The main functions and types of pedagogical activity. Forms of pedagogical activity Difficulties with replacing a teacher who conducted business games

A.M. Novikov

BASICS OF PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY

In the previous article of this cycle (specialist magazine, 2010, Nos. 11, 12.), the educational activity of the student was considered. Let's now consider pedagogical activity teacher, meaning, first of all, the activities of a professional teacher: teacher, teacher, educator, etc.

Features of pedagogical activity

Let us ask ourselves the question - is the activity of a teacher a managerial activity? Yes, definitely. The teacher guides the student, manages the process of his education. Let's make a brief digression into the general theory of control.

Fig.1. Control Theory Components

The concept of a general theory of social systems management

In social systems (where both the governing body and the managed system are subjects - people or organizations) MANAGEMENT IS AN ACTIVITY (of governing bodies) TO ORGANIZE ACTIVITIES (of controlled subjects). With regard to the pedagogical system "teacher - student (students)", this statement means that managerial activity of the teacher is to organize the educational activities of the student (students).

The main components of the structure of control theory are shown in fig. one.

Management Goals consist in achieving the required results of the activity of the student (students).

Management efficiency criteria. In accordance with the approaches of modern control theory, The effectiveness of control is determined by the efficiency of the state in which the controlled system found itself under the influence of this control. With regard to the pedagogical system, the effectiveness of the managerial activity of the teacher is determined by the effectiveness of the results of the student's activities, which he achieved as a result of pedagogical (managerial) influence. And not by the quality of filling out plans and reports, not by the “beautifulness” of training sessions, etc.

Management methods . For a fixed (with a given composition and structure) social system the following management methods:

- institutional (administrative, command, limiting, coercive) management;

- motivational management (management that encourages controlled subjects to perform the required actions);

- information management (based on the communication of information, the formation of beliefs, ideas, etc.).

Control types. From the point of view of regularity, repeatability of controlled processes, the following types of control can be distinguished:

- project management (managing the development of the system in dynamics - changes in the system, innovation, etc.);

- process management (management of the functioning of the system "in statics" - regular, repetitive activities under constant external conditions).

Since for the student his educational activity is always innovative, then in the pedagogical system "teacher - student (student)" there will always be only project management. We have already talked about pedagogical projects in one of the previous articles (specialist magazine, 2010, no. 1).

For control in dynamics, in turn, we can select reflex (situational) control and forward control. Reflex control is called management, in which the governing body reacts to changes or external influences as they appear, without trying to predict them or influence them. Advanced control is based on the forecast of conditions and requirements for the functioning of the system.

For the activity of a teacher, this is an essential classification. A good teacher is distinguished by the ability to stay ahead of events. As the saying goes, “to lead is to foresee.”

Control functions. Allocate four main functions management: planning, organizing, stimulating and controlling. The continuous sequence of the implementation of these functions constitutes the cycle of management activities (see Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Management cycle

Since these functions fit into the logic of the project organization, including pedagogical project(see the magazine "Specialist" 2010, No. 1), we will not consider them in detail here.

Forms of management . Choosing different bases of classification, there are different forms of management.

1. Depending on the structure of the management system, the following are distinguished:

- hierarchical management (the management system has a hierarchical structure, and each subordinate has one and only one boss);

- distributed management (one subordinate can have several bosses);

- network management (different management functions at different times can be performed by different elements of the system; in particular, the same employee can be a subordinate in one of his functions, and a leader in other functions).

In fact, in the systems "teacher - student (students)" all three forms of management take place:

For a student, for example, in a school, a class teacher is an example of hierarchical control for him. Or in the classroom for one specific subject, he is subordinate to only one teacher;

For the same student, all teachers who teach all the subjects that he studies are at the same time "bosses" for him - an example of distributed control;

In student self-government, the same student can be a subordinate in one of his functions, and a leader in other functions. In addition, with the brigade organization of the educational process, in extracurricular activities, temporary groups can be created, where also the same student can be a subordinate in one of his functions, and a leader in other functions. These are examples of network management.

The ratio of these forms of control is an interesting pedagogical problem.

2. Depending on the number of managed entities, it is possible to single out such forms of management as:

- individual management (management of one subject) - in our case, individual education systems;

- collective management (management of a group of subjects) - in our case, group, collective forms of education.

3. Depending on whether management takes into account the individual characteristics of managed entities, the following forms are distinguished:

- unified management (when the same management mechanisms are applied to a group of, in the general case, different subjects);

- personalized control (when the control action depends on the individual characteristics of the controlled subject).

Again, it is clear that the degree to which a teacher takes into account individual characteristics in his pedagogical activity can be completely different depending on his desire, experience, abilities, as well as the size of the class or group. In addition, such well-known areas of pedagogical research as the individualization of education, student-centered education, etc., will also be included here.

Controls- orders, instructions, instructions, plans, norms, standards, regulations, etc. In our case, the teacher, as a rule, does not issue written administrative documents (except for a note to parents with an invitation to come to school), he usually has oral controls, but the essence of these controls is the same - administrative, normative.

Management principles:

Principle 1 (hierarchies). It is generally recognized that hierarchy as a division of functions in complex systems is a manifestation of the need for specialization, which specifies the functions of each element of this system and allows the most rational use of its objectively limited capabilities. The managing body can have no more than 7+-2 subordinate entities in its subordination, i.e. them there should be no more so-called Miller numbers XE "Miller number"7 ± 2. Otherwise, the division of controlled entities into several groups and the next, higher level of the hierarchy is introduced. The content of this requirement can be explained by the limited capacity of the human RAM, its ability to analyze no more than 5÷9 components of the component in the RAM. With regard to the activities of a teacher, this principle means that when the number of students in a group or class exceeds this number, the teacher inevitably doomed to overload .

Principle 2 (purposefulness) . Any management is carried out with a specific purpose. In particular, the goal of management in the pedagogical system "teacher - student (students)" is to educate the student (students) in accordance with the established requirements for volumes, quality and on time.

Principle 3 (efficiency). The implemented control must have maximum efficiency under given restrictions. That is, to be optimal. In particular, the achievement of a fixed goal of the system's activity should be achieved with the optimal use of resources. So, in relation to our case, the teacher must achieve the goals of education, training and development of the student (students) with optimal expenditure of time and effort. Moreover, the efforts of both the student (students), and their own.

Principle 4 (responsibility) . The governing body is responsible for the effectiveness of the activities of the managed entities and the entire system as a whole (quality, timing, resource consumption). The effectiveness of management is assessed only by the effectiveness of the activities of managed entities. That is, in relation to the activities of a teacher, this principle means that the effectiveness of his work is assessed by the results of the educational activities of students - their upbringing, training, development, and not by how “beautifully” he conducts classes, how many classes he held, how he designed plans, reports, etc.

Principle 5 (non-intervention). The intervention of the governing body in the activities of controlled entities occurs if and only if the entities subordinate to it do not provide the implementation of the entire range of necessary functions. With regard to the activities of a teacher, this principle means the need to comply with the measure in intervention, "regulation" of the student's activities, the danger of "overregulation".

Principle 6 (openness). The management of the system should be aimed at the maximum expedient involvement of all stakeholders (society, authorities, individuals and legal entities, social movements, etc.) in the process of system development. With regard to the activities of a teacher, this principle means the openness of the pedagogical system "teacher - student (students)", the publicity of their joint activities for others.

Principle 7 (regulation of management activities) . In accordance with this principle, all management functions should be regulated. That is, both the governing body and managed entities must act and interact on the basis of rules, norms and criteria that are clearly defined and known to all parties. With regard to pedagogical activity, for example, today the evaluation criteria are kept “in their head” by the teacher, the teacher, and the student, as a rule, does not represent them.

Principle 8 (uncertainties). The uniqueness and unpredictability of human activity in specific conditions, the presence of human free will determine the uncertainty of the activity of the social system. In particular, the pedagogical process is largely unpredictable:

As from the side of the student (students), his (their) reactions to the control actions of the teacher;

So it is with the teacher himself. The teacher is a living person with his own problems, joys and sorrows, with his own moods. Therefore, his activities are also characterized by uncertainty.

Therefore, when planning any actions, the teacher must take into account the possible uncertainty of the situation, predict various scenarios for the development of joint activities with the student (students). And, in addition, in pedagogical activity always plays a significant role improvisation- the ability, in accordance with the situation, to quickly reorganize the planned actions in a new direction. Because of this circumstance, they say that pedagogy is not only a science, but also an art.

Principle 9 (feedback) is perhaps one of the most well-known principles of management. In accordance with this principle, effective control requires information about the state of the controlled system and the conditions of its operation. Moreover, the implementation of any control action and its consequences must be monitored and controlled by the governing body. This fully applies to the managerial activity of the teacher. For example, a survey at the beginning of a lesson is for the teacher, among other things, a means of feedback. Or a professor, asking students questions during a lecture, receives "feedback" - how students understand him.

Principle 10 (Rational Centralization) – or, otherwise, delegation principle- argues that in any complex system there is a rational level of centralization of management: what exactly should the governing body take on, and what should be decided by the managed subjects/objects. So, for example, a lecturer can allow students to attend lectures freely, or, in the opposite case, mark all absent students. The teacher determines whether to solve certain problems on the board to him, or to call one of the students, or the students will solve them on their own in notebooks.

Principle 11 (democratic governance). It is sometimes referred to as the principle of anonymity. This principle is to ensure equal conditions and opportunities for all participants in the system without any a priori discrimination. For pedagogical activity, this principle means that the teacher should treat all students equally, not openly show sympathy or antipathy for certain students, not have "favorites" and "outcasts". Which, as we know, is very often not observed in mass pedagogical practice.

Principle 12 ( adequacy). Or what is the same - the principle of necessary diversity. This principle in systems theory was formulated by W.R. Ashby XE "Ashby U.R." \ f " a ” . It states that when creating a system capable of coping with the solution of a problem that has a certain, known variety (complexity), it is necessary to ensure that the system has even more variety (the availability of means and methods for solving the problem) than the variety (complexity) of the problem being solved. Or she was able to create this necessary diversity in herself (she could develop new means and methods for solving the problem). That is, in other words, the system must have the necessary “margin of maneuver”.

In particular, in relation to management: the management system (its structure, complexity, functions, etc.) must be adequate (respectively, the structure, complexity, functions, etc.) of the managed system. In other words, in relation to the pedagogical system "teacher - student (students)", this principle reflects the anciently known requirement that the teacher should know and be able to do more than the student (students). Among teachers, there is even such a slang principle: “a teacher feels confident in a lesson if he knows 10 times more on a topic than he tells students.”

This requirement is generally known. But in modern times:

The teacher knows and is able to do more than the student in his subject. And in other subjects studied by students, he forgot the material long ago (at a comprehensive school). Or did not study at all (in a vocational school). Then it turns out that the entire teaching staff in total knows and knows more than the student. Not just any individual teacher. The question is interesting and not obvious - in connection with the introduction of the object, including the modular type of building the content of education, the ever-widening distribution of the method of educational projects, apparently, one subject training for the teacher, the teacher will no longer be enough, his horizons should be significantly expanded;

Today, everything fed to a growing person in school, college, university educational material is in line with a much larger flow of free information coming from TV screens, computers, the Internet, and print media. Moreover, schoolchildren, students, as a rule, have much more free time than teachers to watch TV, “surf” the Internet, etc. And as a result, the student is often more informed, at least about current events, than the teacher. He seems to "know" more. And this is a serious problem of modern education. Principle 13 ( unification). Equivalent systems should be described and considered within the framework of a single approach (both in terms of their parameters and in terms of performance criteria). This does not exclude, however, the need to take into account the specifics of each specific system. For pedagogical systems, this means, for example,Nification of requirements for the student (students) on the part of the teaching staff of the school, college, etc., i.e. all teachers, teachers of this educational team must apply the same requirements for students. The same Unified state exams as unified national quality requirements general education. Or as uniform requirements of state educational standards.

Principle 14 (efficiency). This principle requires that when managing in real time, the information necessary for making decisions arrives on time, that management decisions themselves are made and implemented promptly in accordance with changes in the managed system and the conditions for its operation. In particular, the teacher must immediately respond to certain actions of the student (students). So, for example, there is a pedagogical requirement about the inadmissibility of postponing punishment.

Principle 15 ( coordinated management). This principle reflects the requirement that the control actions within the existing institutional constraints should be maximally consistent with the interests and preferences of the controlled entities. For the teacher, the implementation of this principle is a serious creative task - after all, in every situation, the teacher is faced with the unique personality of the student, each personality is deeply individual.

Principle 16 ( pre-reflection) - when developing control actions, it is necessary to predict and anticipate possible changes the state of the managed system. That is, the teacher must predict the development of events, build predictive models of the activity of the student (students).

Principle 17 ( adaptability) – the managed system is dynamic, and the adopted management decisions should be reviewed in a timely manner in accordance with changes in the state of the managed system and the conditions for its operation. For example, the process of forming one or another skill in a student goes through a number of stages, stages. And in accordance with them, the influence of the teacher on this process should change.

Thus, a brief digression into the general theory of management turned out to be useful - many requirements for the teacher and his activities follow from this theory in a deductive way as special cases of general provisions. In addition, an appeal to the general theory of management makes it possible to systematize the managerial activity of a teacher. Moreover, it turns out that it is possible and expedient to transfer the results of research into the problems of managing systems of various nature to pedagogical systems.

Now, after a brief digression into the general theory of control, we proceed directly to features of professional pedagogical activity. It is clear that the object teaching profession is a person, and the subject is the activity of his development, education, training. Pedagogical activity belongs to the group of professions "man - man". One of the most important characteristics of pedagogical activity is its joint nature: it necessarily involves a teacher and the one whom he teaches, educates, and develops. This activity cannot be an activity only “for oneself”. Its essence lies in the reflection of activity “for oneself” on activity “for another”, “for others”. This activity combines the self-realization of the teacher and his purposeful participation in changing the student (the level of his training, upbringing, development, education). But the transition of activity “for oneself” into activity “for another”, “for others” is characteristic not only of pedagogical activity. But also, for example, the activities of a doctor. What are the features of the actual pedagogical activity?

1. Above, we examined the managerial activity of the teacher, i.e. activities to organize the educational activities of the student (students). Are the features of pedagogical activity limited only to this aspect - the aspect guides learners (students) management education process? Of course not!

2. The teacher is the most important source socialization student. In the broadest sense, the teacher is an example of a Human. The student “looks like a mirror into another person” (K. Marx) and thereby debugs, clarifies, corrects the images of his Self. And in this regard, it is extremely important that the teacher be personality: personality is formed by personality, character is formed by character. We all studied at school, at the university ... Each of us had a lot of teachers and lecturers. And how many of those who are remembered, who influenced our character, interests, life choices? A. S. Pushkin dedicated the following lines to his teacher A. P. Kunitsin:

Kunitsyn tribute of heart and wine!

He created us, he raised our fire,

They set the cornerstone

They lit a clean lamp...

The brightness of the teacher's personality is determined by his ideological conviction, moral position, level of spirituality. An important role is played by the image of the teacher, including clothing, hairstyle, his charisma, his acting skills. Even when a teacher, lecturer tells the educational material, it is important not only what he says, but also as he says, how it contributes to the transmitted information their personality, their personal attitude.

Where it acts as a simple pump pumping students with knowledge, it can be successfully replaced by a textbook, dictionary, problem book, computer. In this respect, such a teacher, a walking truth, has always been a humorous figure, an object of joke and ridicule, a comic character. Chekhov's "man in a case" is terrible because it is an example of complete impersonality, feelings and thoughts that have finally disappeared.

3. The teacher must constantly learn by yourself. After all, as already mentioned, the educational activity of the student is always productive, innovative. And it cannot be imposed reproductive teacher's activity. Only productive activities for productive activities. Therefore, the third feature of pedagogical activity is constant self-development.

Thus, we have identified three main features of pedagogical activity, which together make up the system. It is in the aggregate, in the complex (Fig. 3). Figuratively speaking, the teacher is "and the boss, and the actor, and the student."

Rice. 3. Classification of the main features of pedagogical activity

Forms, methods, means of pedagogical activity

Speaking of forms of pedagogical activity needs to be divided immediately. When pedagogical activity is carried out jointly with the student (students), these will be forms of joint activity, i.e. forms pedagogical process(See the next article in this series). When the teacher alone prepares for classes, is engaged in the design of pedagogical systems, is engaged in reflective analysis, etc. - it will be mainly individual shape activities. In addition, the collective form is the participation of a teacher in the work of methodological (cyclic) commissions, sections, departments, pedagogical, academic councils, etc.

Methods of pedagogical activity. Recall that in the previous article of this series (Specialist magazine, 2010, No. ....), speaking about the methods of educational activity of the student, we divided the methods:

On the one hand, on theoretical and empirical methods;

On the other hand, on methods-operations and methods-actions.

Similarly, the methods of pedagogical activity of the teacher:

Theoretical methods-operations. These are mental operations: analysis, synthesis, etc. (Fig. 4). These methods are inherent in all types of activity without exception;

Theoretical methods-actions. These are methods of designing pedagogical systems (scenario method, planning methods, etc.), as well as methods of pedagogical reflective analysis (see. magazine "Specialist" 2010, No. 1).

Empirical methods-operations. These are the management methods educational activities student(s).

Empirical methods-actions. These will be pedagogical technologies (see the article "The concept of pedagogical technologies" - the magazine "Specialist", 2009, No. 9).

Rice. 4. Methods of pedagogical activity

At the same time, it should be noted that earlier, in the previous article of this cycle, we considered the methods of educational activity of the student separately: methods of educational activity, methods learning activities, methods of development activity - by virtue of novelty problem. As for teaching methods, we are moving away from the traditional division into methods of education and methods of teaching (the methods of developmental activity were never written in textbooks of pedagogy). Indeed, the basis for the traditional division was only one circumstance - the division of the teacher's activities into activities during training sessions and during extracurricular activities. educational work. But such a division is not an argument, because the methods of the teacher's activity (as well as the forms and means) both in academic and extracurricular work are the same (Fig. 4).

Thus, in this article we examined the features, forms and methods of pedagogical activity. The means of pedagogical activity will be considered by us in the next article among other means of the pedagogical process. As for the temporal structure of pedagogical activity (phases, stages, stages), we described it earlier in the article “Educational project as a cycle innovation activities"(Specialist magazine 2010, No. 1.

FORMS OF PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY

1. Problem based learning

Problem-based learning, like programmed learning, refers to active learning technologies. It is based on the solution of some task, problem (from gr. problema - “task, task”). In a broad sense, a problem is a complex theoretical and practical issue that requires study, resolution; in science - a contradictory situation, acting in the form of opposite positions in the explanation of any phenomena, objects, processes and requiring an adequate theory to resolve it. (Situation - fr. situation - “position, situation, set of circumstances”).

AT Psychological Dictionary we find the following definition: "The problem is the subject's awareness of the impossibility of resolving the difficulties and contradictions that have arisen in a given situation by means of available knowledge and experience."

Problem-based learning is “a system of optimal management of the cognitive, creative, theoretical and practical activities of students, based on a certain understanding of the patterns of the thinking process and the conditions for mastering knowledge, development cognitive abilities". There are other points of view. So, A. E. Steinmets considered problem learning"rather one of the promising ways to implement the principle of scientificity than the principle of learning." E. G. Mingazov resolutely asserted that problematicness is a didactic principle. V. Ya. Skvirsky rejected the opinion of E. G. Mingazov and believed that problem-based learning is not a method, not a form, not a principle, not a system, not a type of training, but its essence in “the specifics of interaction between participants in the educational process”. According to Ilyina, problem-based learning is not a system, not a method, but an approach that cannot be absolutized, but must be applied widely enough to develop the mental abilities of students. In addition to these ideas, in many works, problem-based learning is considered not directly, but in the context and more widely, as a means of activating learning, increasing the effectiveness of teaching a particular discipline, etc. (The concept of "learning activation" is broader than the concept of "problem learning".)

There was also no unanimity on the question of whether the problematic situation should be "created" or naturally "follow" from the very nature of the material. The majority was in favor of the teacher creating a problem situation, regardless of whether it is a reflection of a real contradiction in science or is of a methodological nature (i.e., at this stage in science, the question is clear, but the teacher creates a problem situation to activate the thinking of students). However, there were authors who believed that there was no need to artificially create problem situations, since the whole history of the development of scientific knowledge was full of real problems. The well-known writer M. Shaginyan also supported them: “Nature is full of problems, and they should not be created.”

Why did such disagreements arise? In my opinion, because there are phenomena that are known to mankind, let's call them objectively existing knowledge about these phenomena, scientific knowledge. But there are also phenomena about which humanity still knows nothing (our "cosmos"). In addition, it is important to remember that there is knowledge and subjective, that is, the knowledge of an individual, they can be complete (an erudite person) and incomplete. Therefore, it can be argued that the problem arises at the junction of the known (scientific knowledge) and the unknown, and not at the level of subjective and scientific knowledge.

Differences in disputes were observed precisely in the confusion of the level of contradiction that created the problem. One level is scientific, the contradiction between known scientific knowledge and the unknown, the other level is educational cognitive activity, i.e. the level of contradiction between subjective knowledge and objectively existing, but still unknown truth to the learner. The second level is not a problem from a scientific point of view, although, judging by the definition of the concept of "problem" given in the "Psychological Dictionary", the student may experience difficulties, which he perceives as contradictions. But that's not a problem, it's just a lack of knowledge. However, the realization that he does not have enough knowledge to solve a problem is already a positive factor, because it is an incentive for improvement. That is why honest ignorance must be respected.

So, we have understood for ourselves that the real problem is always connected with science, it contains a clear contradiction, does not have a final answer to the main question of the problem, why is this so and not otherwise, and, therefore, requires a search, research work. I will give an example from the life of an outstanding Soviet physicist, laureate Nobel Prize, Academician Igor Evgenievich Tamm. “He often had to swim “against the current”. In the 1930s, he put forward the idea that the neutron has a magnetic moment. In different languages, famous physicists (including Niels Bohr) persuaded him to abandon this ridiculous idea: where does the magnetic moment of an electrically neutral particle come from? Igor Evgenievich stood his ground. And he turned out to be right." As you can see, he really faced a problem where scientific knowledge faced with an objectively existing, but unknown to mankind phenomenon, and he had to conduct a serious scientific research to get proof of your innocence.

Is this possible in the learning process? Yes, it's possible. But, you must admit that this rarely happens, because not only a student, but also a scientist is not always able to see and solve a problem containing a hidden contradiction and gain new knowledge.

But what about the majority of students? Refuse problem-based learning? In no case! Just use it on a different level, on the level of students' cognitive activity. And here we will distinguish: a problematic issue, a problematic task, a problematic situation and a problem. We have already talked about the problem. Let's take a look at the rest now.

A problematic issue is a "one-act" action. For example, why do they say: “A cold south wind is expected tomorrow?” (You see the contradiction: south, but cold. Why?) Answer: because the cyclone. Can there be hot snow, fried ice, etc.? Such questions stimulate thought, activate thinking, make a person think (remember the question-answer method of Socrates!).

The problematic task involves a number of actions; to solve it, the student needs to independently conduct a partial search. For example, is it possible to bind a given type of structure under given conditions, say, a typical project, to a specific area? This is already a fairly large educational and cognitive task, the solution of which requires a special search for a method of action or to find some missing data: to conduct reconnaissance of the area, to make a geodetic survey, to investigate the soil in the laboratory, to determine the wind rose, etc.

A problem situation is a psychological state of intellectual difficulty that occurs in a person if he cannot explain a new fact with the help of existing knowledge or perform a well-known action in the old familiar ways and must find a new one. Here there is a need to think actively, and, most importantly, to answer the question “why”. The need, as you know, gives rise to a motive that prompts a person to think and act. This is the essence of problem-based learning.

There are four levels of difficulty in learning:

1. The teacher himself sets the problem (task) and solves it himself with active listening and discussion by students. Remember the general didactic method of problem presentation!

2. The teacher poses a problem, students independently or under the guidance of a teacher solve it (partial search method). Here there is a detachment from the sample, opens up space for reflection.

3. The student poses a problem, the teacher helps to solve it.

4. The student himself poses the problem and solves it himself. The third and fourth levels are the research method.

Choose which level is suitable for your learning technology, depending on the level of preparation of students.

So, problem-based learning at the third, fourth, and sometimes second level is associated with research, therefore, problem-based learning is learning to solve non-standard problems, during which students learn new knowledge and acquire skills and abilities. creative activity which is very important for an engineer. Is not it? That is why in the 80s they “remembered” about problem-based learning, and higher authorities sent appropriate “circulars” to universities and technical schools about the need to use problem-based learning in higher and secondary specialized educational institutions.

However, despite letters of instruction from above, problem-based learning technology has been slowly introduced into studying proccess because, like everything in life, it had its advantages and disadvantages. (Remember the joke: God created man, and the devil slipped him an appendix? Or another example, the antonymy of the language: good - bad, boring - fun, etc.)

The advantages of problem-based learning are, first of all, great opportunities for developing attention, observation, activating thinking, activating the cognitive activity of students; it develops independence, responsibility, criticality and self-criticism, initiative, non-standard thinking, caution and determination, etc. In addition, which is very important, problem-based learning ensures the strength of the acquired knowledge, because they are obtained in independent activity, this is, firstly, and, secondly, the interesting “effect of unfinished action” known in psychology, discovered by B.V. Zeigarnik, works here. Its essence is that actions that were started but not completed are remembered better: “There is an actual connection between the beginning of the action and the expected result, and we are tormented by the unfinished, we remember the unfinished. It is always alive in us, always in the present.” An example of this is an experiment conducted by teachers of the Department of Pedagogy and educational psychology Moscow State University: students were offered a task. In the case when they solved it to the end, the next day they hardly remembered the condition of the problem, the course of the solution, etc. If they were told: “That’s enough, that’s enough for today,” that is, the problem remained unsolved, the next day the students remembered well the condition and the beginning of solving this problem, although the day before they had not been warned about the need to solve it to the end. This is the effect of unfinished action. Does this mean that we also need to start and not finish solving a problem? Of course not. If the task is supposed to be solved in the time allotted to us, then, naturally, it must be completed. But problem-based learning is associated with research and therefore involves a solution of the problem extended in time. A person gets into a situation like a figure solving a creative task or problem. He constantly thinks about it and does not get out of this state until he solves it. It is due to this incompleteness that solid knowledge, skills and abilities are formed.

The essence of pedagogical activity
Main types of pedagogical activity
The structure of pedagogical activity
The teacher as a subject of pedagogical activity
Professionally conditioned requirements for the personality of the teacher

§ 1. The essence of pedagogical activity

The meaning of the teaching profession is revealed in the activities carried out by its representatives and which is called pedagogical. She presents a special kind social activities aimed at transferring from older generations to younger generations the culture and experience accumulated by humanity, creating conditions for their personal development and preparing for the implementation of certain social roles in society.
Obviously, this activity is carried out not only by teachers, but also by parents, public organizations, heads of enterprises and institutions, production and other groups, as well as, to a certain extent, the media. However, in the first case, this activity is professional, and in the second - general pedagogical, which, voluntarily or involuntarily, each person carries out in relation to himself, being engaged in self-education and self-education. Pedagogical activity as a professional activity takes place in educational institutions specially organized by society: preschool institutions, schools, vocational schools, secondary specialized and higher educational institutions, institutions additional education, advanced training and retraining.
To penetrate into the essence of pedagogical activity, it is necessary to turn to the analysis of its structure, which can be represented as a unity of purpose, motives, actions (operations), results. The system-forming characteristic of activity, including pedagogical, is the goal(A.N.Leontiev).
The goal of pedagogical activity is connected with the realization of the goal of education, which even today is considered by many as the universal ideal of a harmoniously developed personality coming from the depths of centuries. This general strategic goal is achieved by solving specific tasks of training and education in various areas.
The purpose of pedagogical activity is a historical phenomenon. It is developed and formed as a reflection of the trend of social development, presenting a set of requirements for a modern person, taking into account his spiritual and natural capabilities. It contains, on the one hand, the interests and expectations of various social and ethnic groups, and on the other hand, the needs and aspirations of an individual.
A.S. Makarenko paid great attention to the development of the problem of the goals of education, but none of his works contain their general formulations. He always sharply opposed any attempts to reduce the definitions of the goals of education to amorphous definitions such as "harmonious personality", "communist person", etc. A.S. Makarenko was a supporter of the pedagogical design of the personality, and saw the goal of pedagogical activity in the program of personality development and its individual adjustments.
As the main objects of the goal of pedagogical activity, the educational environment, the activities of the pupils, the educational team and the individual characteristics of the pupils are distinguished. The realization of the goal of pedagogical activity is connected with the solution of such social and pedagogical tasks as the formation of an educational environment, the organization of the activities of pupils, the creation of an educational team, and the development of an individual's individuality.
The goals of pedagogical activity are a dynamic phenomenon. And the logic of their development is such that, arising as a reflection of the objective trends of social development and bringing the content, forms and methods of pedagogical activity in line with the needs of society, they add up to a detailed program of gradual movement towards highest goal- personal development in harmony with oneself and society.
The main functional unit, with the help of which all the properties of pedagogical activity are manifested, is pedagogical action as a unity of purpose and content. The concept of pedagogical action expresses something common that is inherent in all forms of pedagogical activity (lesson, excursion, individual conversation, etc.), but is not limited to any of them. At the same time, pedagogical action is that special one that expresses both the universal and all the richness of the individual.

Appeal to the forms of materialization of pedagogical action helps to show the logic of pedagogical activity. The pedagogical action of the teacher first appears in the form of a cognitive task. Based on the available knowledge, he theoretically correlates the means, the subject and the expected result of his action. The cognitive task, being solved psychologically, then passes into the form of a practical transformational act. At the same time, a certain discrepancy between the means and objects of pedagogical influence is revealed, which affects the results of the teacher's actions. In this regard, from the form of a practical act, the action again passes into the form of a cognitive task, the conditions of which become more complete. Thus, the activity of a teacher-educator by its nature is nothing more than a process of solving an innumerable set of tasks. various types, classes and levels.
A specific feature of pedagogical tasks is that their solutions almost never lie on the surface. They often require hard work of thought, analysis of many factors, conditions and circumstances. In addition, the desired is not presented in clear formulations: it is developed on the basis of the forecast. The solution of an interrelated series of pedagogical problems is very difficult to algorithmize. If the algorithm still exists, its application by different teachers can lead to different results. This is explained by the fact that the creativity of teachers is associated with the search for new solutions to pedagogical problems.

§ 2. Main types of pedagogical activity

Traditionally, the main types of pedagogical activity carried out in a holistic pedagogical process are teaching and educational work.
Educational work - this is a pedagogical activity aimed at organizing the educational environment and managing various types of activities of pupils in order to solve the problems of the harmonious development of the individual. BUT teaching - This is a type of educational activity that is aimed at managing primarily cognitive activity schoolchildren. By and large, pedagogical and educational activities are identical concepts. Such an understanding of the relationship between educational work and teaching reveals the meaning of the thesis about the unity of teaching and upbringing.
Education, the disclosure of the essence and content of which is devoted to many studies, only conditionally, for convenience and deeper knowledge of it, is considered in isolation from education. It is no coincidence that teachers involved in the development of the problem of the content of education (V.V. Kraevsky, I-YaLerner, M.N. Skatkin and others), along with the knowledge and skills that a person acquires in the learning process, consider the experience of creative activity to be its integral components. and experience of emotional and valuable attitude to the world around. Without the unity of teaching and educational work, it is not possible to implement these elements of education. Figuratively speaking, a holistic pedagogical process in its content aspect is a process in which "educational education" and "educational education" are merged into one(ADisterweg).
Let us compare, in general terms, the activity of teaching, which takes place both in the learning process and outside school hours, and the educational work that is carried out in a holistic pedagogical process.
Teaching, carried out within the framework of any organizational form, and not just a lesson, usually has strict time limits, a strictly defined goal and options for achieving it. The most important criterion for the effectiveness of teaching is the achievement learning goal. Educational work, also carried out within the framework of any organizational form, does not pursue the direct achievement of the goal, because it is unattainable within the time limits of the organizational form. In educational work, only a consistent solution can be envisaged. specific tasks goal oriented. The most important criterion for the effective solution of educational problems is positive changes in the minds of pupils, manifested in emotional reactions, behavior and activities.
The content of training, and hence the logic of teaching, can be hard-coded, which is not allowed by the content of educational work. The formation of knowledge, skills and abilities from the field of ethics, aesthetics and other sciences and arts, the study of which is not provided for by the curricula, is essentially nothing more than learning. In educational work, planning is acceptable only in the most general terms: attitude to society, to work, to people, to science (teaching), to nature, to things, objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, to oneself. The logic of the teacher's educational work in each individual class cannot be predetermined by normative documents.

The teacher deals with approximately homogeneous "source material". The results of the exercise are almost unambiguously determined by its activities, i.e. the ability to evoke and direct the cognitive activity of the student. The educator is forced to take into account the fact that his pedagogical influences may intersect with unorganized and organized negative influences on the student. Teaching as an activity has a discrete character. It usually does not involve interaction with students during the preparatory period, which can be more or less long. The peculiarity of educational work is that even in the absence of direct contact with the teacher, the pupil is under his indirect influence. Usually the preparatory part in educational work is longer and often more significant than the main part.
The criterion for the effectiveness of students' activities in the learning process is the level of assimilation of knowledge and skills, mastery of methods for solving cognitive and practical problems, and the intensity of advancement in development. The results of students' activities are easily identified and can be recorded in qualitative and quantitative indicators. In educational work, it is difficult to correlate the results of the educator's activities with the developed criteria for upbringing. It is very difficult to single out the result of the activity of the educator in a developing personality. By virtue of stochasticity educational process, it is difficult to predict the results of certain educational actions and their receipt is much delayed in time. In educational work, it is impossible to establish feedback in a timely manner.
The noted differences in the organization of teaching and educational work show that teaching is much easier in terms of its organization and implementation, and in the structure of a holistic pedagogical process it occupies a subordinate position. If in the learning process almost everything can be proved or deduced logically, then it is much more difficult to cause and consolidate certain relationships of a person, since freedom of choice plays a decisive role here. That is why the success of learning largely depends on the formed cognitive interest and attitude to learning activities in general, i.e. from the results of not only teaching, but also educational work.
The identification of the specifics of the main types of pedagogical activity shows that teaching and educational work in their dialectical unity take place in the activities of a teacher of any specialty. For example, a master of industrial training in the system of vocational education in the course of his activity solves two main tasks: to equip students with knowledge, skills and abilities to rationally perform various operations and work while meeting all the requirements modern technology production and organization of labor; to prepare such a skilled worker who would consciously strive to increase labor productivity, the quality of the work performed, would be organized, value the honor of his workshop, enterprise. A good master not only transfers his knowledge to students, but also guides their civil and professional development. This, in fact, is the essence of the professional education of young people. Only a master who knows and loves his work, people, can instill in students a sense of professional honor and arouse the need for perfect mastery of the specialty.
In the same way, if we consider the scope of duties of the educator of the extended day group, we can see in his activities both teaching and educational work. The regulation on after-school groups defines the tasks of the educator: to instill in students a love of work, high moral qualities, habits of cultural behavior and personal hygiene skills; regulate the daily routine of pupils, observing the timely preparation homework to assist them in learning, in the reasonable organization of leisure; to carry out, together with the school doctor, activities that promote the health and physical development of children; keep in touch with the teacher class teacher, with the parents of pupils or persons replacing them. However, as can be seen from the tasks, instilling the habits of cultural behavior and personal hygiene skills, for example, is already a sphere not only of education, but also of training, which requires systematic exercises.
So, of the many types of schoolchildren's activities, cognitive activity is not limited only by the framework of education, which, in turn, is "burdened" with educational functions. Experience shows that success in teaching is achieved primarily by those teachers who have the pedagogical ability to develop and support the cognitive interests of children, create in the classroom an atmosphere of common creativity, group responsibility and interest in the success of classmates. This suggests that not teaching skills, but the skills of educational work are primary in the content of the teacher's professional readiness. In this regard, the professional training of future teachers aims to form their readiness to manage a holistic pedagogical process.

§ 3. The structure of pedagogical activity

In contrast to the understanding of activity accepted in psychology as a multilevel system, the components of which are the goal, motives, actions and results, in relation to pedagogical activity, the approach of identifying its components as relatively independent functional activities of the teacher prevails.
N.V. Kuzmina singled out three interrelated components in the structure of pedagogical activity: constructive, organizational and communicative. For the successful implementation of these functional types of pedagogical activity, appropriate abilities are needed, manifested in skills.
constructive activity, in turn, it is divided into constructive-content (selection and composition of educational material, planning and construction of the pedagogical process), constructive-operational (planning one's actions and students' actions) and constructive-material (designing the educational and material base of the pedagogical process). Organizational activity involves the implementation of a system of actions aimed at including students in various activities, creating a team and organizing joint activities.
Communicative activity is aimed at establishing pedagogically expedient relations between the teacher and pupils, other teachers of the school, members of the public, and parents.
However, these components, on the one hand, can equally be attributed not only to pedagogical, but also to almost any other activity, and on the other hand, they do not reveal all aspects and areas of pedagogical activity with sufficient completeness.
A. I. Shcherbakov classifies the constructive, organizational and research components (functions) as general labor components, i.e. manifested in any activity. But he specifies the teacher's function at the stage of implementation of the pedagogical process, presenting the organizational component of pedagogical activity as a unity of information, development, orientation and mobilization functions. Particular attention should be paid to the research function, although it relates to general labor. The implementation of the research function requires the teacher to have a scientific approach to pedagogical phenomena, to master the skills of heuristic search and methods of scientific and pedagogical research, including the analysis of their own experience and the experience of other teachers.
The constructive component of pedagogical activity can be represented as internally interconnected analytical, prognostic and projective functions.
An in-depth study of the content of the communicative function allows us to define it also through interrelated perceptual, proper communicative and communicative-operational functions. Perceptual function is associated with penetration into inner world of a person, actually communicative - is aimed at establishing pedagogically expedient relationships, and communicative-operational - involves the active use of pedagogical equipment.
The effectiveness of the pedagogical process is due to the presence of constant feedback. It allows the teacher to receive timely information about the compliance of the results obtained with the planned tasks. Because of this, in the structure of pedagogical activity, it is necessary to single out the control-evaluative (reflexive) component.
All components, or functional types, of activity are manifested in the work of a teacher of any specialty. Their implementation requires the teacher to possess special skills.

§ 4. Teacher as a subject of pedagogical activity

One of the most important requirements that the teaching profession makes is the clarity of the social and professional positions of its representatives. It is in it that the teacher expresses himself as the subject of pedagogical activity.
The position of a teacher is a system of those intellectual, volitional and emotional-evaluative attitudes towards the world, pedagogical reality and pedagogical activity. in particular, which are the source of its activity. It is determined, on the one hand, by the requirements, expectations and opportunities that society presents and provides to him. And on the other hand, there are internal, personal sources of activity - inclinations, experiences, motives and goals of the teacher, his value orientations, worldview, ideals.
The position of the teacher reveals his personality, the nature of social orientation, the type of civic behavior and activity.
social position teacher grows out of the system of views, beliefs and value orientations that were formed back in the general education school. In the process vocational training on their basis, a motivational-value attitude to the teaching profession, goals and means of pedagogical activity is formed. The motivational-value attitude to pedagogical activity in its broadest sense is ultimately expressed in the direction that constitutes the core of the teacher's personality.
The social position of the teacher largely determines his professional position. However, there is no direct dependence here, since education is always built on the basis of personal interaction. That is why the teacher, clearly aware of what he is doing, is not always able to give a detailed answer, why he acts this way and not otherwise, often contrary to common sense and logic. No analysis will help to reveal which sources of activity prevailed when the teacher chose one position or another in the current situation, if he himself explains his decision by intuition. The choice of a professional position of a teacher is influenced by many factors. However, decisive among them are his professional attitudes, individual typological personality traits, temperament and character.
L.B. Itelson gave a description of the typical roles of pedagogical positions. The teacher can act as:
an informer, if he is limited to communicating requirements, norms, views, etc. (for example, you have to be honest);
friend, if he sought to penetrate the soul of a child"
a dictator, if he forcibly introduces norms and value orientations into the minds of pupils;
adviser if he uses careful persuasion"
the petitioner, if the teacher begs the pupil to be such "as it should be", sometimes descending to self-humiliation, flattery;
inspirer, if he seeks to captivate (ignite) interesting targets, prospects.
Each of these positions can have a positive and negative effect depending on the personality of the educator. However, injustice and arbitrariness always give negative results; playing along with the child, turning him into a little idol and dictator; bribery, disrespect for the personality of the child, suppression of his initiative, etc.
§ 5. Professionally conditioned requirements for the personality of the teacher
The set of professionally conditioned requirements for a teacher is defined as professional readiness to teaching activities. In its composition, it is legitimate to single out, on the one hand, psychological, psychophysiological and physical readiness, and on the other hand, scientific, theoretical and practical training as the basis of professionalism.
The content of professional readiness as a reflection of the goal teacher education accumulated in profesio-gram, reflecting invariant, idealized personality parameters and professional activity teachers.
To date, a wealth of experience has been accumulated in building a teacher's professiogram, which allows us to combine professional requirements for a teacher into three main complexes that are interconnected and complement each other: general civic qualities; qualities that define the specifics teaching profession; special knowledge, skills and abilities in the subject (specialty). When substantiating a professiogram, psychologists turn to establishing a list of pedagogical abilities, which are a synthesis of the qualities of the mind, feelings and will of the individual. In particular, V.A. Krutetsky highlights didactic, academic, communication skills, as well as pedagogical imagination and the ability to distribute attention.
A. I. Shcherbakov considers didactic, constructive, perceptual, expressive, communicative and organizational abilities to be among the most important pedagogical abilities. He also believes that in the psychological structure of the personality of a teacher, general civil qualities, moral and psychological, social and perceptual, individual psychological characteristics, practical skills and abilities should be distinguished: general pedagogical (information, mobilization, developmental, orientation), general labor (constructive, organizational , research), communicative (communication with people of different age categories), self-educational (systematization and generalization of knowledge and their application in solving pedagogical problems and obtaining new information).
A teacher is not only a profession, the essence of which is to transmit knowledge, but a high mission of creating a personality, affirming a person in a person. In this regard, the goal of teacher education can be presented as a continuous general and Professional Development teacher of a new type, which is characterized by:
high civic responsibility and social activity;
love for children, the need and ability to give them your heart;
genuine intelligence, spiritual culture, desire and ability to work together with others;

high professionalism, innovative style of scientific and pedagogical thinking, readiness to create new values ​​and make creative decisions;
the need for constant self-education and readiness for it;
physical and mental health, professional performance.
This capacious and concise characteristic of a teacher can be concretized to the level of personal characteristics.
In the teacher's professiogram, the leading place is occupied by the orientation of his personality. In this regard, let us consider the personality traits of a teacher-educator that characterize his social, moral, professional, pedagogical, and cognitive orientation.
KD. Ushinsky wrote: “The main road of human education is persuasion, and persuasion can only be acted upon by persuasion. Any teaching program, any method of education, no matter how good it may be, that has not passed into the convictions of the educator, will remain a dead letter that has no power in reality. "The most vigilant control in this matter will not help. An educator can never be a blind executor of an instruction: without being warmed by the warmth of his personal conviction, it will have no power."
In the activity of the teacher, ideological conviction determines all other properties and characteristics of the individual, expressing his social and moral orientation. In particular, social needs, moral and value orientations, a sense of public duty and civic responsibility. Ideological conviction underlies the social activity of the teacher. That is why it is rightfully considered the most profound fundamental characteristic of a teacher's personality. A teacher-citizen is loyal to his people, close to them. He does not close himself in a narrow circle of his personal concerns, his life is continuously connected with the life of the village, the city where he lives and works.
In the structure of the teacher's personality, a special role belongs to the professional and pedagogical orientation. It is the framework around which the main professionally significant properties of the teacher's personality are assembled.
The professional orientation of the teacher's personality includes interest in the teaching profession, pedagogical vocation, professional and pedagogical intentions and inclinations. The basis of the pedagogical orientation is interest in the teaching profession which finds its expression in a positive emotional attitude to children, to parents, pedagogical activity in general and to its specific types, in the desire to master pedagogical knowledge and skills. teaching vocation in contrast to pedagogical interest, which can also be contemplative, means a propensity that grows out of the awareness of the ability for pedagogical work.
The presence or absence of a vocation can be revealed only when the future teacher is included in an educational or real professionally oriented activity, because the professional destiny of a person is not directly and unequivocally determined by the originality of his personality. natural features. Meanwhile, the subjective experience of a vocation for a performed or even chosen activity can turn out to be a very significant factor in the development of a person: to cause enthusiasm for the activity, the conviction of one's suitability for it.
Thus, the pedagogical vocation is formed in the process of accumulation by the future teacher of theoretical and practical pedagogical experience and self-assessment of their pedagogical abilities. From this we can conclude that the shortcomings of special (academic) preparedness cannot serve as a reason for recognizing the complete professional unsuitability of the future teacher.
The basis of the pedagogical vocation is love for children. This fundamental quality is a prerequisite for self-improvement, purposeful self-development of many professionally significant qualities that characterize the teacher's professional and pedagogical orientation.
Among these qualities are pedagogical duty and a responsibility. Guided by a sense of pedagogical duty, the teacher is always in a hurry to help children and adults, everyone who needs it, within their rights and competence; he is demanding of himself, strictly following a peculiar code pedagogical morality.
The highest manifestation of pedagogical duty is dedication teachers. It is in it that his motivational-value attitude to work finds expression. A teacher who has this quality works regardless of time, sometimes even with the state of health. A prime example professional dedication is the life and work of A.S. Makarenko and V.A. Sukhomlinsky. An exceptional example of selflessness and self-sacrifice is the life and deed of Janusz Korczak, a prominent Polish doctor and teacher, who despised the offer of the Nazis to stay alive and stepped into the crematorium oven together with his pupils.

The relationship of a teacher with colleagues, parents and children, based on the awareness of professional duty and a sense of responsibility, is the essence of pedagogical tact, which is at the same time a sense of proportion, and a conscious dosage of an action, and the ability to control it and, if necessary, to balance one remedy with another. In any case, the tactics of the teacher's behavior is to, anticipating its consequences, choose the appropriate style and tone, time and place of the pedagogical action, as well as carry out their timely adjustment.
Pedagogical tact largely depends on the personal qualities of the teacher, his outlook, culture, will, citizenship and professional skills. It is the basis on which trusting relationships between teachers and students grow. The pedagogical tact is especially clearly manifested in the control and evaluation activities of the teacher, where special care and fairness are extremely important.
Pedagogical justice is a kind of measure of the objectivity of the teacher, the level of his moral upbringing. V.A. Sukhomlinsky wrote: "Justice is the basis of a child's trust in a teacher. But there is no abstract justice - outside of individuality, outside of personal interests, passions, impulses. To become fair, one must know the spiritual world of each child to the subtlety "" .
Personal qualities that characterize the professional and pedagogical orientation of a teacher are a prerequisite and a concentrated expression of his authority. If in the framework of other professions the expressions "scientific authority", "recognized authority in their field", etc., are habitually heard, then the teacher can have a single and indivisible authority of the individual.
The basis of the cognitive orientation of the individual is spiritual needs and interests.
One of the manifestations of the spiritual forces and cultural needs of the individual is the need for knowledge. Continuity of pedagogical self-education - necessary condition professional development and improvement.
One of the main factors of cognitive interest is love for the subject being taught. L.N. Tolstoy noted that if you want to educate a student with science, love your science and know it, and the students will love you, and you will educate them; but if you yourself do not love it, then no matter how much you force to learn, science will not produce educational influence "". This idea was developed by V.A. Sukhomlinsky. He believed that "the master of pedagogy knows the ABC of his science so well that in the lesson, in the course of studying the material, the content of what is being studied is not in the center of his attention but the students, their mental work, their thinking, the difficulties of their mental work.
A modern teacher should be well versed in various branches of science, the basics of which he teaches, know its possibilities for solving socio-economic, industrial and cultural problems. But this is not enough - he must be constantly aware of new research, discoveries and hypotheses, to see the near and far perspectives of the science he teaches.

Most common characteristic The cognitive orientation of the teacher's personality is the culture of scientific and pedagogical thinking, the main feature of which is dialectics. It manifests itself in the ability to detect its constituent contradictions in each pedagogical phenomenon. A dialectical view of the phenomena of pedagogical reality allows the teacher to perceive it as a process where continuous development takes place through the struggle of the new with the old, to influence this process, promptly solving all the questions and tasks that arise in his activity.

Kinds and types of lessons.

Pedagogical form is a stable completed organization of the pedagogical process in the unity of all its components.

In modern didactics, the organizational form of learning is understood as a special structure of the learning process, the nature of which is determined by its content, methods, means and activities of students.

Form classification:

simple shapes- the minimum number of methods and means, as a rule, are devoted to one topic, these include: conversation, lecture, excursion, exam, briefing

Compound forms- are based on the development of simple or on their various combinations - a lesson, a lesson, a competition, a lesson-conference. Compound forms are decomposed into simple ones. A lesson may contain a conversation, a lecture, a briefing, and a conference may include reports, a debate, an exhibition, a bulletin, a thesis of reports.

Complex forms- purposeful selection of simple and compound forms. These include thematic lectures, combined lessons in several subjects.

There are also forms of educational, extracurricular work and self-educational activities of students

There are the following organizational forms of training:

frontal(work with the entire stream);

group(the stream is divided into groups);

individual(work with each student).;

Forms of theoretical training

Lecture- A monologic way of presenting voluminous material. It differs from other verbal methods of presenting the material by a more rigorous structure; abundance of reported information; the logic of the presentation of the material; systemic nature of knowledge coverage.

Seminar session- this is a collective discussion of a specific topic on pre-prepared questions. Types of seminars: messages and reports, discussions, press conferences, etc. The structure of the seminar: first, the teacher reports the topic, the objectives of the lesson, then the questions are discussed, and at the end the results are summed up.

Excursion- involves visiting organizations, enterprises, training and production sites, museums, etc. Main stages: setting goals, preparing a plan, organizing and conducting, summing up.

Independent study work- independent mastering by students of the necessary knowledge and skills by reading relevant literature, preparing reports, messages, writing notes, etc.

Conference is a collective discussion of a certain scientific and practical problem. It requires a lot of preparatory work: defining a topic, forming problems, a circle of participants, developing a plan for conducting, preparing a collection of materials (if it is planned to publish them), etc.

Consultation- a form of training session, during which the student receives answers from teachers to specific questions on theoretical provisions or aspects of their practical application. Counseling can be individual or group.

Individual sessions are conducted with individual pupils and students in order to increase the level of their preparation and development of individual creativity. They are organized according to a separate schedule or recorded in the schedule.

Forms of practical training

Laboratory work- a form of training aimed at the formation of the necessary professional skills. During laboratory classes, students under the guidance of a teacher or independently perform practical work to deepen and consolidate theoretical knowledge, development of skills of independent experimentation. Types of laboratory classes: fact-finding, experimental, problem-search.

Workshops are carried out in laboratories, workshops, classrooms, computer classes, in educational and experimental and production areas. (Practical exercises may be related, for example, to measurements, assembling circuits, parts, familiarization with instruments and mechanisms, conducting experiments and observations, etc.).

Didactic game - purposeful organization of educational and game interactions of trainees in the process of modeling the integral professional activity of a specialist. During the game, game simulation is carried out in the conditions of recreating social and professional experience.

Practice- obtaining by students of professional skills and abilities in a production environment. It is carried out in the course of professional activity under the organizational and methodological guidance of a teacher and a specialist in this direction. Distinguish between introductory, educational (pedagogical), production and undergraduate practice.

course design- this is the process of developing projects (term papers) on the main training courses as the final stage of the didactic training cycle in a particular subject (or group of subjects). The purpose of this form of education is to deepen the professional training of students in the process of independent creative application of the acquired knowledge to solve practical problems.

Diploma design– the process of developing graduation projects at the final stage of education in a vocational school. Diploma projects play the role of attestation works during the state attestation of graduates of higher and secondary professional educational institutions. Diploma works are carried out on a specific topic under the guidance of a supervisor. They are reviewed and defended at a meeting of the State Attestation Commission.

Forms of control

The management of the pedagogical process involves the implementation of control functions, that is, a system for identifying the effectiveness of the functioning of this process. There are the following types of control:

Preliminary - identifying the initial level of formation of knowledge and skills;

Current - carried out in the process of everyday educational work;

Thematic - conducted upon completion of the study of the topic;

Frontier - testing knowledge and skills in sections of the courses;

Final - conducted at the end of the study of the discipline or the entire course of study at an educational institution.

Forms of control used in professional educational institutions may be different.

Test- a form of written control. Examinations are both frontal and individual in nature, are performed according to options, checked and reviewed by the teacher. By control work an interview may be conducted and a test issued. This form of control is especially characteristic of distance learning.

Colloquium- oral individual interview of the teacher with students on the given questions; a form of current, thematic or boundary control. Based on the results of the colloquium, the issue of admitting students to the exam can be decided.

offset- a form of final control of knowledge based on the results of studying the academic discipline. It can be conducted on pre-set questions or in the order of an interview. The test is put in the statement, student's record book and in the appendix to the diploma.

Exam- a form of final control of knowledge based on the results of studying a section or the entire course. It can be carried out in written or oral form (by tickets). Based on the results of the exam, a differentiated grade is given (“excellent”, “good”, “satisfactory”), which is entered in the statement, the record book and in the supplement to the diploma.

Testing- the form of the current thematic and final control of knowledge with the help of tests, which are a system of tasks in the appropriate form. Test tasks should be concise, which implies a minimum waste of time for their implementation, valid and reliable. The validity of a test lies in its adequacy for the intended purpose; the reliability of the test and the consistency of the indicators obtained during repeated testing.

Rating system for assessing knowledge- this is a quality control of the assimilation of educational material based on the results of various forms. It takes into account all the active activities of students (participation in scientific work, contests; implementation of creative projects, etc.) and is evaluated in points on various scales.

Machine control- this is the control of knowledge with the help of machines (computers, PCs and other controlling devices). The advantage of machine control is that machines are impartial. At the same time, machine control does not allow identifying typical mistakes and difficulties of students.

Certification- form of current and final control of students. For example, attestation weeks are held, during which the results are displayed in the statements: “certified” or “not certified”. This takes into account the current progress of students and attendance at classes. In addition, at the end of the course of study, state certification is carried out by specially created State attestation commissions(GAK). Graduates pass State exam n defend attestation works (thesis projects, theses). Graduates who have successfully passed the state attestation are issued a state diploma.

Lesson

The main form of education in primary and secondary institutions vocational education is the lesson.

Lesson- this is an organizational form of training in which the teacher directs the cognitive activity of students in a group for a precisely set time. Each lesson has educational, educational and developmental goals and includes in different versions such components as a survey, explanation, reinforcement, homework.

Features: the constancy of the allotted time and composition of students, a fixed schedule and venue, the use of various teaching methods.

Advantages of the lesson are its cost-effectiveness, clear time frames, flexibility, the ability to absorb other forms of organization of learning (lesson-lecture, lesson-excursion, etc.). At the same time, the lesson is imperfect and has serious limitations: it is strictly regulated in time, has a conservative structure, complicates the implementation of an individual approach to students.

Requirements for a modern lesson:

1. Didactic: a clear definition of the educational objectives of the lesson as a whole; determination of the optimal content of the lesson; the choice of the most rational means and methods of teaching, the implementation of the principles and conditions for successful learning in the classroom.

2. Educational: setting educational goals; the formation of higher moral qualities and aesthetic tastes among students; the formation of students' cognitive interests, positive motives for educational and cognitive activity.

3. Organizational: the presence of a thoughtful type of lesson; organizational clarity of the lesson; preparation and rational use of various teaching aids.

During the lesson, a whole range of training, educational and developmental tasks is solved:

Formation of knowledge, skills and abilities that make up the content of general and vocational education;

Formation of attitudes towards the most diverse aspects of life (society, work, profession, specialty, nature, etc.), as a result of which the personal potential of students develops;

The development of features, inclinations, interests, i.e. Psychological qualities of students.

Lesson types are distinguished on the basis of the leading didactic tasks of organizing the cognitive process of students. Types of lessons determined on the basis of differences in the methods used and simple forms.

Lesson types:

Lesson learning new material ( kinds: lecture, seminar, film lesson, heuristic conversation, independent work);

Lesson to improve knowledge and skills ( kinds: oral and written exercises, independent and laboratory-practical work);

Generalization and systematization lesson ( kinds: business game, conference, competition, problem discussion);

Combined lesson (a variety of didactic tasks are solved);

Lesson for testing knowledge and skills (types: testing, written survey, oral survey, problem solving and exercises, workshop);

Integrative or binary lesson (combining learning teaching materials two or more subjects).

In industrial training, the main form is used industrial training lesson. There are the following types of industrial training lessons: an introductory lesson, a lesson in exercises in labor operations and techniques, a lesson in the implementation of complex work, a test lesson. Non-standard lessons are becoming more widespread: binary, role-playing games, contests, etc.

Interaction

Credo of tactics of interaction: "The contract is a test of freedom and responsibility."

The educational effect of interaction tactics lies primarily in the fact that the child gains experience in designing joint activities. At the same time, the adult can actually demonstrate to the child the various cultural ways that help him and the child become more effective and successful in their joint activities. The teacher creates a unique situation to directly “implant” cultural forms of organization and management of it into the natural fabric of the development of the situation.

The contract is the only insurance that a teacher can really offer a child at this level of resolving a problem situation by a child. The contract helps the teacher himself not to lose the necessary level of realism and responsibility: after all, under no circumstances should the teacher fall below the line of realism beyond which he cannot guarantee the child's safety.

Through the procedures associated with the contract, the adult teaches the teenager not only to master their freedom, but also teaches them to understand what kind of insurance they use. Shows how this insurance is done. Then, if he sees that the child intends to go without insurance, he will definitely take measures to restore the necessary level of security. But before entering into a contractual relationship with the child, the teacher “prepares”, “trains” him through the tactics of “assistance” to learn the “principles” of ascent to his problem and learns to independently follow them.

In the tactics of "assistance" the child learns himself and his abilities to do without a "buffer", to meet his problem without someone else's help. And “in a contractual relationship” with the teacher, he can try to master what he alone is not yet able to do.

Speaking of forms of pedagogical activity needs to be divided immediately. When pedagogical activity is carried out jointly with the student (students), these will be forms of joint activity, i.e. forms pedagogical process(See the next article in this series). When the teacher alone prepares for classes, is engaged in the design of pedagogical systems, is engaged in reflective analysis, etc. - it will be, basically, an individual form of activity. In addition, the collective form is the participation of a teacher in the work of methodological (cyclic) commissions, sections, departments, pedagogical, academic councils, etc.

Methods of pedagogical activity. Recall that in the previous article of this series (Specialist magazine, 2010, No. ....), speaking about the methods of educational activity of the student, we divided the methods:

On the one hand, on theoretical and empirical methods;

On the other hand, on methods-operations and methods-actions.

Similarly, the methods of pedagogical activity of the teacher:

Theoretical methods-operations. These are mental operations: analysis, synthesis, etc. (Fig. 4). These methods are inherent in all types of activity without exception;

Theoretical methods-actions. These are methods of designing pedagogical systems (scenario method, planning methods, etc.), as well as methods of pedagogical reflexive analysis (see the magazine "Specialist" 2010, No. 1).

Empirical methods-operations. These are methods of managing the educational activities of the student (students).

Empirical methods-actions. These will be pedagogical technologies (see the article "The concept of pedagogical technologies" - the magazine "Specialist", 2009, No. 9).

Rice. 4. Methods of pedagogical activity

Mobility

One of the important conditions for the successful work of a teacher in a modern professional school is the feeling of not only responsibility for one's work, but also inner freedom in work. The teacher should become an independent educated professional, taking full responsibility for everything he does, become the center of the process of improving the quality of professional training of students and specialists. The implementation of this task can be solved in the formation of professional needs and mobility of teachers in the design of invariant technologies. Professional competence implies the teacher's possession of the new or updated content that has appeared in educational areas, as well as the ability to quickly master new activities.

Requirements for their implementation so that the need and mobility of the teacher is carried out more effectively:

1. Activation of functional mobility in accordance with the requirements of federal and regional programs for the development of education;

2. Introduction to the content of advanced training of teachers of new training modules to ensure experimental and innovative activities, taking into account the goals of modernization of education;

3. Development and mastering of effective forms and methods of conducting training sessions with students on the most complex and demanded problems of education;

4. Development of motives for the professional growth of teachers;

6. Monitoring the quality of services in the APE system;

7. Introduction of new information technologies in the educational process;

8. Development of an information network on the legal and scientific and methodological support of the activities of the educational institution;

9. Equipping educational institutions with a methodology for the analysis and selection of federal teaching materials;

10. Development and implementation of the regional component of the content of general education;

11. Creation of meters to control the level and quality of students' learning;

12. Development of models of distance learning and self-education of teachers in the system of advanced training for managers and teachers.

The competitiveness of a specialist is determined primarily by 2 factors: professional competence and social mobility.

Professional competence is, to a large extent, knowledge, skills, experience in applying them in practice (including in new conditions), possession of various means of professional communication and the ability to self-develop.

Social mobility allows the teacher to quickly respond to changes in the external environment, the social demands of society, and the conditions of professional activity.

4. Pedagogical technologies for organizing the learning process: design; development of critical thinking; reflexive; informational, etc.

Pedagogical technology- this is a strictly scientific design and accurate reproduction of pedagogical actions that guarantee success. Pedagogical technology can be considered as a set of external and internal actions aimed at the consistent implementation of these principles in their objective relationship, where the personality of the teacher is fully manifested. Any pedagogical task can be effectively solved only with the help of adequate technology implemented by a qualified professional teacher.

Signs of pedagogical technology are: goals (in the name of what it is necessary for the teacher to apply it); availability of diagnostic tools; patterns of structuring the interaction between the teacher and students, allowing to design (program) the pedagogical process; a system of means and conditions that guarantee the achievement of pedagogical goals; means of analyzing the process and results of the teacher and students. In this regard, the integral properties of pedagogical technology are its integrity, optimality, effectiveness, applicability in the real conditions of the school.

Target feature indicates what can be achieved by applying a specific technology in the development of individuality, in the education of a personality, in teaching a student. Provision of technology with diagnostic tools helps the teacher to track the process and results of pedagogical influences. Tools for analysis and introspection allow the teacher to evaluate their actions and activities. the importance of students in self-development and self-education, to evaluate their performance. Goals, means of pedagogical diagnostics and performance analysis help to evaluate the technology in terms of its effectiveness and expediency.

The next significant group of characteristics of pedagogical technology is the patterns of structuring the interaction between the teacher and students and the selection and application of pedagogical means on their basis. Often the teacher takes into account various requirements, guidelines, instructions, etc., and does not always notice what his wards want, what are their interests, needs. In such cases, no technology will help the teacher achieve their goals. The activities of the teacher (his goals, needs and motives, actions, means and conditions for their application, etc.) must correlate, correspond to the activities of the student (his goals, capabilities, needs, interests, motives, actions, etc.). Only on this basis does the teacher select and apply the means of pedagogical influence. Structuring the interaction between teacher and students and the use of pedagogical means express the most key characteristics of pedagogical technology - guaranteed achievement of goals.

The presence of these features determines the properties of pedagogical technology. Technology must be holistic- this means that it must meet all the selected features. Only in this case the technology will be perfect, complete and effective. Many copyright technologies developed by teachers often do not have the property of integrity: attention is often focused on some merit, a finding in the teacher's experience, and other features of the technology are not taken into account.

Another important property of pedagogical technology is its optimality. The term optimal (from the Latin word optimus - the best) means the most appropriate for certain conditions and tasks. Yu.K. Babansky singled out several criteria for the optimality of the pedagogical process. Applying these criteria, it can be argued that pedagogical technology will be optimal if:

Its application contributes to the achievement by each student of the level of education, development and upbringing in the zone of his proximal development;

Its application does not exceed the scientifically justified time spent by the teacher and students, that is, it gives the maximum possible results under the given conditions for the time intervals determined by the standard of education and the charter of the school.

It is important to pay attention to such properties of technology as its effectiveness and applicability.. The result of the application of technology is the changes in the development, learning and upbringing of the student that occurred under the dominant influence of this technology over a certain time. Obviously, the two technologies can be compared in terms of their performance and other properties.

Not every technology can be applied by every teacher, much depends on the experience of the teacher, his pedagogical skills, methodological and material security of the pedagogical process, etc. Therefore, when describing or studying a specific technology, it is necessary to pay attention to its reproducibility in certain school conditions.

The word "project" (lat.) literally translates as "thrown forward"; that is, the project is a prototype, a prototype of a certain object or type of activity, and the design turns into the process of creating a project.

It is possible to classify projects according to:

Thematic areas;

The scale of activity;

Implementation deadlines;

the number of performers;

The importance of the results.

But regardless of the type of project, they all:

To a certain extent unique and unrepeatable;

Aimed at achieving specific goals;

Limited in time;

Assume the coordinated implementation of interrelated actions.

Pedagogical goals and objectives in the framework of educational projects:

Cognitive - knowledge of objects of the surrounding reality; learning how to solve problems, mastering the skills of working with information sources, tools and technologies.

Organizational - mastering the skills of self-organization, the ability to set goals, plan and adjust activities, make decisions; take personal responsibility for the result.

Creative - the ability to design, model, design, etc.

Communicative - the development of group work skills, the education of tolerance, the formation of a culture of public speaking.

The design is based on the acquisition and appropriation of new information, but this process is carried out in the area of ​​uncertainty, and it needs to be organized and modeled. The most difficult thing for the teacher during the design process is to remain in the role of an independent consultant and refrain from prompting, even if the students "go the wrong way." When working on a project, students have specific difficulties, but they are objective, and overcoming them is one of the leading pedagogical goals of the project method. Project method - pedagogical technology, focused not on the integration of factual knowledge, but on their application and acquisition of new ones, including through self-education. The application of the learning project method is an indicator high level teacher qualifications. The active involvement of students in the creation of projects gives them the opportunity to learn new ways of human activity in the socio-cultural environment, which develops the skills and abilities to adapt to the changing conditions of human life.