Forms of pedagogical activity. The main types of pedagogical activity. A clear understanding of each member of the groups about their responsibilities

To the main types pedagogical activity traditionally include educational and teaching, scientific and methodological cultural, educational and managerial activities.

Teaching is the management of cognitive activity in the learning process, is carried out within the framework of any organizational form, has strict time limits, a strictly defined goal and options for achieving it.

The most important criterion for the effectiveness of teaching is the achievement learning activities.

Modern domestic pedagogical theory considers training and education in unity. In the didactic aspect, the unity of education and upbringing is manifested in the common goal and development of the individual, in the real relationship of teaching, developing and educational functions.

The teacher combines a scientist and a practitioner: a scientist in the sense that he must be a competent researcher and contribute to the acquisition of new knowledge about the child, the pedagogical process, and practice in the sense that he applies this knowledge. The teacher is often faced with the fact that he does not find an explanation in the scientific literature and ways to solve specific cases from his practice, with the need to generalize the results of his work. The scientific approach to work, therefore, is the basis of the teacher's own methodological activity.

Scientific work the teacher is expressed in the study of children, the formation of their own "bank" of various methods, the generalization of the results of their work, and methodological - in the selection and development of a methodological topic.

Cultural and educational is an integral part of the teacher's activity. He acquaints parents with various branches of pedagogy and psychology, students with the basics of self-education, popularizes and explains the results of the latest psychological and pedagogical research, etc.

Managing a group of children, the teacher performs several functions: planning, organizing - ensuring the implementation of the plan, motivation or stimulation - this is the teacher's motivation to work to achieve the goal, control.

The composition of professionally conditioned properties and characteristics of a teacher includes the general orientation of his personality (social maturity, civic responsibility, professional ideals, humanism, highly developed, primarily cognitive interests, selfless attitude to the chosen profession), as well as some specific qualities:

- organizational;

- communicative;

- perceptual-gnostic;

- expressive;

- professional performance;

- physical and mental health.

In the study of the psychology of pedagogical activity, a number of problems can be identified. Among the most important of them are the following:

The problem of creativity and opportunities to overcome pedagogical stereotypes.

The problem of teacher professionalism.

The problem of psychological preparation of the teacher.

The problem of preparing teachers for systems of developmental education.

The problem of professional development of teachers.

Today there is a wide range of educational technologies. All of them are interconnected with each other, that is, they borrow technological methods from each other. For my work, I chose the technology of systemic-activity learning, because I wanted my students to work independently in the classroom, to be able to control and analyze their work, to "extract" and comprehend knowledge in feasible independent work.

Under transition general education schools At the Federal State Educational Standard, teachers are tasked with the formation of knowledge in accordance with new standards, universal actions that provide all academic subjects, with competencies that allow students to act in new environment on a qualitatively high level. The implementation of these tasks is fully facilitated by the system-activity approach to learning, which is embedded in the new standards.

The technology of the activity method means that the formulation of the educational problem and the search for its solution are carried out by students in the course of a dialogue specially built by the teacher. Children under the guidance of a teacher, but with a high degree of independence, answering questions, discover new knowledge.

Children are given the opportunity to develop the ability to see each phenomenon from different points of view. Possession of such a skill is one of the most important characteristics of modern man. It is associated with such personality traits as tolerance for other people's opinions and habits, willingness to cooperate, mobility and flexibility of thinking.

Based on the fact that the most important characteristic of the activity method is consistency, the system-activity approach is carried out at various stages of the lesson.

At the stage motivation (self-determination) for learning activities a conscious entry of students into the space of educational activity in the lesson is organized.

At this stage, the children are being prepared for work, with the tasks of the lesson being spoken out to them (“let's practice solving examples”, “let's get acquainted with a new computational technique”, etc.) Good wishes are also expressed to the children, moral support is given or children are invited to think, which will help you succeed in class.

At the stage updating knowledge the thinking of children is prepared for the study of new material, the reproduction of educational content, necessary and sufficient for the perception of the new, I indicate situations that demonstrate the insufficiency of existing knowledge. I include a problematic question that motivates the study of a new topic. At the same time, work is being done on the development of attention, memory, speech, mental operations.

At the stage problematic explanation of new material children's attention is drawn to the distinctive property of the task that caused the difficulty, then the purpose and topic of the lesson are formulated, I organize a leading dialogue aimed at building and understanding new material, which is fixed verbally, with signs and with the help of diagrams.

A system of questions and tasks is offered to students, leading them to independently discover something new. As a result of the discussion, a conclusion is drawn.

At the stage primary fixation students perform training exercises with obligatory commentary, speaking aloud the studied algorithms of action.

When conducting independent work with self-test used individual shape work. Students independently perform tasks on the application of the studied properties, rules, check them in the class step by step, comparing them with the standard, and correct the mistakes made, determine their causes, establish methods of action that cause them difficulty and they have to refine them. I create a situation of success for every child.

Next stage- inclusion in the knowledge system and repetition. Here, children determine the limits of applicability of new knowledge, train the skills of its use in conjunction with previously studied material, and repeat the content that will be required in the following lessons.

At debriefing lesson we fix the learned new knowledge and its significance. Self-assessment of educational activities is organized and homework is coordinated. Summing up the lesson helps the child to comprehend his own achievements and his problems.

Thus, the use of problem-based learning techniques, project methods and group forms of work makes it possible to implement an activity approach in teaching schoolchildren.

Learning through the activity method provides for such an implementation of the educational process, in which at each stage of education, a number of intellectual qualities of the individual are simultaneously formed and improved.

I believe that the correct use of the activity method of teaching in the classroom will optimize educational process, eliminate student overload, prevent school stress, and most importantly, make school learning unified educational process.

Today, every teacher can use the activity method in his practical work, since all the components of this method are well known. Therefore, it is enough just to comprehend the significance of each element and use them systematically in the work. The use of the technology of the activity method of teaching creates conditions for the formation of a child's readiness for self-development, helps to form a stable system of knowledge and a system of values (self-education).

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FORMS OF PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY

1. Problem based learning

Problem-based learning, like programmed learning, refers to active learning technologies. It is based on the solution of some problem, problem (from gr. problema - “task, task”). In a broad sense, a problem is a complex theoretical and practical issue that requires study and resolution; in science - a contradictory situation, acting in the form of opposite positions in the explanation of any phenomena, objects, processes and requiring an adequate theory to resolve it. (Situation - fr. situation - "position, situation, set of circumstances").

AT Psychological Dictionary we find the following definition: "The problem is the subject's awareness of the impossibility of resolving the difficulties and contradictions that have arisen in a given situation by means of available knowledge and experience."

Problem-based learning is “a system of optimal management of the cognitive, creative, theoretical and practical activities of students, based on a certain understanding of the patterns of the thinking process and the conditions for mastering knowledge, development cognitive abilities". There are other points of view. So, A. E. Steinmets considered problem-based learning "rather one of the promising ways to implement the principle of scientificity than the principle of learning." E. G. Mingazov resolutely asserted that problematicness is a didactic principle. V. Ya. Skvirsky rejected the opinion of E. G. Mingazov and believed that problem-based learning is not a method, not a form, not a principle, not a system, not a type of training, but its essence in “the specifics of interaction between participants in the educational process”. According to Ilyina, problem-based learning is not a system, not a method, but an approach that cannot be absolutized, but must be applied widely enough to develop the mental abilities of students. In addition to these ideas, in many works, problem-based learning is considered not directly, but in the context and more widely, as a means of activating learning, increasing the effectiveness of teaching a particular discipline, etc. (The concept of "learning activation" is broader than the concept of "problem learning".)

There was also no unanimity on the question of whether the problematic situation should be "created" or naturally "follow" from the very nature of the material. The majority was in favor of the teacher creating a problem situation, regardless of whether it reflects a real contradiction in science or is of a methodical nature (i.e. at this stage in science the question is clear, but the teacher creates a problem situation to activate the thinking of students). However, there were authors who believed that there was no need to artificially create problem situations, since the whole history of the development of scientific knowledge was full of real problems. The well-known writer M. Shaginyan also supported them: “Nature is full of problems, and they should not be created.”

Why did such disagreements arise? In my opinion, because there are phenomena that are known to mankind, let's call them objectively existing knowledge about these phenomena, scientific knowledge. But there are also phenomena about which humanity still knows nothing (our "cosmos"). In addition, it is important to remember that there is knowledge and subjective, that is, the knowledge of an individual, they can be complete (an erudite person) and incomplete. Therefore, it can be argued that the problem arises at the junction of the known (scientific knowledge) and the unknown, and not at the level of subjective and scientific knowledge.

Differences in disputes were observed precisely in the confusion of the level of contradiction that created the problem. One level is scientific, the contradiction between known scientific knowledge and the unknown, the other level is educational cognitive activity, i.e., the level of contradiction between subjective knowledge and objectively existing, but still unknown truth to a certain learner. The second level is not a problem from a scientific point of view, although, judging by the definition of the concept of "problem" given in the "Psychological Dictionary", the student may have difficulties, which he perceives as contradictions. But that's not a problem, it's just a lack of knowledge. However, the realization that he does not have enough knowledge to solve any problem is already a positive factor, because it is an incentive for improvement. That is why honest ignorance must be respected.

So, we have understood for ourselves that the real problem is always connected with science, it contains a clear contradiction, does not have a final answer to the main question of the problem, why is this so and not otherwise, and, therefore, requires a search, research work. I will give an example from the life of an outstanding Soviet physicist, laureate Nobel Prize, Academician Igor Evgenievich Tamm. “He often had to swim “against the current”. In the 1930s, he put forward the idea that the neutron has a magnetic moment. On the different languages famous physicists (including Niels Bohr) persuaded him to abandon this ridiculous idea: where does the magnetic moment of an electrically neutral particle come from? Igor Evgenievich stood his ground. And he turned out to be right." As you can see, he really faced a problem where scientific knowledge faced with an objectively existing, but unknown to mankind phenomenon, and he had to conduct a serious scientific research to get proof of your innocence.

Is this possible in the learning process? Yes, it's possible. But, you must admit that this rarely happens, because not only a student, but also a scientist does not always manage to see and solve a problem containing a hidden contradiction and gain new knowledge.

But what about the majority of students? Refuse problem-based learning? In no case! Just use it on a different level, on the level of students' cognitive activity. And here we will distinguish: a problematic issue, a problematic task, a problematic situation and a problem. We have already talked about the problem. Let's take a look at the rest now.

The problematic issue is a "one-act" action. For example, why do they say: “A cold south wind is expected tomorrow?” (You see the contradiction: south, but cold. Why?) Answer: because the cyclone. Can there be hot snow, fried ice, etc.? Such questions stimulate thought, activate thinking, make a person think (remember the question-answer method of Socrates!).

The problematic task involves a number of actions; to solve it, the student needs to independently conduct a partial search. For example, is it possible to bind a given type of structure under given conditions, say, a typical project, to a specific area? This is already a fairly large educational and cognitive task, the solution of which requires a special search for a method of action or finding some missing data: to conduct reconnaissance of the area, to make a geodetic survey, to investigate the soil in the laboratory, to determine the wind rose, etc.

A problem situation is a psychological state of intellectual difficulty that occurs in a person if he cannot explain new fact with the help of existing knowledge or perform a known action in the old ways familiar to him and must find a new one. Here there is a need to think actively, and, most importantly, to answer the question “why”. The need, as you know, gives rise to a motive that prompts a person to think and act. This is the essence of problem-based learning.

There are four levels of difficulty in learning:

1. The teacher himself sets the problem (task) and solves it himself with active listening and discussion by students. Remember the general didactic method of problem presentation!

2. The teacher poses a problem, students independently or under the guidance of a teacher solve it (partial search method). Here there is a detachment from the sample, opens up space for reflection.

3. The student poses a problem, the teacher helps to solve it.

4. The student himself poses the problem and solves it himself. The third and fourth levels are the research method.

Choose which level is suitable for your learning technology, depending on the level of preparation of students.

So, problem-based learning at the third, fourth level, and sometimes at the second level is associated with research, therefore, problem-based learning is learning to solve non-standard problems, during which students learn new knowledge and acquire skills and abilities. creative activity which is very important for an engineer. Is not it? That is why in the 80s they “remembered” about problem-based learning, and higher authorities sent appropriate “circulars” to universities and technical schools about the need to use problem-based learning in higher and secondary specialized educational institutions.

However, despite letters of instruction from above, problem-based learning technology was slowly introduced into the educational process, because, like everything in life, it had its advantages and disadvantages. (Remember the joke: God created man, and the devil slipped him an appendix? Or another example, the antonymy of the language: good - bad, boring - fun, etc.)

The advantages of problem-based learning are, first of all, great opportunities for developing attention, observation, activating thinking, activating the cognitive activity of students; it develops independence, responsibility, criticality and self-criticism, initiative, non-standard thinking, caution and determination, etc. In addition, which is very important, problem-based learning ensures the strength of the acquired knowledge, because they are obtained in independent activity, this is, firstly, and, secondly, the interesting “effect of unfinished action” known in psychology, discovered by B.V. Zeigarnik, works here. Its essence is that actions that were started but not completed are remembered better: “There is an actual connection between the beginning of the action and the expected result, and we are tormented by the unfinished, we remember the unfinished. It is always alive in us, always in the present.” An example of this is an experiment conducted by teachers of the Department of Pedagogy and educational psychology Moscow State University: students were offered a task. In the case when they solved it to the end, the next day they hardly remembered the condition of the problem, the course of the solution, etc. If they were told: “That’s enough, that’s enough for today,” that is, the problem remained unsolved, the next day the students remembered well the condition and the beginning of solving this problem, although the day before they were not warned about the need to solve it to the end. This is the effect of unfinished action. Does this mean that we also need to start and not finish solving a problem? Of course not. If the task is supposed to be solved in the time allotted to us, then, naturally, it must be completed. But problem-based learning is associated with research and therefore involves a solution of the problem extended in time. A person gets into a situation like a figure solving a creative task or problem. He constantly thinks about it and does not get out of this state until he solves it. It is due to this incompleteness that solid knowledge, skills and abilities are formed.

The disadvantages of problem-based learning include the fact that it always causes difficulty for the student in the learning process, so it takes much more time to comprehend and find solutions than traditional learning. In addition, as with programmed learning, the development of problem-based learning technology requires a teacher of great pedagogical skill and a lot of time. Apparently, it is precisely these circumstances that do not allow the widespread use of problem-based learning. But it is necessary to strive for it, and every good teacher uses it, since problem-based learning is associated with research and, therefore, differs from the traditional one, "since any research is a process of obtaining new knowledge, and learning is a process of transferring already known knowledge." It remains to add that problem-based learning meets the demands of the day: teach by exploring, explore by teaching. This is the only way to form creative personality, i.e., to fulfill the most important task of our pedagogical work.

2. Business games

The pedagogical essence of business games is to activate thinking, increase the independence of the future specialist, introduce the spirit of creativity in training, bring it closer to career guidance, this is what brings business games closer to the technology of problem-based learning, but the main thing is to prepare students for practical professional activity. In problem-based learning, the main question is "why", and in business games - "what would happen if ..."

Naturally, business games must be prepared, keeping in mind not only the material itself, but also the students. It is recommended to start with simulation exercises. They differ from the business game in their smaller volume and limited tasks. For example: who is better able to use uniform norms and rates? Who will pay less for the use of production assets?

Imitation exercises are closer to educational than business games. Their goal is to provide students with the opportunity in a creative environment to consolidate certain skills, focus on some important concept, category, law. The condition must contain a mandatory contradiction, i.e. there is already an element of problem in the simulation exercise.

After simulation exercises, you can move on to role-playing or business games. In the educational process of the university, purely conditionally, this type of training can be called a business game. It is rather a role-playing game, as the student does not yet fully master his specialty. A business game, in my opinion, is the playing of a particular situation by specialists. Their purpose is to define a process or its result. The purpose of role-playing (or, conditionally, business) games is to form certain skills and abilities of students in their active creative process. The social significance of business (role-playing) games is that in the process of solving certain problems, not only knowledge is activated, but also collective forms of communication develop.

Typically, two types of game elements are used:

General situational tasks in the psychology and ethics of management related to the solution of certain industrial conflicts;

Highly specialized tasks related to the content of one or another major subject.

Tasks of the teacher:

Select the necessary situations-illustrations on a specific material and situations-problems;

Prepare didactic material: task cards for each, it is possible with a hint about the nature of his activity;

Select subgroups of students (3-4 people);

Set a task (problem) on which the group should express its point of view, for example: the opinion of a foreman, worker, foreman, site manager, etc. on a controversial issue, about how to win the trust of the members of the brigade;

Think over the expected answers and remarks;

Show interest in students, constant attention, etc.

Here, as in problem-based learning, all didactic methods can be used: explanatory and illustrative, reproductive, problem presentation, partially search, research.

Positive moments in the application of business games:

As a rule, students experience pleasure, there is high motivation, emotional saturation of the learning process;

Preparation for professional activity takes place, knowledge-skills are formed, i.e. students learn to apply their knowledge;

Post-game discussion contributes to the consolidation of knowledge;

Operational communication (external and internal).

Negative sides:

High labor intensity of preparation for the lesson (for the teacher);

The teacher must be an attentive and friendly director throughout the game, and there may be several groups at the same time;

Great tension for the teacher, as he is focused on continuous creative search. In addition, the teacher must also be an actor (possess acting data);

Unwillingness of students to work with the use of a business game;

Not all teachers themselves know how to conduct a business game;

Difficulties with replacing a teacher who conducted business games.

General principles of organizing a business game:

1. Division of students into groups of 3-8 people.

2. Unlimited number of participating groups.

3. A clear idea of each member of the groups about their responsibilities.

4. The business game must be limited in time (class, week, etc.).

5. Mandatory analysis of the game after its completion.

The business game provides for the achievement of how. educational and educational goals of a collective nature based on acquaintance with the real; organization of work in industry, economy, etc.

Expected Efficiency:

1) cognitive: in the process of a business game, students get acquainted with the dialectical methods of researching an issue (problem), the organization of the work of the team, the functions of their “position” by personal example;

2) educational: in the process of a business game, the consciousness of belonging of its participants to the team is formed; the degree of participation of each of them in the work is jointly determined; there is a relationship of participants in the decision common tasks; all issues are collectively discussed, which forms criticality, restraint, respect for the opinions of others, attentiveness to teammates;

3) developing: in the process of a business game, they develop logical thinking, the ability to find answers to the questions posed, speech, speech etiquette, the ability to communicate in the process of discussion.

Business games are built on the principles of teamwork, practical usefulness, democracy, openness, competitiveness, maximum employment of everyone and unlimited prospects for creative activity within the framework of a business game.

A business game can last not only in one lesson, but also for a longer time. For example, a business game on the development of self-government or the business game "On duty", which a teacher from one of the colleges in Novocherkassk played during the semester, turning an uninteresting lesson for students into an interesting business game. The group is divided into subgroups of 5-7 people. Each subgroup is on duty for one week (first, second, etc.). Each group has its own responsibilities. The foreman ensures the organization of work, is responsible for everything before the head of the group. The assistant foreman assists him, replaces him, and conducts part of the work. The trade union leader of the brigade is an assistant to the trade union leader of the group, as well as the foreman in the organization of labor discipline, leisure of the brigade, the physical organizer of the brigade is the assistant of the physical organizer of the group, provides sports competitions with each other in the brigade and between brigades. The safety and sanitation instructor provides it all. The supply manager of the brigade provides it with inventory, monitors the condition of the premises and makes the necessary minor repairs. The controller - the accountant of the brigade - ensures quality control of the work performed by the brigade, helps the foreman in accounting for the work of each member of the brigade. As you can see, the responsibilities are clearly divided. Since the results of the business game were discussed at the end of each week, the "acceptance certificate" of the premises and inventory was filled out. Students learned to order, acquired the skills that they will need in their future professional activities as a master of industrial training in a vocational school.

Business games "came into fashion" also in the 80s. There have been many works devoted to them. Business games were often called a teaching method, but this is not a method, but a learning technology that uses, as already mentioned, all general didactic teaching methods.

3. Modular learning

In the late 80s - early 90s of the XX century. another term from the field of technical sciences “breaks into” pedagogy, namely “module”. They began to talk and write about the “principle of modular education”, “modular education system”, etc. Let's see what it is.

The word "modulus" (from the Latin modulus - "measure") has three meanings:

1) in the exact sciences - the name given to any particularly important coefficient or quantity;

2) in mathematics, the modulus of the system of logarithms is used, i.e. constant factor for logarithms of one system;

3) a unit of measure, for example, in architecture, a part of a building that serves as a unit of measurement to give proportion to the building as a whole and its parts; in classical architecture, the modulus is usually equal to the radius or diameter of the column at its base.

In pedagogy, the module is considered as an important part of the whole system, without the knowledge of which the didactic system does not “work”. According to its content, it is a complete, logically completed block. It often coincides with the theme of the discipline. However, unlike the topic in the module, everything is measured, everything is evaluated: assignment, work, student attendance, starting, intermediate and final level of students. The module clearly defines the learning objectives, tasks and levels of study of this module, and names the skills and abilities. As in programmed learning, in modular learning, too, everything is pre-programmed: not only the sequence of learning educational material, but also the level of its assimilation and quality control of assimilation.

A selected list of basic concepts, skills and abilities for each module must be brought to the attention of students. They must know their thesaurus (i.e., the range of knowledge, skills and abilities), with the grade or number of points given in accordance with the quantitative measure for assessing the quality of mastering the educational material given in the module.

On the basis of the thesaurus, questions and tasks are compiled, covering all types of work on the module, and submitted for control (usually a test) after studying the module.

The entire course may contain at least three modules. A course project, work or assignment is an independent module that is completed throughout the semester. The cycle can also be considered as an independent module. laboratory work if their execution does not coincide in time with the study of the module material.

When developing the technology of modular training in special disciplines in technical higher and secondary specialized educational institutions, it is important that each module gives a completely specific independent portion of engineering knowledge, forms the skills necessary for an engineer, and thereby develops the engineering abilities of students. After studying each module, according to the test results, the teacher gives the students the necessary recommendations. By the number of points scored by a student out of possible ones, he himself can judge the degree of his advancement.

Thus, modular training is necessarily associated with the rating assessment of students' cognitive activity, thereby contributing to the improvement of the quality of education. However, not every rating system allows this. Chosen arbitrarily, without evidence of its effectiveness and even expediency, it can lead to formalism in the organization of the educational process.

In order to expand the teacher's ability to differentiate the assessment of knowledge and skills of students, it is recommended, using the results of modular control, to determine the quality indicator of student training on a scale of 0 - 5 with a step of at least 0.10. Such an indicator will allow assessing even the weak knowledge of those students who have not yet reached the required level, but study with diligence. The transition from a quality indicator to an assessment is carried out as follows:

Modular training programs are formed as a set of modules. When determining the overall grade for the course, the results of the rating are included in it with the appropriate weighting factors established by the department. The sum of the weight coefficients, including the exam coefficient, must be equal to one:

Mi+? e = 1.

After the end of the semester, based on the module grades, the overall semester grade is determined, which is taken into account when determining the results of the final control in the subject. The semester grade is determined as a weighted average:

S c = ?? mi s mi

?? mi

where S c , S mi are the semester and module grades, respectively;

? mi -- weight coefficients;

n is the number of modules in a semester.

Students can increase their module grades only during the semester, they are not subject to an increase in the exam. Students can increase their overall score only through an examination, which includes the quality of answers to additional questions.

Overall grade for the course S g = ?? mi S mi + ?S e, where S e, ? e -- examination score and its weighting factor. When conducting the final control of the exam, the questions should be of a general nature, reflect the basic concepts of the course, and not repeat the questions of module control, and students should familiarize themselves with the examination questions in advance.

As you can see, modular learning is a clear learning technology based on evidence-based data that does not allow impromptu, as is possible in traditional learning, and the rating assessment of a student's learning allows characterizing the quality of his engineering training with a greater degree of confidence.

On behalf of the Ministry of Higher and Secondary Specialized Education of the RSFSR, three universities in Russia: the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, the Ivanovo Textile Institute and the Taganrog Radio Engineering Institute, taking modular education as a basis, tried to develop a new learning technology - RITM, i.e. the development of individual creative thinking of students. Dividing the 36-week academic year into 6 cycles, here every sixth week students were freed from all types of current studies, completely giving it to their intensive independent work and intermediate control of knowledge on the modular structure of the course. A clearly developed rating assessment of knowledge was carried out at the following levels: starting, technical, creative, theoretical and synthesis. Naturally, such training was conducted in all disciplines at the university by all teachers. And this gave positive results, although not everyone liked the modular training and knowledge rating assessment, since the new technology is as laborious for the teacher as programmed and problem-based learning, as well as business games, and requires great professionalism from him. A lot of preliminary work is needed to prepare banks of creative tasks, test batteries, knowledge assessment, tests, etc. based on the rating system. In general, we need a clear program of training and control, the rejection of authoritarian and the transition to a pedagogy of cooperation, which is based on subject-subject relations.

But Rhythm brings positive results to students. The adaptation of first-year students to study at a university thanks to this learning technology is more successful than with traditional learning, thanks to the features of the RITM system, which includes the modular construction of the course, the cyclic organization of the educational process, level training, the rating system for evaluating the result of educational activities and student learning, carried out test method, the absence of traditional credit and examination sessions.

4. Waldorf pedagogy

Waldorf pedagogy is a peculiar form of education that developed in Germany. In 1919, the workers of the Waldorf Astoria tobacco factory (hence the name) in Stuttgart, together with the factory director, proposed to the German scientist Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925) that they create a school for their children. R. Steiner, a follower of Goethe's natural philosophy, wrote and published 300 volumes of works in many branches of science and art: medicine, cosmology, history of religion, architecture, sculpture, of which 25 volumes are devoted to pedagogy and education: "The general doctrine of man as the basis of pedagogy" . He was an erudite man, a great scientist, Andrei Bely, Mikhail Chekhov and others collaborated with him. It was he who created the first school, which, in accordance with the principles of alternative pedagogy, can be classified as the so-called free schools. It is based on man as a spiritual being. The essence of the Waldorf technology of education is the development of a person's ability to feel, that is, the education of feelings, the formation of artistic taste, the ability to create creatively on the basis of knowledge of nature. (Not bad, right?) It was a bold move in the midst of decadence after World War I. The main thing is not the needs of production or the socio-political situation that determined the goals and content of education, but the person, his capabilities and needs are the leading principles of the content of education /98, p. 40/. (How modern that sounds!) Soviet time school teachers and teachers of universities and technical schools were servants of the state, for whom the state order was important, and Waldorf teachers were “servants of the child”, and not “servants of society”. That is why it is said that "the Waldorf school is not a worldview school."

The Waldorf School is also organizationally different from traditional schools. It operates on the basis of self-government, there is no director, the school is managed by the teaching staff, parents participate in the life of the school. The school is free from centralized state regulation.

Now in Germany, 1% of students study in Waldorf schools. Education there is paid, differentiated (for low-paid parents, the fee is lower). The salary of a teacher is also differentiated. Schools are independent, but the state supports them and takes on approximately 70-80% of the total costs without interfering in the learning process. “In the “classical” Waldorf schools, training lasts 12 years. Those wishing to enter the university graduate from the 13th, "entrant" class. University enrollment rates are lower, and sometimes slightly higher, than those of regular public school graduates.”

Features of the Waldorf school: from the 1st to the 8th grade, all classes are taught by one teacher, there is no rigid curriculum, no grades are given, meaningful evaluation characteristics are used. After the 8th grade, classes are taught by subject teachers. The organization of classes is also different. The first two hours in the morning, one general education subject is studied (mathematics or zoology, etc.). No other subject is taught on this day, but this subject will be taught daily for 3-6 weeks, which creates the so-called "epoch". (Similar to modular education?) In an academic year, there can be, for example, 1 "epoch" in chemistry, 2 in literature, etc. After two hours of the “epoch”, classes are held in the areas of the art cycle (drawing, music, eurythmy), as well as foreign languages(there are two of them). These activities do not involve sitting in a classroom.

R. Steiner set as his pedagogical goal "the disclosure of the" secret "powers of man with the help of a system of special exercises (Eurythmics, music, mysteries, meditation, etc." Great importance attached to eurhythmia (from Gr. eurhythmia - “harmoniousness, tact, euphony”), i.e. the uniformity of rhythm in music, dance and speech is studied. Aesthetic education permeates all subjects, even "the teaching of subjects of the natural and mathematical cycle is conducted by a classroom teacher not traditionally, but on a figurative and aesthetic basis (Goetheanism)".

A large place in the Waldorf school is occupied by labor education: book binding; carpentry; woodcarving; knitting; modeling; sewing dolls, costumes, etc. The boys are taught to work in the smithy, cultivate the land, grind grain, lay stoves, and bake bread.

Thus, the Waldorf school differs from the traditional ones. She found her followers not only in Germany, but also in Holland, Switzerland, Scandinavia, England, Austria, USA, South America, as well as in Russia, in St. Petersburg, for example. There is school number 22 in Novocherkassk, which teaches children using Waldorf pedagogy.

What can we borrow from the Waldorf school, which has become an international cultural and educational movement? First of all, personality-oriented pedagogy, humanization and humanitarization of education, development of students' abilities to feel the world around them.

More on the topic § 1. Pedagogical activity: forms, characteristics, content:

2.2. PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY: ESSENCE, OBJECTIVES, CONTENT 2.2.1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONCEPT "ACTIVITY"
§ 2. Style of pedagogical activity General characteristics of the style of pedagogical activity
Chapter 1. General characteristics of pedagogical activity
3. The content and forms of joint activities of the school and the family
§ 2. Motivation of pedagogical activity General characteristics of pedagogical motivation
2.2. The content and organization of practical training aimed at the formation of an individual style of pedagogical activity of the future teacher

FORMS OF PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY

1. Problem based learning

Problem-based learning, like programmed learning, refers to active learning technologies. It is based on the solution of some task, problem (from gr. problema - “task, task”). In a broad sense, a problem is a complex theoretical and practical issue that requires study, resolution; in science - a contradictory situation, acting in the form of opposite positions in the explanation of any phenomena, objects, processes and requiring an adequate theory to resolve it. (Situation - fr. situation - “position, situation, set of circumstances”).

In the Psychological Dictionary we find the following definition: "Problem - the subject's awareness of the impossibility of resolving the difficulties and contradictions that have arisen in a given situation by means of available knowledge and experience."

Problem-based learning is “a system of optimal management of the cognitive, creative, theoretical and practical activities of students, based on a certain understanding of the patterns of the thinking process and the conditions for acquiring knowledge, developing cognitive abilities.” There are other points of view. So, A. E. Steinmets considered problem-based learning "rather one of the promising ways to implement the principle of scientificity than the principle of learning." E. G. Mingazov resolutely asserted that problematicness is a didactic principle. V. Ya. Skvirsky rejected the opinion of E. G. Mingazov and believed that problem-based learning is not a method, not a form, not a principle, not a system, not a type of training, but its essence in “the specifics of interaction between participants in the educational process”. According to Ilyina, problem-based learning is not a system, not a method, but an approach that cannot be absolutized, but must be applied widely enough to develop the mental abilities of students. In addition to these ideas, in many works, problem-based learning is considered not directly, but in the context and more widely, as a means of activating learning, increasing the effectiveness of teaching a particular discipline, etc. (The concept of "learning activation" is broader than the concept of "problem learning".)

Differences in disputes were observed precisely in the confusion of the level of contradiction that created the problem. One level is scientific, the contradiction between known scientific knowledge and the unknown, the other level is educational cognitive activity, i.e. the level of contradiction between subjective knowledge and objectively existing, but still unknown truth to the learner. The second level is not a problem from a scientific point of view, although, judging by the definition of the concept of "problem" given in the "Psychological Dictionary", the student may experience difficulties, which he perceives as contradictions. But that's not a problem, it's just a lack of knowledge. However, the realization that he does not have enough knowledge to solve a problem is already a positive factor, because it is an incentive for improvement. That is why honest ignorance must be respected.

So, we have understood for ourselves that the real problem is always connected with science, it contains an obvious contradiction, does not have a final answer to the main question of the problem, why is this so and not otherwise, and, therefore, requires search, research work. I will give an example from the life of the outstanding Soviet physicist, Nobel Prize winner, Academician Igor Evgenievich Tamm. “He often had to swim “against the current”. In the 1930s, he put forward the idea that the neutron has a magnetic moment. In different languages, famous physicists (including Niels Bohr) persuaded him to abandon this ridiculous idea: where does the magnetic moment of an electrically neutral particle come from? Igor Evgenievich stood his ground. And he turned out to be right." As you can see, he really faced a problem where scientific knowledge collided with an objectively existing, but unknown to mankind phenomenon, and he had to conduct a serious scientific search in order to obtain evidence of his innocence.

A problematic issue is a "one-act" action. For example, why do they say: “A cold south wind is expected tomorrow?” (You see the contradiction: south, but cold. Why?) Answer: because the cyclone. Can there be hot snow, fried ice, etc.? Such questions stimulate thought, activate thinking, make a person think (remember the question-answer method of Socrates!).

A problem situation is a psychological state of intellectual difficulty that arises in a person if he cannot explain a new fact with the help of existing knowledge or perform a known action in the old familiar ways and must find a new one. Here there is a need to think actively, and, most importantly, to answer the question “why”. The need, as you know, gives rise to a motive that prompts a person to think and act. This is the essence of problem-based learning.

There are four levels of difficulty in learning:

1. The teacher himself sets the problem (task) and solves it himself with active listening and discussion by students. Remember the general didactic method of problem presentation!

2. The teacher poses a problem, students independently or under the guidance of a teacher solve it (partial search method). Here there is a detachment from the sample, opens up space for reflection.

3. The student poses a problem, the teacher helps to solve it.

4. The student himself poses the problem and solves it himself. The third and fourth levels are the research method.

Choose which level is suitable for your learning technology, depending on the level of preparation of students.

So, problem-based learning at the third, fourth, and sometimes second level is associated with research, therefore, problem-based learning is learning to solve non-standard problems, during which students learn new knowledge and acquire skills and abilities of creative activity, which is very important for an engineer. . Is not it? That is why in the 80s they “remembered” about problem-based learning, and higher authorities sent appropriate “circulars” to universities and technical schools about the need to use problem-based learning in higher and secondary specialized educational institutions.

The advantages of problem-based learning are, first of all, great opportunities for developing attention, observation, activating thinking, activating the cognitive activity of students; it develops independence, responsibility, criticality and self-criticism, initiative, non-standard thinking, caution and determination, etc. In addition, which is very important, problem-based learning ensures the strength of the acquired knowledge, because they are obtained in independent activity, this is, firstly, and, secondly, the interesting “effect of unfinished action” known in psychology, discovered by B. V. Zeigarnik, works here . Its essence is that actions that were started but not completed are remembered better: “There is an actual connection between the beginning of the action and the expected result, and we are tormented by the unfinished, we remember the unfinished. It is always alive in us, always in the present.” An example of this is an experiment conducted by teachers of the Department of Pedagogy and Pedagogical Psychology of Moscow State University: students were offered a task. In the case when they solved it to the end, the next day they hardly remembered the condition of the problem, the course of the solution, etc. If they were told: “That’s enough, that’s enough for today,” that is, the problem remained unsolved, the next day the students remembered well the condition and the beginning of solving this problem, although the day before they were not warned about the need to solve it to the end. This is the effect of unfinished action. Does this mean that we also need to start and not finish solving a problem? Of course not. If the task is supposed to be solved in the time allotted to us, then, naturally, it must be completed. But problem-based learning is associated with research and therefore involves a solution of the problem extended in time. A person gets into a situation like a figure solving a creative task or problem. He constantly thinks about it and does not get out of this state until he solves it. It is due to this incompleteness that solid knowledge, skills and abilities are formed.

Forms of pedagogical activity

Pedagogical activity is the educative and educational influence of the teacher on the student (students), aimed at his personal, intellectual and activity development, at the same time acting as the basis of his self-development and self-improvement. This activity arose in the history of civilization with the advent of culture, when the task of “creating, storing and transferring to the younger generations of samples (standards) of production skills and norms of social behavior” acted as one of the decisive ones for social development, starting from the primitive community, where children studied in communicating with elders, imitating, adopting, following them, which was defined by J. Bruner as “learning in context”. According to J. Bruner, mankind knows "only three main ways of teaching the younger generation: the development of the component components of the skill in the process of playing among higher primates, learning in the context of native peoples, and the abstract method of the school separated from direct practice" .

Gradually, with the development of society, the first classes, schools, gymnasiums began to be created. Having undergone significant changes in the content of education and its goals in different countries at different stages, the school nevertheless remained a social institution, the purpose of which is the transfer of sociocultural experience through the pedagogical activities of teachers and educators.

Characteristics of pedagogical activity

“I - (minimal) reproductive; the teacher is able to tell others what he knows himself; unproductive.

II - (low) adaptive; the teacher is able to adapt his message to the characteristics of the audience; unproductive.

Considering pedagogical activity, we mean its highly productive nature.

Subject content of pedagogical activity

Ways of transferring socio-cultural experience in pedagogical activity are explanation, demonstration (illustration), joint work with students to solve educational problems, direct practice of the student (laboratory, field), trainings. The product of pedagogical activity is the formed individual experience of the student in the totality of its axiological, moral and ethical, emotional and semantic, subject, evaluative components. The product of pedagogical activity is evaluated at the exam, tests, according to the criteria for solving problems, performing educational and control actions. The result of pedagogical activity as the fulfillment of its main goal is the personal, intellectual development of the student, improvement, his formation as a person, as a subject of educational activity. The result is diagnosed by comparing the student's qualities at the beginning of training and at its completion in all plans of human development [see, for example, 189].

§ 2. Motivation of pedagogical activity

general characteristics pedagogical motivation

One of the most important components of pedagogical activity is its motivation. In pedagogical activity, the same motivational orientations are distinguished as in educational activity (see Part IV, Chapter 2). These are external motives, for example, the motive of achievement, and internal motives, for example, orientation towards the process and result of one's activity. External motives for the prestige of work in a certain educational institution, the motives for the adequacy of remuneration are often correlated with the motives of personal and professional growth, self-actualization. At the same time, in pedagogical activity as a specific form of interaction between an adult and a child, such an orientation as dominance, or the motive of power, appears. One of the researchers of pedagogical abilities, N.A. Aminov, believes that in order to show how the motive of power is related to pedagogical activity, it is necessary to dwell first on the point of view of G.A. Murray, who back in 1938 defined the motive of power, calling it the need for domination [see. also 154, p. 60-69]. G.A. Murray singled out the main signs of the need for dominance and the actions corresponding to it. The signs or effects of the need for dominance are the following desires:

Control your social environment;

Influence and direct the behavior of others through advice, seduction, persuasion, or command;

Encourage others to act according to their needs and feelings;

Seek their cooperation;

Convince others that you are right.

ON THE. Aminov also notes the correspondence to these desires of certain actions, which, according to G.A. Murray, grouped as follows:

To persuade, lead, convince, persuade, regulate, organize, lead, manage, supervise;

Subjugate, rule, dominate, trample, dictate conditions, judge, establish laws, introduce norms, draw up rules of conduct, make decisions;

Prohibit, restrict, resist, dissuade, punish, deprive of liberty;

Charm, conquer, make you listen to yourself, acquire imitators, set fashion.

Based on the analysis of theories of explanation of the phenomenon of power (A. Adler, D. Cartwright, J. French, V. Raven, D. McClelland, etc.) N.A. Aminov affirms the importance of A. Adler's thesis about the special role of striving for perfection, for excellence and social power in the complex of leading motives for personal development.

Undoubted interest, according to N.A. Aminov, for the analysis of the resources of power in the educational and pedagogical process, the classification of its sources proposed by J. French and V. Raven is presented. At the same time, it is essential that some of the types of power motive (reward, punishment) are a manifestation, as already shown, of two sides of achievement motivation, according to K. Hekhauzen. ON THE. Aminov (1990) cites for illustration the following types of power motive, correlated with the teacher's pedagogical actions.

1. The power of reward. Its strength is determined by the expectation to what extent A (teacher) can satisfy one of the motives of B (student) and to what extent A will make this satisfaction dependent on B's desired behavior for him.

2. The power of punishment. Its strength is determined by the expectation of B (the student), firstly, by the extent to which A (the teacher) is able to punish him for actions that are undesirable for A by frustration of this or that motive, and, secondly, to what extent A will make the dissatisfaction of the motive dependent on the undesirable behavior B.

3. Normative power. We are talking about internalized by B (student) norms, according to which A (teacher) has the right to control the observance of certain rules of behavior and, if necessary, insist on them.

4. The power of the standard. It is based on the identification of B (the student) and B's desire to be like A.

5. The power of the connoisseur. Its strength depends on the amount attributed to A (teacher) by B (student) of special knowledge in the subject being studied, intuition or learning skills within the subject.

6. Information power. It occurs when A (teacher) has information that can make B (student) see the consequences of his behavior at school or at home in a new light.

Of interest is the age-related staging of motivation by power, according to McClelland. Analyzing this approach to the power motive, N. A. Aminov noted that McClelland not only identified four stages in the development of power motivation (assimilation, autonomy, self-affirmation and productivity), but also interpreted each of them in the context age development. Thus, the basis of the first stage (“Something gives me strength”) is the relationship between mother and child. From the standpoint of orientation towards power in the later years of life, it means relationships with people who can support, protect, inspire, inspire, i.e. increase the individual's sense of self-power. The second stage ("I give myself strength") corresponds to the middle period of childhood, associated with the acquisition of independence from the mother and increasing control over their behavior. The third stage (“I impress others”) characterizes a teenager for whom authority has ceased to exist, who constantly changes friends, whose participation in the competition is determined by the opportunity to prevail over other people. And the fourth stage (“I want to do my duty”) corresponds to the adult state, i.e. a mature person who devotes his life to serving a cause or a particular social group.

Naturally, for the analysis of the motivation of pedagogical activity, the last stage in the development of the power motive is of greatest interest. ON THE. Aminov specifically emphasizes that in the motivational basis for choosing pedagogical activity, the motive of power is always focused on the benefit of others (help through knowledge). This is also important for predicting the success of pedagogical activity. Under the provision of assistance, altruistic (pro-social) behavior, according to N.A. Aminov, any actions aimed at the well-being of other people can be understood. This position is consonant with the humanistic interpretation of learning motivation, although formulated on a different basis and expressed in different terms.

Motivation and centering

The motivational-required sphere of the teacher's activity can be interpreted in terms of his centering, according to A.B. Orlov. Centering is understood in humanistic psychology as “a specially constructed simple interaction between a teacher and students, based on empathy, non-judgmental acceptance of another person and the congruence of experiences and behavior. Centering is interpreted simultaneously and as a result personal growth teachers and students, the development of their communication, creativity, subjective (personal) growth in general. According to A.B. Orlov, the teacher's personal centering is an "integral and system-forming" characteristic of the teacher's activity. At the same time, it is assumed that it is the nature of the teacher's centralization that determines the whole variety of this activity: style, attitude, social perception, etc.

A.B. Orlov describes seven main centralizations, each of which can dominate both in pedagogical activity in general and in individual, specific pedagogical situations:

Egoistic (centering on the interests of one's "I");

Bureaucratic (centered on the interests of the administration, leaders);

Conflict (centered on the interests of colleagues);

Cognitive (centering on the requirements of the means of education and upbringing);

Altruistic (centered on the interests (needs) of students);

Humanistic (teacher's focus on the interests (manifestations) of his essence and the essence of other people (administrator, colleagues, parents, students)).

In humanistic psychology, the most developed humanistic centering. It seems to oppose the first six centralizations that reflect reality. traditional learning. Changing the direction of these centralizations or "decentration" of the teacher is one of the psycho-corrective tasks modern education in general and school education in particular.

Pedagogical activity is characterized by subject content, external structure, in which a special role is assigned to motivation, correlated with various teacher's centralizations and the motive of dominance.

Questions for self-examination

1. How does the subject of pedagogical activity differ from the subject of any other type of activity?

2. What is included in the structure of external and internal motives of pedagogical activity?

3. How can one explain the inclusion of the motive of power in the structure of the motivation of pedagogical activity?

4. Which of the seven identified by A.B. Orlov teacher's centralization can have the most negative impact on pupils (students)?

Literature

Kuzmina N.V. Professionalism of the activity of the teacher and the master of industrial training of the vocational school. M., 1989.

Markova A.K. Psychology of professionalism. M., 1996.

Markova A.K. Psychology of teacher's work. M., 1993.

Mitina L.M. Psychology of teacher's professional development. M., 1998.

Mitina L.M. The teacher as a person and professional. M., 1994.

Orlov A.B. Psychology of personality and human essence: paradigms, projections, practices. M., 1995.

Rean A.A. Psychology of pedagogical activity. Izhevsk, 1994.