.

Guided by the needs of upbringing and education, the task of forming a comprehensive personality, scientists of that period raised the issue of a broad comprehensive study of the child and the scientific foundations for managing his development. The idea of ​​a holistic, versatile study of the child sounded very convincing. Consciously not wanting to limit the theoretical substantiation of pedagogy to one psychology, they stimulated the development of research at the intersection of different sciences. Consideration in the unity and interconnection of the three main sources of pedagogy - psychology, physiology, logic - served as the basis for contacts between psychology, physiology and medicine, between psychology and didactics.

This period is characterized by the formation of a special psychological and pedagogical direction - pedology (J.M. Baldwin, E. Kirkpatrick, E. Meiman, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, etc.), in which, on the basis of a combination of psychophysiological, anatomical, psychological and sociological measurements, the characteristics of the child's behavior were determined in order to diagnose its development (see animation).

Pedology(from the Greek pais - child and logos - word, science) - a trend in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, due to the penetration of evolutionary ideas into pedagogy and psychology and the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy.

The American psychologist S. Hall, who created the first pedological laboratory in 1889, is recognized as the founder of pedology; the term itself was coined by his student - O. Crisment. But back in 1867 K.D. Ushinsky in his work "Man as an Object of Education" anticipated the emergence of pedology: "If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first recognize him in all respects."

In the West, pedology was practiced by S. Hall, J. Baldwin, E. Meiman, V. Preyer, and others. The founder of Russian pedology is the brilliant scientist and organizer A.P. Nechaev. A great contribution to science was also made by the remarkable scientist V.M. Bekhterev.

The first 15 post-revolutionary years were favorable: there was a normal scientific life with stormy discussions in which approaches were developed and difficulties in development inevitable for a young science were overcome.

Pedology sought to study the child, while studying it comprehensively, in all its manifestations and taking into account all the influencing factors. P.P. Blonsky (1884-1941) defined pedology as the science of age development child in a certain socio-historical environment (Blonsky P.P., 1999; abstract).

Pedologists worked in schools, kindergartens, various teenage associations. Psychological and pedological counseling was actively carried out; work was carried out with parents; developed the theory and practice of psychodiagnostics. Institutes of pedology functioned in Leningrad and Moscow, where representatives of various sciences tried to trace the development of the child from birth to adolescence. Pedologists were trained very thoroughly: they received knowledge in pedagogy, psychology, physiology, child psychiatry, neuropathology, anthropometry, anthropology, sociology, and theoretical classes were combined with everyday practical work.

In the 30s. 20th century criticism of many provisions of pedology began (problems of the subject of pedology, bio- and sociogenesis, tests, etc.), which resulted in two resolutions of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks. Pedology was defeated, many scientists were repressed, the fate of others was crippled. All pedological institutes and laboratories were closed. Pedologists yu blacked out curricula all universities. Labels were generously pasted: L.S. Vygotsky was declared an "eclecticist", M.Ya. Basov and P.P. Blonsky - "propagandists of fascist ideas." Fortunately, many were able to avoid a similar fate, having managed to retrain. For more than half a century, it was carefully concealed that Basov, Blonsky, Vygotsky, Kornilov, Kostyuk, Leontiev, Luria, Elkonin, Myasishchev and others, as well as the teachers Zankov and Sokolyansky, were pedologists. More recently, when Vygotsky’s works were published, his lectures on pedology had to be renamed lectures on psychology (http://virlib.eunnet.net/sofia/05-2002/text/0523.html; see Strukchinskaya E.M.’s article “L S. Vygotsky on pedology and related sciences") (see Media Library).

A number of works by P.P. Blonsky, works by L.S. Vygotsky and his colleagues in child psychology laid the foundation for modern scientific knowledge about the mental development of the child. Proceedings of I.M. Shchelovanova, M.P. Denisova, N.L. Figurin, which were created in pedological institutions by name, contained valuable factual material that was included in the fund of modern knowledge about the child and his development. These works formed the basis of the current system of education in infancy and early childhood, and the psychological studies of P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky provided the opportunity to develop theoretical and applied problems of developmental and educational psychology in our country. (http://www.genesis.ru/pedologia/home.htm; see the journal website " Pedology").

The connection between psychology and pedagogy gave a powerful impetus to the study of the age characteristics of children, to the identification of the conditions and factors that determine child development. The desire to make pedagogy psychological, to introduce psychology into the pedagogical process became the basis on which the system of pedagogical psychology was built (although the term "pedagogical psychology" itself was not yet used at that time), led to the participation of scientists from various specialties in the development of its problems.

By the end of the XIX century. in Russian psychological and pedagogical science, not only the main areas of scientific activity, but significant data have also been accumulated that have made it possible to formulate practical problems.

The idea of ​​a psycho-physiological study of the child and the use of its results in pedagogical practice was reinforced by substantiating the possibility of studying mental phenomena experimentally. The use of the experiment in learning conditions, undertaken by I.A. Sikorsky in 1879, at first did not receive a wide response in science. But with the formation of psychological laboratories, starting from the mid-80s, the experiment began to enter into life, an active desire arose to connect the pedagogical process with it, i.e. to create a qualitatively new science of education and training.

The successes of psychological and pedagogical science aroused interest, on the one hand, among practicing teachers, and, on the other hand, among philosophers and psychologists who had not previously dealt with issues of school education. Teachers felt a clear need for solid psychological knowledge, and psychologists realized how many interesting and instructive things are contained in school life. The state of science and practice has clearly shown that school and science must meet each other halfway. But the whole question was how to do this, how to organize psychological research in such a way that it would be directed directly towards the solution of pedagogical problems. Equally inevitable was the question of who should conduct such research.

The solution of complex theoretical and methodological problems of educational psychology became impossible without their discussion and comprehensive analysis. This was also required by the further development of specific research, the determination of the main directions of the movement of research thought. In other words, a significant expansion of scientific and organizational activities was necessary.

The development of educational psychology in Russia since the beginning of the 20th century. firmly established on a scientific basis. The status of this science as an independent branch of knowledge, which has important theoretical and practical significance, has been established. Research in this area has taken a leading place in domestic psychological and pedagogical science. This was due to successes in the study of age development, which ensured the authority of developmental and educational psychology not only in the scientific field, but also in solving practical problems of education and training.

Not only in science, but also in public opinion, the point of view has been established, according to which knowledge of the laws of child development is the basis for the correct construction of the education system. Therefore, scientists of various specialties, the best Russian minds, outstanding theoreticians and organizers of science, who enjoyed great prestige, were involved in the development of these problems, in particular: V.M. Bekhterev, P.F. Lesgaft, I.P. Pavlov. A whole pleiad of domestic psychologists has been formed who are actively engaged in theoretical and organizational issues of studying child development and building the scientific foundations of education and training. This galaxy included, first of all, P.P. Blonsky, P.F. Kapterev, A.F. Lazursky, N.N. Lange, A.P. Nechaev, M.M. Rubinstein, I.A. Sikorsky, G.I. Chelpanov and others. Thanks to the efforts of these scientists, an intensive theoretical, methodological, scientific and organizational activity was launched, aimed at deepening and expanding scientific work, to promote psychological and pedagogical knowledge among practitioners of the education system, to improve their skills. On their initiative, specialized scientific centers began to be created, providing research and educational activities and staff training. Small laboratories, circles, and classrooms for studying the development of children at some educational institutions became widespread; Pedagogical psychology became an integral part of the content of education in pedagogical educational institutions. The question was raised about the study of the foundations of psychology in the upper grades of secondary school, training courses in psychology were developed.

In domestic pedagogical psychology since the 30s. studies of the procedural aspects of learning and development were launched:

a. interconnections of perception and thinking in cognitive activity (S.L. Rubinshtein, S.N. Shabalin);

b. correlations between memory and thinking (A.N. Leontiev, L.V. Zankov, A.A. Smirnov, P.I. Zinchenko, etc.);

c. development of thinking and speech of preschoolers and schoolchildren (A.R. Luria, A.V. Zaporozhets, D.B. Elkonin, etc.);

d. mechanisms and stages of mastering concepts (Zh.I. Shif, N.A. Menchinskaya, G.S. Kostyuk, etc.);

e. the emergence and development of cognitive interests in children (N.G. Morozova and others).

In the 40s. many studies have appeared on the psychological issues of mastering the educational material of various subjects: a) arithmetic (N.A. Menchinskaya); b) native language and literature (D.N. Bogoyavlensky, L.I. Bozhovich, O.I. Nikiforova), etc. A number of works are related to the tasks of teaching reading and writing (N.A. Rybnikov, L.M. Schwartz, T. G. Egorov, D. B. Elkonin and others).

The main results of the research were reflected in the works of A.P. Nechaev, A. Binet and B. Henri, M. Offner, E. Meiman, V.A. Laya and others, which explore the features of memorization, speech development, intelligence, the mechanism of developing skills, etc., as well as in the studies of G. Ebbinghaus, J. Piaget, A. Vallon, J. Dewey, S. Frane, Ed. Clapered; in the experimental study of the features of learning (J. Watson, Ed. Tolman, G. Gasri, T. Hull, B. Skinner); in the study of the development of children's speech (J. Piaget, L.S. Vygotsky, P.P. Blonsky, Sh. and K. Byullerov, V. Stern, etc.); in the development of special pedagogical systems - the Waldorf school (R. Steiner), the school of M. Montessori.

The third stage - from the middle of the XX century. until now

The basis for distinguishing the third stage is the creation of a number of psychological learning theories proper, i.e. development of the theoretical foundations of pedagogical psychology.

So, in 1954 B.F. Skinner put forward the idea of ​​programmed learning, and in the 60s. L.N. Landa formulated the theory of its algorithmization; in the 70s-80s. V. Okon, M.I. Makhmutov built an integral system of problem-based learning, which, on the one hand, continued the development of the system of J. Dewey, who believed that learning should go through problem solving, and on the other hand, it correlated with the provisions of O. Zelts, K. Dunker, S.L. Rubinstein, A.M. Matyushkin and others about the problematic nature of thinking, its phase nature, the beginning of the emergence of thought in a problem situation (P.P. Blonsky, S.L. Rubinshtein).

In 1957-1958. the first publications of P.Ya. Galperin and then in the early 70s - N.F. Talyzina, which outlined the main positions of the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions, which absorbed the main achievements and prospects of educational psychology. At the same time, in the works of D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydov developed the theory of developmental learning, which arose in the 70s. based general theory educational activity (formulated by the same scientists and developed by A.K. Markova, I.I. Ilyasov, L.I. Aidarova, V.V. Rubtsov and others), as well as in the experimental system of L.V. Zankov.

In the period of 40-50s. S.L. Rubinshtein in "Fundamentals of Psychology" (Rubinshtein S.L., 1999; abstract) gave a detailed description of learning as the assimilation of knowledge, which was developed in detail by L.B. Itelson, E.N. Kabanova-Meller and others, as well as N.A. Menchinskaya and D.N. Bogoyavlensky in the concept of exteriorization of knowledge. Introduced in the mid 70s. the book by I. Lingart "The Process and Structure of Human Learning" (Lingart I., 1970) and the book by I.I. Ilyasov "The structure of the learning process" (Ilyasov II, 1986; abstract) made it possible to make broad generalizations in this area.

Noteworthy is the emergence of a fundamentally new direction in educational psychology - suggestopedia, suggestology G.K. Lozanov (60-70s of the last century), the basis of which is the management of the teacher by unconscious students of his mental processes perception, memory using the effect of hypermnesia and suggestion. On this basis, methods have been developed for activating the reserve capabilities of the individual (G.A. Kitaygorodskaya), group cohesion, group dynamics in the process of such training (A.V. Petrovsky, L.A. Karpenko).

In the 50-70s. at the junction of social and pedagogical psychology, many studies were carried out on the structure of the children's team, the status of the child among peers (A.V. Petrovsky, Ya.L. Kolominsky, etc.). A special area of ​​research relates to the education and upbringing of difficult children, the formation of autonomous morality among adolescents in some informal associations (D.I. Feldshtein).

In the same period, there were tendencies towards the formulation of complex problems - educative education and educational education. Actively studied:

a. psychological and pedagogical factors of children's readiness for schooling;

c. psychological reasons for school failure (N.A. Menchinskaya);

d. psychological and pedagogical criteria for the effectiveness of training (I.S. Yakimanskaya).

Since the end of the 70s. 20th century work intensified in the scientific and practical direction - the creation of a psychological service at school (I.V. Dubrovina, Yu.M. Zabrodin, etc.). In this aspect, new tasks of pedagogical psychology have emerged:

a. development of conceptual approaches to the activities of the psychological service,

b. equipping it with diagnostic tools,

c. training of practical psychologists.

(http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l_det_p.html ; see the laboratory of the scientific foundations of child practical psychology of the PI RAE).

All the variety of these theories, however, had one thing in common - the theoretical substantiation of the most adequate, from the point of view of the authors, to the requirements of the society of the system of education - teaching (learning activity). Accordingly, certain areas of study were formed. Within the framework of these areas of education, its common problems were also revealed: the activation of forms of education, pedagogical cooperation, communication, management of the assimilation of knowledge, the development of students as the goal of education, etc.

So, for example, domestic educational psychology studies:

a. psychological mechanisms of learning management (N.F. Talyzina, L.N. Landa and others), the educational process as a whole (V.S. Lazarev and others);

b. management of the process of mastering generalized methods of action (V.V. Davydov, V.V. Rubtsov, etc.);

c. educational motivation (A.K. Markova, A.B. Orlov, etc.);

d. individual psychological factors influencing the success of this process;

e. cooperation (G.A. Tsukerman and others), etc.;

f. personal characteristics of students and teachers (V.S. Merlin, N.S. Leites, A.N. Leontiev, etc.), etc.

Thus, at this stage of development, educational psychology becomes more and more voluminous.

So, pedagogical psychology is the science of the facts, mechanisms and patterns of assimilation of sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of intellectual and personal development of a child as a subject of educational activity organized and managed by a teacher in different conditions of the educational process. In general, we can say that educational psychology studies the psychological issues of managing the pedagogical process, explores the processes of learning, the formation of cognitive processes, etc.

There are a number of problems in educational psychology. Among the most important are the following: the ratio of training and development, the ratio of training and education, taking into account sensitive periods of development in training; work with gifted children, the problem of children's readiness for schooling, etc.

Consequently, the general task of educational psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the context of educational activities, the educational process. This also determines the structure of this branch of psychology: the psychology of learning, the psychology of education, the psychology of the teacher.

The term "educational psychology" is used to refer to two sciences. One of them is basic science, which is the first branch of psychology. It is designed to study the nature and patterns of the process of teaching and education. Applied science is also developing under the same name "pedagogical psychology", the purpose of which is to use the achievements of all branches of psychology to improve pedagogical practice. Abroad, the applied part of psychology is often called school psychology.

a. Pedagogical psychology- this is the science of the facts, mechanisms and patterns of the development of socio-cultural experience by a person, the patterns of the intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activity, organized and managed by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process.

b. Pedagogical psychology- a borderline, complex branch of knowledge, which has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy, has become an area for joint study of the relationship between education, training and development of the younger generations.

There are a number of problems in educational psychology. Among the most important are the following: the ratio of training and development; the ratio of training and education; taking into account sensitive periods of development in training; work with gifted children; readiness of children for schooling, etc.

a. The general task of educational psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the context of educational activities, the educational process.

b. The structure of educational psychology consists of three sections: the psychology of learning; psychology of education; teacher psychology.

There are three stages in the formation and development of educational psychology (Zimnyaya I.A.):

a. The first stage - from the middle of the XVII century. and until the end of the XIX century. can be called general didactic with a clearly felt need to "psychologize pedagogy" (according to Pestalozzi).

b. The second stage - from the end of the XIX century. until the beginning of the 1950s, when pedagogical psychology began to take shape as an independent branch, accumulating the achievements of pedagogical thought of previous centuries.

c. The third stage - from the middle of the XX century. until now. The basis for distinguishing this stage is the creation of a number of psychological learning theories proper, i.e. development of the theoretical foundations of pedagogical psychology.

Pedology(from the Greek pais - a child and logos - a word, science; lit. - the science of children) - a trend in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, due to the penetration of evolutionary ideas into pedagogy and psychology and the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy

Questions for self-examination

1. What is the subject of educational psychology?

2. Indicate the features of the historical change in the subject of educational psychology.

3. What is the essence of the biogenetic and sociogenetic directions in the development of educational psychology?

4. Name the main tasks of educational psychology.

5. How is the unity of developmental psychology and educational psychology manifested in the system of psychological knowledge about the child?

6. What are the main areas of action of educational psychology and pedagogy?

7. Name the main branches of educational psychology.

8. Describe the main problems of educational psychology.

9. What is the essence of the problem of the relationship between development and learning?

10. Expand the applied aspect for pedagogical practice of solving the problem of identifying sensitive periods in development.

11. What approaches to solving the problem of children's readiness for schooling exist in domestic science and practice?

12. What is the problem of optimal psychological preparation of the teacher and educator?

13. Name the main stages in the development of educational psychology.

14. What is characteristic for each of the stages of development of educational psychology?

15. What are the features of pedology as a science?

16. What are the main studies that have been launched since the 30s. 19th century in the field of procedural aspects of education and upbringing?

17. What a fundamentally new direction emerged in educational psychology in the 60s and 70s. 20th century?

Bibliography

1. Ananiev B.G. Man as an object of knowledge. SPb., 2001.

2. Biological and social in human development / Ed. ed. B.F. Lomov. M., 1977.

3. Blonsky P.P. Pedology: Book. for teachers. and stud. higher ped. textbook institutions / Ed. V.A. Slastenin. M., 1999.

4. Developmental and pedagogical psychology / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky. M., 1981.

5. Developmental and educational psychology: Reader: Proc. allowance for students. avg. ped. textbook institutions / Comp. I.V. Dubrovina, A.M. Parishioners, V.V. Zatsepin. M., 1999.

6. Developmental and educational psychology: Texts / Comp. and comment. O. Shuare Martha. M., 1992.

7. Volovich M.B. Not to torture, but to teach: On the benefits of pedagogical psychology. M., 1992.

8. Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1996.

9. Gabay T.V. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1995.

10. Zimnyaya I.A. Pedagogical psychology: Proc. allowance. Rostov n / a, 1997.

11. Ilyasov I.I. The structure of the learning process. M., 1986.

12. Kapterev P.F. Child and pedagogical psychology. M.; Voronezh, 1999.

13. Krutetsky V.A. Fundamentals of educational psychology. M., 1972.

14. The course of general, developmental and pedagogical psychology / Ed. M.V. Gamezo. M., 1982. Issue. 3.

15. Leites N.S. Age giftedness of schoolchildren: Proc. allowance for students. higher ped. textbook establishments. M., 2000.

16. Lingart I. The process and structure of human learning. M., 1970.

17. Nemov R.S. Psychology: Proc. allowance for students of higher education. ped. textbook institutions: In 3 books. Book. 2. Psychology of education. 2nd ed. M., 1995.

18. Obukhova L.F. Developmental psychology: Textbook. M., 1996.

19. Fundamentals of pedagogy and psychology of higher education / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky. M., 1986.

20. Workshop on developmental and educational psychology: Proc. allowance for students ped. in-tov / Ed. A.I. Shcherbakov. M., 1987.

21. Psychology and teacher / Per. from English. Hugo Münsterberg. 3rd ed., rev. M., 1997.

22. Workbook of a school psychologist / Ed. I.V. Dubrovina. M., 1995.

23. Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia: In 2 vols. M., 1993-1999.

24. Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. SPb., 1999.

25. Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Fundamentals of psychological anthropology. Human psychology: Introduction to the psychology of subjectivity: Proc. allowance for universities. M., 1995.

26. Talyzina N.F. Pedagogical psychology: Proc. allowance for students. avg. specialist. textbook establishments. M., 1998.

27. Feldstein D.I. Problems of developmental and pedagogical psychology: Fav. psychol. tr. M., 1995.

28. Fridman L.M., Kulagina I.Yu. Psychological handbook of the teacher. M., 1991.

29. Shevandrin N.I. Social psychology in education: Proc. allowance. M., 1995.

30. Yakunin V.Ya. Pedagogical psychology: Proc. allowance. M., 1998.

Practical lesson

Pedagogical psychology Stages of formation, subject, structure, problems.

Pedagogical psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of human development in terms of training and education. Psychology is the basic science for pedagogical psychology. Pedagogical psychology is a borderline, complex branch of knowledge that has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy and has become an area for joint study of the relationship between education, training and development of the younger generations.

The term "pedagogical psychology" was proposed by P.F. Kapterev in 1874

The subject of pedagogical psychology is the facts, mechanisms and patterns of the development of sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of the intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activities organized and managed by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process (Zimnyaya I.A., 1997).

Stages of formation of pedagogical psychology The first stage - from the middle of the XVII century. and until the end of the XIX century. can be called general didactic. Presented by the works of J.A. Komensky, J.-J. Rousseau, I. Herbart, A. Disterweg, K.D. Ushinsky, P.F. Kapterev. The range of problems studied: the relationship of development, training and education; creative activity of the student, the child's abilities and their development, the role of the teacher's personality, the organization of education.

The second stage - from the end of the XIX century. until the beginning of the 1950s, when pedagogical psychology began to take shape as an independent branch, accumulating the achievements of pedagogical thought of previous centuries. A lot of experimental work appears: studies of the features of memorization, the development of speech, intelligence, features of learning, etc. Their authors were also domestic scientists A.P. Nechaev, L.S. Vygotsky, P.P. Blonsky, J. Piaget, A. Vallon, J. Watson, as well as G. Ebbinghaus, J. Dewey, B. Skinner, K. and S. Bullers, E. Tolman, E. Clapered.

Test psychology, psychodiagnostics are developing - A. Wiene, T. Simon, R. Cattell. There is a psychological and pedagogical direction - pedology - as an attempt at a comprehensive (with the help of various sciences) study of the child. The American psychologist S. Hall, who in 1889 created the first pedological laboratory, is recognized as the founder of pedology. The term itself was invented by his student - O. Krisment.

The founder of Russian pedology was the brilliant scientist and organizer A.P. Nechaev. The main discoveries and theories of this period belong to: P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, M.A. Basov, A.R. Luria, K.N. Kornilov, A.N. Leontiev, D.B. Elkonin, V.N. Myasishchev and others. The range of problems studied: - the relationship of perception and thinking in cognitive activity - the mechanisms and stages of mastering concepts - the emergence and development of cognitive interests in children - the development of special pedagogical systems - the Waldorf school (R. Steiner), the school of M. Montessori.

The third stage - from the middle of the XX century. and up to the present. The basis for distinguishing this stage is the creation of a number of psychological learning theories proper, i.e. development of the theoretical foundations of pedagogical psychology. B.F. Skinner introduced the idea of ​​programmed learning in the 1960s. L.N. Landa formulated the theory of its algorithmization; in the 70s-80s. V. Okon, M.I. Makhmutov built an integral system of problem-based learning

In 1957-1958. the first publications of P.Ya. Galperin and then in the early 70s - N.F. Talyzina, which outlined the main positions of the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions. in the works of D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydov developed the theory of developmental learning, which arose in the 70s. based on the general theory of learning activity (formulated by the same scientists and developed by A.K. Markova, I.I. Ilyasov, L.I. Aidarova, V.V. Rubtsov and others), as well as in the experimental system of L.V. Zankov. The emergence of a fundamentally new direction in educational psychology - suggestopedia, suggestology G.K. Lozanov (60-70s of the last century), the basis of which is the teacher's control of the unconscious student's mental processes of perception, memory using the effect of hypermnesia and suggestion.

Psychologists have long recognized the fact that a person, as an active being, is capable of making conscious changes in his own personality, which means that he can engage in self-education. However, self-education cannot be realized outside environment, because occurs due to the active interaction of a person with the environment. In the same way, natural data are the most important factor in the mental development of a person. For example, anatomical and physical features are the natural conditions for the development of abilities in general. The formation of abilities is influenced by the conditions of life and activity, the conditions of education and training. However, this does not mean at all that the presence of the same conditions entails the same development of intellectual abilities. For example, one cannot ignore the fact that mental development is correlated with biological age, especially when it comes to brain development. And this fact must be taken into account in educational activities.

The domestic psychologist L. S. Vygotsky was the first to put forward the idea that education and upbringing play a controlling role in mental development. According to this idea, education is ahead of development and directs it. If a person does not learn, he cannot be fully developed. But education does not exclude from attention the internal laws of the development process. It must always be remembered that although education has enormous possibilities, these possibilities are far from endless.

With the development of the psyche, the stability, unity and integrity of the personality develops, as a result of which it begins to possess certain qualities. If the teacher in his educational activities takes into account the personal characteristics of the student, this gives him the opportunity to use pedagogical tools and methods in his work that correspond to the age criteria and abilities of the student. And here it is simply necessary to take into account individual characteristics, the degree of mental development of students, as well as the characteristics of psychological work.

The degree of mental development is indicated by what is happening in the mind of a person. Psychologists gave a characteristic of mental development and indicated its criteria:

• The rate at which the student learns the material
• The pace at which the student perceives the material
• The number of reflections as an indicator of the conciseness of thinking
• Degree of analytical-synthetic activity
• Techniques by which mental activity is transferred
• Ability to self-systematize and generalize the acquired knowledge

The learning process must be built in such a way that there is maximum benefit for the mental development of the student. Research in the psychological field allows us to conclude that, together with a system of knowledge, it is necessary to give a complex of methods of mental activity. The teacher, organizing the presentation of educational material, must also form mental operations in students, such as synthesis, generalization, abstraction, comparison, analysis, etc. highest value possesses the formation in students of the skill of systematization and generalization of knowledge, independent work with sources of information, comparing facts on each specific topic.

Speaking of elementary school children age group, then their development has its own characteristics. For example, it is during this period that priority should be placed on the development of scientific and creative abilities, because training should be not only a source of knowledge, but also a guarantor of mental growth. And if we talk about students, then the main focus of their scientific and creative abilities requires that the teacher has sufficient teaching experience and scientific and creative potential. This is due to the fact that in order to increase the mental activity of students, it is necessary to build classes with a focus on training highly qualified specialists with high intellectual potential, as well as being the backbone of society and its successors.

One of the factors that can improve the quality of the pedagogical process is the correspondence of educational methods and specific pedagogical conditions - this is the only way to achieve the proper assimilation of new knowledge and cooperation in the educational process of the teacher and student.

Developing the creative potential of students, it is important to pay special attention to the organization of classes. And here the talent and skill of the teacher consists in the use of innovative educational technologies and a creative approach to the material being studied during the lessons. This will help increase mental activity and expand the boundaries of thinking.

Educational institutions face the most important of the tasks - to implement the education of the younger generation, which will meet the requirements of modernity and scientific and technological progress, as well as equip students with independent basic knowledge and the foundations of relevant disciplines, awaken skills, abilities and knowledge and prepare them for a conscious choice of profession and active social and labor activity. In order for this goal to be achieved, it is necessary to achieve a conscious assimilation of the motives of education and to form in students a positive attitude and interest in the subject being studied.

From a psychological point of view, motives here are the reasons why students perform certain actions. Motives are formed by demands, instincts, interests, ideas, decisions, emotions, and dispositions. The motives for learning can be different, for example: to meet the requirements of parents and meet their expectations, the desire to develop together with peers, get a certificate or gold medal, go to university, etc. However, the highest motives are the desire to acquire knowledge in order to be useful to society, and the desire to know a lot.

The task of the teacher is to form in students precisely high, one might say, spiritual motives - educating faith in the need to acquire knowledge in order to bring social benefits, and cultivating an attitude towards knowledge as a value. If it is possible to form such a motive in students and instill in them an interest in acquiring knowledge, then all training will be much more effective. Such outstanding teachers as Y. Comenius, B. Diesterweg, K. Ushinsky, G. Schukina, A. Kovalev, V. Ivanov, S. Rubinshtein, L. Bazhovich, V. Ananiev and others spoke and wrote on the topic of interest in knowledge. . Interest in knowledge contributes to intellectual activity, increased perception, liveliness of thought, etc. In addition, he brings up the strong-willed and spiritual component of the personality.

If the teacher manages to arouse interest in his discipline, then the student receives additional motivation, wants to acquire knowledge and overcome obstacles in the process of obtaining it. He will be happy to work independently, devoting free time to the subject. If there is no interest in the subject, then the material does not leave any trace in the mind of the student, does not cause positive emotions and is quickly forgotten. The student himself in this case remains indifferent and indifferent to the process.

As it is easy to see, the main bias in pedagogical and educational activities is done precisely on the formation of a student's personality, which includes both interest and craving for knowledge, and the desire to develop and learn new things, master new skills, etc. Motivation should be encouraged and supported in every possible way by the teacher, and in many respects this is what determines the success and effectiveness of both pedagogical work (teaching) and the work of students (study).

And with the development of motivation, the conditions of the educational process are important, which should include not only a suitable form of presenting information, but also various forms of activity: hypotheses, mental modeling, observations, etc. Among other things, great importance the personality of the teacher also has: a teacher who respects and loves the discipline he teaches, always commands respect and attracts the attention of students, and his personal qualities and behavior during classes will directly affect how students will relate to classes.

In addition to this, you can use not only traditional teaching methods that are familiar to all of us, but also more modern ones that have not yet had time to “set the teeth on edge” and have either been introduced into educational activities not very long ago, or are just beginning to be introduced. But we will talk about teaching methods in our course, but for now we will conclude that any teacher who sets himself the goal of improving the quality of his work and making it more effective must certainly be guided by basic psychological knowledge.

In fact, you can talk about this topic for a very, very long time, but we only tried to make sure that you have a clear idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhow pedagogy is related to psychology, and why you should know about it. You can find a huge amount of information on the topic of educational psychology on your own on the Internet, and on the topic of psychology in general, we suggest that you take our specialized training (it is located). Now it would be more logical to continue the conversation on the topic of achieving the effectiveness of education, namely: we will talk about what principles should be followed so that the training and development of a person - your child, student or student - gives maximum results. The information will be useful to those involved.

10 principles for effective learning and development

Any principles of teaching depend on the goals that the teacher sets for himself. He can, for example, develop his student, expand his stock of general knowledge, contribute to the knowledge of the phenomena of the surrounding world, create the most suitable conditions for his development, etc. But it is very important to remember that there is no universal “recipe” according to which any person can become developed and smart, but there are several principles that will help a teacher become a real teacher. a good teacher and maximize the efficiency of their activities.

The first principle is to make sure that learning and development are necessary

First of all, it is necessary to conduct an accurate analysis of the skills and abilities of students and determine that there really is a need for training (this applies mainly to university graduates, people who want to improve their qualifications, undergo retraining, etc.). You also need to make sure that this need or problem is a training issue. For example, if a student does not fulfill the requirements of the educational process, it is necessary to find out whether he is provided with the conditions for this, whether he himself realizes what is required of him. In addition to this, an analysis of abilities, skills, knowledge, and other personality traits should be carried out. This will help to better understand in which direction the educational process should be directed. In a school setting, this can help determine the student's inclinations and predisposition to certain subjects.

The second principle is to create conditions conducive to learning and development

It is required to provide students with information about what it is necessary to acquire new knowledge, acquire new skills and develop, and why it is necessary. After that, you need to make sure that students understand the relationship between receiving education and its subsequent practical application in life. The effectiveness of learning is greatly increased if students are aware of the relationship between their learning and the opportunity to be useful to society as a whole and for themselves personally. Successful completion learning tasks can be encouraged through the recognition of progress, good grades and positive feedback. Thus, students will be even more motivated.

The third principle is to provide exactly the kind of training and development that will be useful in practice.

It is necessary to introduce into the pedagogical process such subjects and disciplines (knowledge, skills and abilities) that will not be of ephemeral utility in the minds of students, but will have a specific practical value. What students learn, they must apply in their lives. Without the relationship between theory and practice, learning loses not only its effectiveness, but also ceases to motivate, which means that the functions necessary for students to perform will be performed only formally, and the results will be mediocre, which completely contradicts the goals of education.

Principle four - include measurable objectives and specific results in training and development

The results of learning and development should be reflected in the activities of students, which is why the pedagogical process is necessary. It is important to make sure that the content of the training will lead students to comprehend the knowledge and acquire those skills that correspond to the learning objectives. Students should be informed about this, which means they will know what to expect from learning in general. In addition, they will know how to apply what they learn. The educational process should be divided into stages, each stage should pursue its own independent goal. Checking the assimilation of knowledge and skills should be carried out at each stage - these can be tests, tests, exams, etc.

The fifth principle is to explain to students what the learning process will consist of.

Students should know before they start learning what will be included in the educational process, as well as what is expected of themselves, both during and after training. Thus, they can concentrate on learning, studying the material and completing assignments without experiencing any discomfort or.

Principle six - convey to students that they are responsible for their own learning

Any teacher should be able to convey to the consciousness of students the information that, first of all, it is they who are responsible for their education. If they understand and accept this, then their attitude to learning will be serious and responsible. Preliminary conversations and preparation of assignments, active participation of students in discussions and practical exercises, the use of new and non-standard solutions in the pedagogical process are welcome, and students here also have the right to vote - they themselves can propose and choose the most convenient way of learning, lesson plan, etc. .d.

The seventh principle is to use all pedagogical tools

Each teacher should be able to operate the basic pedagogical tools. Among them are those related to the actions of the teacher, and those related to the interaction between the teacher and students. We are talking about the use by the teacher of diversity - as a way to constantly maintain attention and interest, clarity - as a way to competently present confusing and incomprehensible information, involvement - as a way to attract students to active activities, support - as a way to give students faith in their own strengths and the ability to learn new things. , and respectful attitude - as a way to form in students.

Principle eight - use more visual material

It is known for certain that 80% of information enters the brain from visual objects, and the teacher must take this into account in his work. For this reason, it is necessary to use as much as possible of what students can see with their own eyes, and not only read. Posters, diagrams, maps, tables, photographs, videos can be sources of visual information. For the same reason, in all classes and audiences there are always boards for writing with chalk or a marker - even the simplest data is always recorded. And the most effective method visual learning are experiences and practical laboratory works.

Principle nine - first convey the essence, and then the details

We have already mentioned this principle several times when we talked about the didactic work of Jan Comenius, but it will only be useful to mention it again. Learning is associated with the study of huge amounts of data, so you can’t convey everything to students at once. Large topics should be broken down into subtopics, and subtopics, if necessary, into smaller subtopics. First, you should explain the essence of any subject or problem, and only then move on to discussing the details and features. In addition, the human brain initially captures the meaning of what it perceives, and only then begins to distinguish details. The pedagogical process must comply with this natural feature.

Tenth principle - do not overload with information and give time for rest

In part, this principle is related to the previous one, but to a greater extent it is based on the fact that the human body must always have time to “recharge”. Even the most hardworking people realize the value of rest and good sleep. Learning is a complex process, and is associated with high nervous and mental stress, increased attention and concentration, and maximum use of the potential of the brain. Overwork is unacceptable in training, otherwise the student may be overwhelmed by stress, he will become irritable, and his attention is distracted - there will be no sense in such apprenticeship. According to this principle, students should receive as much information as their age characteristics allow, and always have time for rest. As for sleep, it’s 8 hours a day, so it’s better not to allow night vigils for textbooks.

On this, we will sum up the third lesson, and we will only say that students should learn to learn, and teachers should learn to teach, and understanding the psychological characteristics of the educational process can significantly increase the chances of success for both the teachers themselves and their students.

Surely you want to quickly find out what educational methods exist, because there is already plenty of theory, and incomparably less practice. But don't despair, the next lesson is about traditional methods learning - precisely those practical methods that have already been tested by many teachers and hardened over the years, those methods that you can put into practice.

Test your knowledge

If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. Only 1 option can be correct for each question. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on passing. Please note that the questions are different each time, and the options are shuffled.

Chapter 7. Pedagogical psychology and pedagogy

1. The subject of educational psychology and the subject of pedagogy

“A person, if he is to become a person, needs to be educated” Jan Comenius

Pedagogical psychology studies the conditions and patterns of formation of mental neoplasms under the influence of education and training. Pedagogical psychology has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy, has become a sphere of joint study of the relationship between education, training and development of the younger generations (B.G. Ananiev). For example, one of the pedagogical problems is the realization that the educational material is not assimilated in the way and not as much as we would like. In connection with this problem, the subject of pedagogical psychology is being formed, which studies the patterns of assimilation and learning. Based on existing scientific ideas the technique, practice of educational and pedagogical activity, substantiated by the psychology of the laws of assimilation processes, are being formed. Second pedagogical problem arises when the difference between learning and development in the learning system is realized. You can often meet a situation where a person learns, but develops very poorly. The subject of research in this case is the patterns of development of intelligence, personality, abilities, and a person in general. This direction of pedagogical psychology develops the practice of not teaching, but organizing development.

In modern pedagogical practice it is no longer possible to competently, effectively and at the level of modern cultural requirements build their activities without intensive introduction of scientific psychological knowledge. For example, since pedagogical activity consists in communication between a student and a teacher, in establishing contact between them, that is, a request for research, building scientific knowledge about the ways of communication between people and their effective use in building pedagogical processes. The profession of a teacher is probably the most sensitive to psychology, since the activity of a teacher is directly aimed at a person, at his development. The teacher in his activity encounters "live" psychology, the resistance of the individual to pedagogical influences, the significance of the individual characteristics of a person, etc. Therefore, a good teacher, interested in the effectiveness of his work, is involuntarily obliged to be a psychologist, and he gains psychological experience in his work. It is important that this experience is precisely serving the main practical task, it is the experience of a teacher who has certain pedagogical principles and methods of pedagogical activity. Above this pedagogical activity, psychological knowledge is built up as a service to it.

Pedagogical psychology studies the mechanisms, patterns of mastering knowledge, skills, abilities, explores individual differences in these processes, the patterns of formation of creative active thinking, determines the conditions under which effective mental development is achieved in the learning process, considers the relationship between the teacher and students, the relationship between students (V.A. Krutetsky). In the structure of educational psychology, the following directions can be distinguished: psychology educational activities(as a unity of educational and pedagogical activity); psychology of educational activity and its subject (pupil, student); psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject (teacher, lecturer); psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.

Thus, the subject of pedagogical psychology is the facts, mechanisms and patterns of the development of sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of the intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activity organized and managed by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process (I.A. Zimnyaya).

The subject of pedagogy is the study of the essence of the formation and development of the human personality and the development on this basis of the theory and methodology of education as a specially organized pedagogical process.

Pedagogy explores the following issues:

• study of the essence and laws of development and formation of personality and their influence on education;
• determination of the goals of education;
• development of the content of education;
• research and development of methods of education.

The object of knowledge in pedagogy is a person who develops as a result of educational relationships. The subject of pedagogy is educational relations that ensure the development of a person.

Pedagogy- this is the science of how to educate a person, how to help him become spiritually rich, creatively active and completely satisfied with life, find a balance with nature and society.

Pedagogy is sometimes seen as both a science and an art. When it comes to education, it must be borne in mind that it has two aspects - theoretical and practical. The theoretical aspect of education is the subject of scientific and pedagogical research. In this sense, pedagogy acts as a science and is a set of theoretical and methodological ideas on education.

Another thing is practical educational activity. Its implementation requires the teacher to master the relevant educational skills and abilities, which can have varying degrees of perfection and reach the level of pedagogical art. From a semantic point of view, it is necessary to distinguish between pedagogy as a theoretical science and practical educational activities as an art.

The subject of pedagogical science in its strictly scientific and precise understanding is education as a special function of human society. Based on this understanding of the subject of pedagogy, we will consider the main pedagogical categories.

The categories include the most capacious and general concepts reflecting the essence of science, its established and typical properties. In any science, categories play a leading role, they permeate all scientific knowledge and, as it were, link it into an integral system.

Education is a social, purposeful creation of conditions (material, spiritual, organizational) for the new generation to assimilate socio-historical experience in order to prepare it for social life and productive work. The category "upbringing" is one of the main ones in pedagogy. Characterizing the scope of the concept, they single out education in the broad social sense, including the impact on the personality of society as a whole, and education in the narrow sense - as a purposeful activity designed to form a system of personality traits, attitudes and beliefs. education is often interpreted in an even more local sense - as a solution to a specific educational task (for example, the education of certain character traits, cognitive activity etc.).

Thus, education is a purposeful formation of a personality based on the formation of 1) certain attitudes towards objects, phenomena of the surrounding world; 2) worldview; 3) behavior (as a manifestation of attitude and worldview). It is possible to single out the types of education (mental, moral, physical, labor, aesthetic, etc.).

Being a complex social phenomenon, education is the object of study of a number of sciences. Philosophy explores the ontological and epistemological foundations of education, formulates the most general ideas about higher purposes and the values ​​of education, according to which its specific means are determined.

Sociology studies the problem of the socialization of the individual, reveals the social problems of its development.

Ethnography examines the patterns of education among the peoples of the world at different stages historical development, the "canon" of education that exists among different peoples and its specific features.

Psychology reveals individual, age-related characteristics and patterns of development and behavior of people, which serves as the most important prerequisite for determining the methods and means of education.

Pedagogy, on the other hand, explores the essence of education, its laws, trends and development prospects, develops theories and technologies of education, determines its principles, content, forms and methods.

upbringing is a concrete historical phenomenon, closely connected with the socio-economic, political and cultural level of society and the state.

Humanity ensures the development of each person through education, passing on the experience of its own and previous generations.

Development is an objective process of internal consistent quantitative and qualitative changes in the physical and spiritual forces of a person.

It is possible to single out physical development (changes in height, weight, strength, proportions of the human body), physiological development (changes in body functions in the field of cardiovascular, nervous systems, digestion, childbirth, etc.), mental development (complication of the processes of reflection by a person of reality: sensation, perception, memory, thinking, feelings, imagination, as well as more complex mental formations: needs, motives of activities, abilities, interests, value orientations). The social development of a person consists in his gradual entry into society, into social, ideological, economic, industrial, legal and other relations. Having mastered these relations and his functions in them, a person becomes a member of society. The crown is the spiritual development of man. It means understanding his high purpose in life, the emergence of responsibility to present and future generations, understanding the complex nature of the universe and striving for constant moral improvement. A measure of spiritual development can be the degree of responsibility of a person for his physical, mental, social development, for his life and the lives of other people. Spiritual development is increasingly recognized as the core of the formation of personality in man.

The ability to develop is the most important property of a person throughout a person's life. The physical, mental and social development of the individual is carried out under the influence of external and internal, social and natural, controlled and uncontrolled factors. It occurs in the process of assimilation by a person of the values, norms, attitudes, patterns of behavior inherent in a given society at a given stage of development.

It may seem that education is secondary to development. In fact, their relationship is more complicated. In the process of educating a person, his development takes place, the level of which then affects education, changes him. A more perfect upbringing accelerates the pace of development. Throughout a person's life, upbringing and development mutually provide each other.

The category “upbringing" is widely used: it is possible to transfer experience, therefore, to educate, in the family, it is possible through the media, in museums through art, in the management system through politics, ideology, etc. But among the forms of upbringing, education stands out.

Education is a specially organized system of external conditions created in society for human development. Specially organized education system- these are educational institutions, institutions for advanced training and retraining of personnel. It transfers and receives the experience of generations according to the goals, programs, structures with the help of specially trained teachers. All educational institutions in the state are united in a single system of education, through which the management of human development takes place.

Education in the literal sense means the creation of an image, a certain completeness of education in accordance with a certain age level. Therefore, education is interpreted as a process and a result of a person's assimilation of the experience of generations in the form of a system of knowledge, skills, attitudes.

Education can be considered in different semantic planes:

1. Education as a system has a certain structure and hierarchy of its elements in the form of scientific and educational institutions of various types (preschool, primary, secondary, specialized secondary, higher education, postgraduate education).
2. Education as a process presupposes extension in time, the difference between the initial and final states of the participants in this process; manufacturability, providing changes, transformations.
3. Education as a result indicates the completion of an educational institution and certification of this fact with a certificate.

Education ultimately provides a certain level of development of the cognitive needs and abilities of a person, a certain level of knowledge, skills, and his preparation for a particular type of practical activity. Distinguish between general and special education. General education provides each person with such knowledge, abilities, skills that are necessary for him for comprehensive development and are basic for obtaining further special, vocational education. In terms of the level and volume of content, both general and special education can be primary, secondary and higher. Now, when the need for continuous education arises, the term “adult education”, post-graduate education, has appeared. Under the content of education V.S. Lednev understands "... the content of a triune holistic process, characterized, firstly, by the assimilation of the experience of previous generations (education), secondly, by the upbringing of the typological qualities of a person (education), and thirdly, by the mental and physical development of a person (development)" . Three components of education follow from here: training, education, development.

Education - specific view pedagogical process, during which, under the guidance of a specially trained person (teacher, lecturer), the socially conditioned tasks of educating a person are realized in close connection with their upbringing and development.

Learning is the process of direct transmission and reception of the experience of generations in the interaction of the teacher and students. As a learning process, it includes two parts: teaching, during which the transfer (transformation) of a system of knowledge, skills, experience of activity is carried out, and teaching (student activity) as the assimilation of experience through its perception, comprehension, transformation and use.

Principles, patterns, goals, content, forms and methods of teaching are studied by didactics.

But training, upbringing, education denote forces external to the person himself: someone educates him, someone educates him, someone teaches him. These factors seem to be transpersonal. But after all, a person himself is active from birth, he is born with the ability to develop. He is not a vessel into which the experience of mankind “merges”, he himself is capable of acquiring this experience and creating something new. Therefore, the main mental factors of human development are self-education, self-education, self-training, self-improvement.

self-education- this is the process of assimilation by a person of the experience of previous generations through internal mental factors that ensure development. education, if it is not violence, is impossible without self-education. They should be seen as two sides of the same process. Through self-education, a person can self-educate.
self-education is a system of internal self-organization for the assimilation of the experience of generations, aimed at their own development.
self-learning- this is the process of direct acquisition by a person of the experience of generations through his own aspirations and his own chosen means.

In terms of "self-education", "self-education", "self-education", pedagogy describes the inner spiritual world of a person, his ability to develop independently. External factors - upbringing, education, training - are only conditions, means of awakening them, putting them into action. That is why philosophers, educators, psychologists say that it is in the human soul that driving forces its development.

Carrying out upbringing, education, training, people in society enter into certain relations with each other - these are educational relations. Educational relations are a kind of relations between people, aimed at the development of a person through upbringing, education, and training. Educational relations are aimed at the development of a person as a person, i.e. on the development of his self-education, self-education, self-training. A variety of means can be included in educational relations: technology, art, nature. Based on this, such types of educational relations as "man-man", "man-book-man", "man-technology-man", "man-art-man", "man-nature-man" are distinguished. The structure of educational relations includes two subjects and an object. The subjects can be a teacher and his student, a teaching staff and a team of students, parents, i.e. those who transmit and who assimilate the experience of generations. Therefore, in pedagogy, subject-subject relations are distinguished. In order to better transfer knowledge, skills, and abilities, the subjects of educational relations use, in addition to the word, some materialized means - objects. Relationships between subjects and objects are commonly referred to as subject-object relationships. Educational relationships are a microcell, where external factors (upbringing, education, training) converge with internal human ones (self-education, self-education, self-training). As a result of such interaction, the development of a person is obtained, a personality is formed.

OBJECT of knowledge - a person developing as a result of educational relationships. The subject of pedagogy is educational relations that ensure the development of a person.

Pedagogy is the science of educational relations that arise in the process of the relationship of upbringing, education and training with self-education, self-education and self-training and aimed at human development (V.S. Bezrukova). Pedagogy can be defined as the science of translating the experience of one generation into the experience of another.

1.1 Goal setting in pedagogy and pedagogical principles

An important problem of pedagogy is the development and definition of the goals of education. A goal is something that you strive for, something that needs to be achieved.

The purpose of education should be understood as those predetermined (predicted) results in the preparation of the rising generations for life, in their personal development and formation, which they seek to achieve in the process. educational work. Thorough knowledge of the goals of education gives the teacher clear view about what kind of person he should form and, naturally, gives his work the necessary meaningfulness and direction.

It is known from philosophy that the goal inevitably determines the method and nature of human activity. In this sense, the goals and objectives of education are directly related to the definition of the content and methodology of educational work. For example, once in the old Russian school, one of the goals of education was the formation of religiosity, obedience, unquestioning observance of established rules of conduct. That is why a lot of time was devoted to the study of religion, methods of suggestion, penalties and even punishments, up to physical ones, were widely practiced. Now the goal of education is the formation of a personality that puts high the ideals of freedom, democracy, humanism, justice and has scientific views on the world around it, which requires a completely different method of educational work. IN modern school the main content of education and upbringing is the acquisition of scientific knowledge about the development of nature and society, and the methodology is becoming more democratic and humanistic, the authoritarian approach to children is being fought, the methods of penalties are actually used very rarely.

Different goals of education determine both its content and the nature of its methodology in different ways. There is an organic unity between them. This unity acts as an essential regularity of pedagogy.

The formation of a comprehensive and harmoniously developed personality not only acts as an objective need, but also becomes the main goal (ideal) of modern education.

What do they mean when they talk about the comprehensive and harmonious development of the personality? What is the content of this concept?

In the development and formation of personality, physical education, strengthening of its strength and health, development of correct posture and sanitary and hygienic culture are of great importance. It must be borne in mind that the proverb has developed among the people not without reason: in a healthy body - a healthy mind.

The key problem in the process of comprehensive and harmonious development of personality is mental education. An equally essential component of the comprehensive and harmonious development of the individual is technical training or familiarization with modern technological advances.

The role of moral principles in the development and formation of personality is also great. And this is understandable: only people with perfect morals, conscientious attitude to work and property can ensure the progress of society. At the same time, great importance is attached to the spiritual growth of the members of society, to familiarize them with the treasures of literature and art, and to form in them high aesthetic feelings and qualities. All this, of course, requires aesthetic education.

We can draw a conclusion about the main structural components of the comprehensive development of the individual and point out its most important components. Such components are: mental education, technical training, physical education, moral and aesthetic education, which must be combined with the development of inclinations, inclinations and abilities of the individual and its inclusion in productive work.

education should be not only comprehensive, but also harmonious ( from the Greek harmonia - consistency, harmony). It means that all aspects of the personality must be formed in close relationship with each other.

Of paramount importance is the creation in the school of conditions for mastering the basics of modern sciences of nature, society and man, giving teaching and educational work a developing character.

No less important is the fact that in the conditions of democratization and humanization of society, freedom of opinion and belief, young people do not acquire knowledge mechanically, but deeply process it in their minds and draw the conclusions necessary for modern life and education.

An integral part of the education and training of the younger generations is their moral upbringing and development. A comprehensively developed person must develop the principles of social behavior, mercy, the desire to serve people, take care of their well-being, maintain the established order and discipline. He must overcome selfish inclinations, above all appreciate the humane attitude towards a person, possess a high culture of behavior.

Civil and national education is of paramount importance in the comprehensive development of the individual. It includes fostering a sense of patriotism and a culture of interethnic relations, respect for our state symbols, the preservation and development of the spiritual wealth and national culture of the people, as well as the desire for democracy as a form of participation of all citizens in resolving issues of national importance.

Pedagogical principles

Principles are the basic starting points of any theory, science in general, these are the basic requirements for something. Pedagogical principles are the main ideas, following which helps to achieve the pedagogical goals in the best possible way.

Consider the pedagogical principles of the formation of educational relations:

The principle of conformity to nature is one of the oldest pedagogical principles.

Rules for the implementation of the principle of natural conformity:

• build the pedagogical process according to the age and individual characteristics of students;
• to know the zones of proximal development that determine the possibilities of students, to rely on them when organizing educational relations;
• direct the pedagogical process to the development of self-education, self-education, self-education of students.

The principle of humanization can be considered as a principle of social protection of a growing person, as a principle of humanizing relations between students and teachers and among themselves, when the pedagogical process is based on the full recognition of the civil rights of the pupil and respect for him.
The principle of integrity orderliness means achieving unity and interconnection of all components of the pedagogical process.
The principle of democratization means providing participants in the pedagogical process with certain freedoms for self-development, self-regulation and self-determination, self-education and self-education.
The principle of cultural conformity involves the maximum use in upbringing and education of the culture of the environment in which a particular educational institution is located (the culture of a nation, country, region).
The principle of unity and consistency of actions of the educational institution and the student's lifestyle is aimed at organizing a comprehensive pedagogical process, establishing links between all spheres of students' life, ensuring mutual compensation, complementarity of all spheres of life.
The principle of professional expediency ensures the selection of the content, methods, means and forms of training specialists, taking into account the characteristics of the chosen specialty, in order to form professionally important qualities, knowledge and skills.
Polytechnic principle is aimed at training specialists and general workers based on the identification and study of an invariant scientific basis common to various sciences, technical disciplines, production technologies, which will allow students to transfer knowledge and skills from one area to another.

All groups of principles are closely interconnected, but at the same time, each principle has its own zone of the most complete implementation, for example, for classes in the humanities, the principle of professional expediency is not applicable.

1.2 Basic concepts of didactics

Didactics studies the principles, patterns, goals, content, forms and methods of teaching.

Consider the basic concepts of didactics.

Education is a purposeful, pre-designed communication, during which the education, upbringing and development of the student is carried out, certain aspects of the experience of mankind, the experience of activity and knowledge are assimilated.

Learning as a process is characterized joint activities teacher and students, which has as its goal the development of the latter, the formation of their knowledge, skills, skills, i.e. general orienting basis for specific activities. The teacher carries out the activity denoted by the term "teaching", the student is included in the activity of teaching, in which his cognitive needs are satisfied. The process of learning is largely generated by motivation.

Typically, training is characterized as follows: it is the transfer of certain knowledge, skills and abilities to a person. But knowledge cannot be simply transferred and “received”, it can only be “obtained” as a result of the active activity of the student himself. If there is no his counter activity, then he does not have any knowledge, skills. Consequently, the relationship "teacher - student" cannot be reduced to the relationship "transmitter - receiver". The activity and interaction of both participants in the educational process are necessary. The French physicist Pascal correctly noted: “A student is not a vessel that needs to be filled, but a torch that needs to be lit.” Learning can be characterized as a process of active interaction between the teacher and the student, as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge and skills based on his own activity. And the teacher creates for the activity of the student the necessary conditions, directs it, controls it, provides it with the necessary means and information. The function of learning consists in the maximum adaptation of symbolic and material means for the formation of people's ability to act.

Education is a purposeful pedagogical process of organizing and stimulating active educational and cognitive activity of students in mastering scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, developing creative abilities, worldview and moral and aesthetic views.

If the teacher fails to arouse the activity of students in mastering knowledge, if he does not stimulate their learning, then no learning takes place, and the student can only formally sit out in the classroom. In the process of training, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

• stimulation of educational and cognitive activity of trainees;
• organization of their cognitive activity to master scientific knowledge and skills;
• development of thinking, memory, creative abilities;
• improvement of educational skills and abilities;
• development of a scientific outlook and moral and aesthetic culture.

The organization of training assumes that the teacher implements the following components:

• setting the goals of educational work;
• formation of students' needs in mastering the studied material;
• determination of the content of the material to be mastered by students;
• organization of educational and cognitive activities for students to master the material being studied;
• giving the educational activity of students an emotionally positive character;
• regulation and control of educational activities of students;
• evaluation of student performance.

In parallel, students carry out educational and cognitive activities, which in turn consist of the corresponding components:

• awareness of the goals and objectives of training;
• development and deepening of the needs and motives of educational and cognitive activity;
• understanding the topic of new material and the main issues to be mastered;
• Perception, comprehension, memorization of educational material, application of knowledge in practice and subsequent repetition;
• manifestation of emotional attitude and volitional efforts in educational and cognitive activity;
• self-control and making adjustments to educational and cognitive activity;
• self-assessment of the results of their educational and cognitive activities.

The pedagogical process is presented as a system of five elements (N.V. Kuzmina): 1) the purpose of learning (C) (why to teach); 2) content educational information(C) (what to teach); 3) methods, teaching methods, means of pedagogical communication (M) (how to teach); 4) teacher (II); 5) student (U). Like any large system, it is characterized by the intersection of links (horizontal, vertical, etc.).

The pedagogical process is a way of organizing educational relations, which consists in the purposeful selection and use of external factors for the development of participants. The pedagogical process is created by the teacher. Wherever the pedagogical process takes place, no matter what teacher creates it, it will have the same structure.

PURPOSE -» PRINCIPLES -> CONTENT - METHODS -> MEANS -> FORMS.

The goal reflects the end result of pedagogical interaction, which the teacher and the student are striving for. The principles are intended to determine the main directions for achieving the goal. Content is part of the experience of generations, which is transmitted to students to achieve the goal in accordance with the chosen directions. The content of education is a system of elements of the objective experience of mankind, specially selected and recognized by society (the state), the assimilation of which is necessary for successful activity in a certain area.

Methods are the actions of the teacher and the student, through which the content is transmitted and received. Means as materialized objective ways of "working" with content are used in unity with methods. Forms of organization of the pedagogical process give it a logical completeness, completeness.

The dynamism of the pedagogical process is achieved as a result of the interaction of its three structures: pedagogical, methodological and psychological. We have already considered the pedagogical structure in detail. But the pedagogical process also has its own methodological structure. To create it, the goal is divided into a number of tasks, in accordance with which the successive stages of the activity of the teacher and students are determined. For example, the methodological structure of the excursion includes a preparatory briefing, movement to the place of observation, observation of the object, fixation of what was seen, and discussion of the results. The pedagogical and methodological structure of the pedagogical process are organically interconnected. In addition to these two structures, the pedagogical process includes an even more complex structure - the psychological one: 1) the processes of perception, thinking, comprehension, memorization, assimilation of information; 2) manifestation by students of interest, inclinations, motivation for learning, dynamics of emotional mood; 3) ups and downs of physical and neuropsychic stress, dynamics of activity, performance and fatigue. Thus, in the psychological structure of the lesson, three psychological substructures can be distinguished: 1) cognitive processes, 2) learning motivation, 3) tension.

In order for the pedagogical process to “work”, “set in motion”, such a component as management is needed. Pedagogical management is the process of transferring pedagogical situations, processes from one state to another, corresponding to the goal.

The management process consists of the following components:

• goal setting;
• information support (diagnosing the characteristics of students);
• formulation of tasks depending on the purpose and characteristics of students;
• designing, planning activities to achieve the goal (planning the content, methods, means, forms);
• project implementation;
• control over the progress of execution;
• adjustment;
• summarizing.

It is possible to formulate the modern didactic principles of higher and secondary schools as follows:

1. Developing and nurturing education.
2. Scientific and accessible, feasible difficulty.
3. Consciousness and creative activity of students with the leading role of the teacher.
4. Visibility and development of theoretical thinking.
5. Systematic and systematic training.
6. The transition from learning to self-education.
7. Communication of education with life and practice of professional activity.
8. The strength of learning outcomes and the development of students' cognitive abilities.
9. Positive emotional background of learning.
10. The collective nature of learning and taking into account the individual abilities of students.
11. Humanization and humanitarization of education.
12. Computerization of education.
13. Integrativeness of teaching, taking into account interdisciplinary connections.
14. Innovative learning.

The most important didactic principles are the following:

• training should be scientific and have a worldview orientation;
• learning should be problematic;
• learning should be visual;
• learning should be active and conscious;
• training should be accessible;
• training should be systematic and consistent;
• in the process of learning in organic unity, it is necessary to carry out the education, development and upbringing of students.

In the 60-70s L.V. Zankov formulated new didactic principles:

• training should take place on high level difficulties;
• in training, it is necessary to observe a fast pace in the passage of the studied material;
• the mastery of theoretical knowledge is of paramount importance in teaching.

In the didactics of higher education, the principles of education are distinguished, reflecting the specific features of the educational process in high school: ensuring unity in the scientific and educational activities of students (I.I. Kobylyatsky); professional orientation (A.V. Barabanshchikov); professional mobility (Yu.V. Kiselev, V.A. Lisitsyn, etc.); problematic (T.V. Kudryavtsev); emotionality and majority of the whole learning process (R.A. Nizamov, F.I. Naumenko).

Recently, ideas have been expressed about the allocation of a group of principles of teaching in higher education, which would synthesize all existing principles:

• orientation higher education on the development of the personality of a future specialist;
• compliance of the content of university education with modern and predictable trends in the development of science (technology) and production (technology);
• the optimal combination of general, group and individual forms organization of the educational process at the university;
• rational use modern methods and teaching aids at various stages of specialist training;
• compliance of the results of training specialists with the requirements that are imposed by a specific area of ​​their professional activity, ensuring their competitiveness.

An important element of modern higher education is methodological training. The development of science and practice has reached such a level that the student is unable to learn and remember everything necessary for his future work. Therefore, it is better for him to assimilate such educational material, which, with its minimum quantity will equip him with the maximum amount of information and, on the other hand, will allow him to work successfully in a number of areas in the future. Here the task arises of the most economical selection of scientific knowledge in all subjects of study at the university. But this is not enough. At the same time, it is important to comprehensively develop the general intelligence of students, the ability to solve various problems.

Higher education and upbringing have their own special principles (unlike school ones), such as, for example:

• learning what is needed practical work after high school;
• taking into account the age, socio-psychological and individual characteristics of students;
• professional orientation of training and education;
• organic connection of education with scientific, social and production activities.