In what century Alexander II ruled. Emperor Alexander II and the imperial family - Role-playing game "Town". Beginning of state activity

Of the year. Alexander II's mentor was the Russian poet V.A. Zhukovsky, educator - K.K. Merder, one of the teachers of the law is the famous archpriest Gerasim Pavsky.

Changing the foundations of agrarian relations in Russia, the Peasant Reform had a complex character. Granting the peasants personal freedom, a personal allotment of land and the possibility of buying land from landowners, at the same time it retained most of the land in the ownership of the nobility. The reform also preserved the peasant community as a traditional form of peasant self-government in Russia, however, legitimizing the free exit of peasants from it. Having changed the whole way of rural life, the reform significantly influenced the development of cities, accelerating their growth by turning part of the peasants freed from serfdom into townspeople, artisans and workers.

Zemstvo reform

The zemstvo reform of the city had a fundamental character, as a result of which local self-government bodies were created (provincial and district zemstvo assemblies and their executive bodies - provincial and district zemstvo councils). In the city Zemskaya reform was supplemented by the "City Regulations", on the basis of which city dumas and councils were formed.

Judicial reform

Politics

The priorities of the European policy of Alexander II were the Eastern question and the revision of the results of the Crimean War, ensuring pan-European security. Alexander II focused on an alliance with the Central European powers - in the city the "Holy Alliance of the Three Emperors", Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia was concluded.

During the reign of Alexander II, the Caucasian War of 1817–1864 was completed, a significant part of Turkestan was annexed (1865–1881), borders with China were established along the Amur and Ussuri rivers (1858–1860).

Thanks to the victory of Russia in the war with Turkey (1877–1878), in order to help fellow Slavic peoples in their liberation from the Turkish yoke, Bulgaria, Romania and Serbia gained independence and began a sovereign existence. The victory was won largely thanks to the will of Alexander II, who, during the most difficult period of the war, insisted on continuing the siege of Plevna, which contributed to its victorious completion. In Bulgaria, Alexander II was revered as the Liberator. Sofia Cathedral is a temple-monument of St. blgv. led. book. Alexander Nevsky, patron saint of Alexander II.

During the reign of Alexander II, Russia was going through a difficult period of its socio-political history. Militant nihilism, atheism and extreme social radicalism became the ideological foundation of political terrorism, which became especially dangerous by the end of the 70s. In the struggle against the state, the extremist conspirators set regicide as their main goal. From the 2nd floor. 60s the life of Alexander II was in constant danger.

In total, five unsuccessful attempts were made on Alexander II:

• April 4, D. Karakozov's assassination attempt during the emperor's walk in the Summer Garden. In memory of the rescue of Alexander II, at the site of the incident in 1866-1867, the Alexander Nevsky Chapel was built into the fence of the Summer Garden according to the project of R. A. Kuzmin.
• May 25, the year - the attempt of the Pole A. Berezovsky during the official visit of the emperor to France.
• April 2, 2009 - assassination of A. Solovyov, a member of the "Land and Freedom" society.
• November 19, 1879 - the explosion of the royal train near Moscow.
• February 12 - the explosion of the royal dining room in the Winter Palace.

Showing exceptional state. and personal courage, Alexander II continued the course of reforms, the implementation of which he considered a historical necessity and his life's work.

Literature

• Chichagov L. M. [schmch. Seraphim]. Stay of the tsar-liberator in the Danube army in 1877. St. Petersburg, 1887. St. Petersburg, 1995;
• Runovsky N. Church and civil legal provisions regarding the Orthodox white clergy in the reign of Emperor Alexander II. Kaz., 1898;
• Papkov A. A. Church and public issues in the era of the Tsar-Liberator. St. Petersburg, 1902;
• Tatishchev S. S. Emperor Alexander II, his life and reign. St. Petersburg, 19112. 2 volumes;
• Yakovlev A.I. Alexander II and his era. M., 1992;
• Zakharova L. G. Alexander II // Russian Autocrats (1801–1917). M., 1993;
• Smolich I.K. History of the Russian Church. M., 1997. T. 8. 2 hours;
• Rimsky S. V. The Orthodox Church and the State in the 19th century. R.-N./D., 1998.

Sources

• A.V. Prokofiev, S.N. Nosov. Alexander II, Emperor of All Russia (Article from Volume I of the Orthodox Encyclopedia)
• Lyashenko L.M. Alexander II, or the History of Three Solitudes, M.: Mol.gvardiya, 2003

Alexander I was born on April 29, 1818, in Moscow. In honor of his birth in Moscow, a volley of 201 guns was fired. The birth of Alexander II took place during the reign of Alexander I, who had no children, and the first brother of Alexander I, Constantine, did not have imperial ambitions, because of which the son of Nicholas I, Alexander II, was immediately considered as the future emperor. When Alexander II was 7 years old, his father had already become emperor.

Nicholas I approached the education of his son very responsibly. Alexander received an excellent home education. His teachers were outstanding minds of that time, such as lawyer Mikhail Speransky, poet Vasily Zhukovsky, financier Yegor Kankrin and others. Alexander studied the Law of God, legislation, foreign policy, physical and mathematical sciences, history, statistics, chemistry and technology. In addition, he studied military sciences. Mastered English, German and French. The poet Vasily Zhukovsky was appointed educator of the future emperor, who at the same time was Alexander's teacher of the Russian language.

Alexander II in his youth. Unknown artist. OK. 1830

Alexander's father personally oversaw his education by attending Alexander's examinations, which he himself arranged every two years. Nikolai also attracted his son to state affairs: from the age of 16, Alexander had to attend meetings of the Senate, later Alexander became a member of the Synod. In 1836, Alexander was promoted to major general and included in the retinue of the king.

The training ended with a trip to Russian Empire and Europe.

Nicholas I, from the "admonition" to his son before a trip to Russia: “Your first duty will be to see everything with the indispensable goal of getting to know in detail the state over which sooner or later you are determined to reign. Therefore, your attention should be equally directed to everything ... in order to get an idea of ​​the real state of things.

In 1837, Alexander, in the company of Zhukovsky, adjutant Kavelin and several other people close to him, made a long trip around Russia and visited 29 provinces of the European part, Transcaucasia and Western Siberia.

Nicholas I, from the "admonition" to his son before a trip to Europe: “Many things will seduce you, but on closer examination you will see that not everything is worthy of imitation; ... we must always preserve our nationality, our imprint, and woe to us if we leave it behind; it is our strength, our salvation, our originality.”

In 1838-1839 Alexander visited the countries of Central Europe, Scandinavia, Italy and England. In Germany, he met his future wife, Maria Alexandrovna, daughter of the Grand Duke Ludwig of Hesse-Darmstadt, with whom they married two years later.

The beginning of the reign

The throne of the Russian Empire went to Alexander on March 3, 1855. In this difficult time for Russia Crimean War, in which Russia had no allies, and the adversaries were the advanced European powers (Turkey, France, England, Prussia and Sardinia). The war for Russia at the time of Alexander's accession to the throne was almost completely lost. The first important step of Alexander was to reduce the country's losses to a minimum, the conclusion of the Paris Peace Treaty in 1856. After the emperor visited France and Poland, where he spoke with calls to “stop dreams” (meaning dreams of defeating Russia), later he entered into an alliance with the king of Prussia, forming a “dual alliance”. Such actions greatly weakened the foreign policy isolation of the Russian Empire, in which it was during the Crimean War.

However, the problem of the war was not the only one that the new emperor inherited from the hands of his late father: the peasant, Polish and Eastern issues were not resolved. In addition, the economy in the country was severely depleted by the Crimean War.

Nicholas I, before his death, addressing his son: “I hand over my team to you, but, unfortunately, not in the order I wanted, leaving you a lot of work and worries”

Period of Great Reforms

Initially, Alexander supported his father's conservative policy, but long-standing problems could no longer remain unresolved, and Alexander began a reform policy.

In December 1855, the Supreme Censorship Committee was closed and the free issue of foreign passports was allowed. In the summer of 1856, on the occasion of the coronation, the new emperor granted amnesty to the Decembrists, Petrashevists (freethinkers who were going to rebuild the state system in Russia, arrested by the government of Nicholas I) and participants in the Polish uprising. A “thaw” began in the socio-political life of the country.

In addition, Alexander II liquidated in 1857 military settlements, established under Alexander I.

The next was the solution of the peasant question, which greatly hampered the development of capitalism in the Russian Empire and every year increased the gap from the advanced European powers.

Alexander II, from an address to the nobles in March 1856: “Rumors are circulating that I want to announce the emancipation of serfdom. It's not fair... But I won't tell you that I'm totally against it. We live in such an age that in time this must happen ... It is much better for it to happen from above than from below.

The reform of this phenomenon was prepared for a long time and carefully, and only in 1861 Alexander II signed Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom And Regulations on peasants leaving serfdom, compiled by trusted persons of the emperors, for the most part liberals such as Nikolai Milyutin, Yakov Rostovtsev and others. However, the liberal attitude of the developers of the reform was suppressed by the nobility, who for the most part did not want to lose any personal benefits. For this reason, the reform was carried out more in the interests of the nobility than in the interests of the people, since the peasants received only personal freedom and civil rights, and they had to buy land for the needs of the peasants from the landowners. Nevertheless, the government helped the peasants with the redemption of subsidies, which allowed the peasants to immediately buy the land, remaining indebted to the state. Despite these aspects, Alexander II for this reform was immortalized in history as the "tsar-liberator".

Reading of the Manifesto of 1861 by Alexander II on Smolnaya Square in St. Petersburg. Artist A.D. Kivshenko.

The reform of serfdom was followed by a series of reforms. The abolition of serfdom created new type economy, while finance, built on the feudal system, reflected an outdated type of its development. In 1863, the Financial Reform was carried out. In the process of this reform, the State Bank of the Russian Empire and the Main Redemption Institution under the Ministry of Finance were created. The first step was the emergence of the principle of publicity in the formation of the state budget, which made it possible to minimize embezzlement. Treasuries were also created to administer all state revenues. Taxation after the reform began to resemble modern, with the division of taxes into direct and indirect.

In 1863, an education reform was carried out, which made secondary and higher education accessible, a network of public schools was created, and schools for commoners were created. Universities received a special status and relative autonomy, which in turn had a positive impact on the conditions of scientific activity and the prestige of the teaching profession.

The next major reform was Zemstvo reform carried out in July 1864. According to this reform, local self-government bodies were created: zemstvos and city dumas, which themselves resolved economic and budgetary issues.

There was a need for a new judicial system to govern the country. In 1864, the Judicial Reform was also carried out, which guaranteed the equality of all classes before the law. The institution of juries was created. Also, most of the meetings became open and public. All meetings were competitive.

In 1874, a military reform was carried out. This reform was motivated by the humiliating defeat of Russia in the Crimean War, where all the shortcomings of the Russian army and its lagging behind the European ones surfaced. It provided transition from recruitment to universal conscription and reduced service life. As a result of the reform, the size of the army was reduced by 40%, a network of military and cadet schools was created for people from all classes, the General Staff of the Army and military districts were created, the rearmament of the army and navy, the abolition of corporal punishment in the army and the creation of military courts and military procurators with adversarial litigation.

Historians have noted that Alexander II made decisions on reforms not because of his own convictions, but because of his understanding of their necessity. So we can conclude that for Russia of that era they were forced.

Territorial changes and wars under Alexander II

Internal and external wars during the reign of Alexander II were successful. The Caucasian War successfully ended in 1864, as a result of which the entire North Caucasus was captured by Russia. According to the Aigun and Beijing treaties with Chinese empire Russia in 1858-1860 annexed the Amur and Ussuri regions. In 1863, the emperor successfully suppressed an uprising in Poland. In 1867-1873, the territory of Russia increased due to the conquest of the Turkestan Territory and the Ferghana Valley and the voluntary entry into the vassal rights of the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khiva Khanate.

In 1867, Alaska (Russian America) was sold to the United States for $7 million. Which at that time was a bargain for Russia in view of the remoteness of these territories and for the sake of good relations with the United States.

Growth of dissatisfaction with the activities of Alexander II, assassination attempts and murder

During the reign of Alexander II, unlike his predecessors, there were more than enough social protests. Numerous peasant uprisings(dissatisfied with the conditions of the peasant reform of the peasants), the Polish uprising and, as a result, the attempts of the emperor to Russify Poland led to waves of discontent. In addition, numerous protest groups appeared among the intelligentsia and workers, who formed circles. Numerous circles began to propagate revolutionary ideas with "going to the people." Government attempts to bring these processes under control only exacerbated the process. For example, in the process of 193 populists, society was outraged by the actions of the government.

“In general, in all strata of the population, some kind of indefinite displeasure is manifested, which has seized everyone. Everyone complains about something and seems to want and wait for a change.

Assassinations and terror of important government officials spread. While the audience literally applauded the terrorists. Terrorist organizations grew more and more so, for example, "Narodnaya Volya", which sentenced Alexander II to death by the end of the 70s, had more than a hundred active members.

Plason Anton-Antonovich, a contemporary of Alexander II: “Only during an armed uprising that has already flared up is there such a panic that seized everyone in Russia at the end of the 70s and in the 80s. In all of Russia, everyone fell silent in clubs, in hotels, on the streets and in the markets ... And both in the provinces and in St. Petersburg, everyone was waiting for something unknown, but terrible, no one was sure of the future "

Alexander II literally did not know what to do and was completely at a loss. In addition to the discontent of society, the emperor had problems in the family: in 1865, his eldest son Nikolai died, his death undermined the health of the empress. As a result, there was complete alienation in the emperor's family. Alexander came to his senses a little when he met Ekaterina Dolgoruky, but this connection also caused censure from society.

Prime Minister Pyotr Valuev: “The sovereign looks tired and himself spoke of nervous irritation, which he intensifies to hide. Crowned ruin. In an era where strength is needed in him, obviously you can’t count on it. ”

Osip Komissarov. Photo from the collection of M.Yu. Meshchaninov

The first attempt on the tsar was carried out on April 4, 1866 by a member of the Hell society (a society adjoining the People and Will organization) Dmitry Karakozov, he tried to shoot at the tsar, but at the moment of the shot he was pushed by a peasant Osip Komisarov (later a hereditary nobleman).

“I don’t know what, but my heart somehow especially beat when I saw this man who hastily made his way through the crowd; I involuntarily followed him, but then, however, forgot him when the sovereign approached. Suddenly I see that he took out and aims a pistol: it instantly seemed to me that if I threw myself at him or pushed his hand to the side, he would kill someone else or me, and I involuntarily and forcefully pushed his hand up; then I don’t remember anything, how I was bewildered myself.

The second assassination attempt was carried out in Paris on May 25, 1867 by the Polish emigrant Anton Berezovsky, but the bullet hit the horse.

On April 2, 1879, a member of Narodnaya Volya, Alexander Solovyov, fired 5 shots at the emperor from a distance of 10 steps, when he, unguarded and escorted, was walking around the outskirts of the Winter Palace, but not a single bullet hit the target.

On November 19 of the same year, members of Narodnaya Volya unsuccessfully tried to mine the tsar's train. The emperor again smiled luck.

On February 5, 1880, Stepan Khalturin, a Narodnaya Volya member, undermined the Winter Palace, but only soldiers from his personal guard died, the emperor himself and his family were not injured.

Photo of the halls of the Winter Palace after the explosion.

Alexander II died on March 1, 1881, an hour after another assassination attempt from the explosion of a second bomb thrown under his feet on the embankment of the Catherine Canal in St. Petersburg by the People's Will Ignaty Grinevitsky. The emperor died on the day he intended to approve constitutional draft Loris-Melikova.

The results of the reign

Alexander II went down in history as a "tsar-liberator" and a reformer, although the reforms carried out did not fully solve many of Russia's age-old problems. The territory of the country has increased significantly, despite the loss of Alaska.

However, the economic condition of the country worsened under him: the industry plunged into depression, the state and external debt reached large sizes, and a deficit in the foreign trade balance formed, which led to a breakdown in finance and monetary relations. The society was already so restless, and by the end of the reign, a complete split formed in it.

Personal life

Alexander II often spent time abroad, was a passionate lover of hunting large animals, loved ice skating and greatly popularized this phenomenon. He himself suffered from asthma.

He himself was a very amorous person, during a trip to Europe after his studies he fell in love with Queen Victoria.

He was twice married and married. From his first marriage with Maria Alexandrovna (Maximiliana of Hesse) he had 8 children, including Alexander III. From his second marriage with Ekaterina Dolgorukova, he had 4 children.

Family of Alexander II. Photo by Sergey Levitsky.

In memory of Alexander II, the Church of the Savior on Blood was erected at the site of his death.

Egor BOTMAN (? -1891). Emperor Alexander II. 1875.
Reproduction from http://lj.rossia.org/users/john_petrov/

Detailed biography

ALEXANDER II Nikolaevich Romanov - Sovereign Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia in 1855 - 1881 Son of Emperor Nicholas 1 and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. Genus. 17 Apr. 1818 Ascended to the throne 18 Feb. 1855 Crowned 26 Aug. 1856

1) from 16 Apr. 1841 daughter of Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, Grand. Duchess Maximilian-Welhelmina-Augusta-Sophia-Maria, Empress Maria Alexandrovna (b. July 27, 1824 + May 22, 1880);

2) from July 6, 1880, Princess Ekaterina Mikhailovna Dolgorukova, Most Serene Princess Yuryevskaya (born 1847 + 1922).

It is known that the birth of Alexander attracted special attention of the entire Russian society. his father, Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlovich, the third son of Emperor Paul I, at that time occupied a more than modest position and did not even think about the throne. However, since both older brothers did not have male heirs, in the person of his son, the Romanov family, as it were, received a long-awaited continuation.

The parents of the future emperor were very different people, but Alexander inherited the character of his mother much more. He grew up as a soft, sensitive, even sentimental boy. Feelings and experiences have always played a big role in his life. The firmness and inexorable authority inherent in Nikolai Pavlovich were never the hallmarks of his son. As a child, Alexander was distinguished by liveliness, speed and quick wit. Educators noted in him cordiality, sensitivity, cheerful disposition, courtesy, sociability, good manners and good looks. But at the same time, they recognized that the Tsarevich lacks perseverance in achieving the goal, that he easily gives in to difficulties, has no character and will.

At the age of six, Alexander's upbringing was entrusted to a purely military man - Captain Merder. He was a military officer, awarded for bravery at Austerlitz, a participant in all the battles of the 1806-1807 campaign. Contemporaries unanimously spoke of him as a man of high morals, kindness, who had a clear and inquisitive mind and a strong will. In general, the choice turned out to be successful. Having become emperor, Nicholas immediately attended to the general education of the heir and elected Zhukovsky as his tutor. The poet treated the appointment with the greatest responsibility. Within six months, he compiled a special "Plan of Teaching", designed for 12 years and approved by Nicholas 1. This pedagogical treatise was a detailed program of moral education and training.

The set of subjects proposed by Zhukovsky included the Russian language, history, geography, statistics, ethnography, logic, philosophy, mathematics, natural science, physics, mineralogy, geology, God's law, languages: French, German, English and Polish. Much attention was paid to drawing, music, gymnastics, fencing, swimming and sports in general, dancing, manual work and recitation. Twice a year, exams were held for the heir, often in the presence of the sovereign himself, who was generally satisfied with the success of his son and the diligence of teachers. But the emperor believed that military science should become the basis for raising his son, and this had to be reckoned with. Already at the age of 11, Alexander commanded a company, at 14 - for the first time as an officer, he led a platoon during the exercises of the 1st Cadet Corps. Since 1833, he began to read the course of fortification and artillery. A year later, the teaching of military subjects was further strengthened to the detriment of other disciplines.

At the same time, the crown prince began to be involved in state affairs. Since 1834, he had to attend meetings of the Senate, in 1835 he was introduced to the Synod, and in 1836 he was promoted to major general and included in the retinue of Nicholas. These years were also the "final period of learning", when the highest state dignitaries read courses of a practical nature to the future emperor. Speransky conducted "conversations about laws" for a year and a half, the famous Russian financier Kankrin made a "brief review of Russian finances", adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Baron Vrunov introduced the heir to the basic principles foreign policy Russia, starting from the reign of Catherine II, finally, the military historian and theorist General Jomini taught at French Russian military policy. In the spring of 1837, together with his classmates Patkul and Vielgorsky, Alexander passed final exams, taking a solid first place among his capable peers.

Immediately after this, on May 2, Alexander went on his first big trip around his native country, which he had, if not to know, then at least to see in order to imagine what and whom he was destined to manage when his time came. The trip continued until the end of the year. During this time, Alexander visited many cities, was in the south, traveled to the Urals and Siberia itself. For the next three months, the Tsarevich was intensively engaged in military affairs, finances and diplomacy, preparing for a trip abroad. At the same time, he experienced a very strong love interest. The subject of his passion was the maid of honor Olga Kalinovskaya. According to Countess Fersen, she was not at all distinguished by beauty, but possessed insinuatingness and tenderness. Alexander was already ready to give up the throne in order to marry her. Upon learning of this, Nikolai considered it best to hurry with his son's trip abroad, especially since one of her goals was just to find a bride for the heir. At the end of April, Alexander again set off on a long journey. In the course of a year, he visited Scandinavia, Austria, and traveled all over the Italian and German states.

On March 13, 1839, the heir stopped for the night in a small Darmstadt surrounded by gardens and parks, where there was no stopover on his route. Especially for the Tsarevich, the Traube Hotel was rented, since Alexander categorically refused to spend the night in the castle of the Duke of Hesse (he was very tired of visiting numerous German princes and dreamed of getting to Holland faster). However, in the evening he went to the opera, and here in the theater hall he was met by the entire ducal family. The duke's daughter Maria, who was then only 15 years old, greatly impressed Alexander with her beauty and grace. After the performance, he accepted an invitation to dinner, talked a lot, laughed and, instead of rushing to leave, agreed to have breakfast with the crown prince. During these hours, Maria completely fascinated the Tsarevich and, going to bed, he said to the adjutants Kaverin and Orlov accompanying him: "That's who I dreamed of all my life. I will marry only her." He immediately wrote to his father and mother, asking them for permission to propose to the young princess of Hesse. Nicholas agreed.

Alexander spent the month of May in London, where he was cordially received by the English aristocracy, visited Parliament, the races, Oxford, the Tower, the docks on the Thames, the Bank of England and Westminster Abbey. But his most vivid memories were associated with the 19-year-old Queen Victoria. On June 23, he returned to St. Petersburg and here again became interested in Olga Kalinovskaya: he was very amorous, and his parents had to reckon with this. The emperor hurried to marry Kalinovskaya to the husband of her late sister, the wealthy Polish magnate Count Iriney Oginsky. Only then, on March 4, 1840, Alexander went to Darmstadt to fetch his bride. He returned to Russia with her and his parents, who met them in Poland in early September. On December 5, Maria was baptized according to the Orthodox rite and became Grand Duchess Maria Alekseevna. The wedding took place on April 16, 1841. Everyone who wrote about Alexander's wife paid tribute to her beauty and wonderful spiritual qualities. Tyutcheva, who met her 12 years later, recalled: “Despite her tall stature and slenderness, she was so thin and fragile that at first glance she did not give the impression of a beauty; but she was unusually elegant with that very special grace that can be found on old German paintings, in the Madonnas of Albrecht Dürer, combining a certain severity and dryness of forms with a kind of grace in movements and poses, thanks to which an elusive charm is felt in their whole being and, as it were, a glimpse of the soul through the shell of the body. than in the princess, this spiritual and chaste grace of ideal abstraction. Her features were not correct. Her wonderful hair, her delicate complexion, her large blue, slightly bulging eyes, looked meek and penetrating ... It was first of all the soul extremely sincere and deeply religious ... The mind of the princess was like her soul: subtle, elegant, insightful, very ironic..."

Upon his return from the trip, Alexander became involved in state activities. Since 1839, he has been present at meetings of the State Council, and since 1840, also at meetings of the Committee of Ministers. In 1841 - 1842 he was already a member of these higher state institutions. Finally, in 1842, on the occasion of the two-month departure of Nicholas 1 from the capital, Alexander was entrusted with the decision of all state affairs. In later years, this became the rule. In 1846, Nicholas made his son chairman of the Secret Committee on the Peasant Question. At the same time, the heir performed military posts. In 1844 he received a full general, in 1849 he became the chief head of military educational institutions and took command of the Guards Corps, and in 1852 he was promoted to commander-in-chief of the Guards and Grenadier Corps. In 1850, Alexander went to the Caucasus to get acquainted with the military operations. In general, as always, it was a parade tour of the garrisons. Only in Dagestan did the Tsarevich witness a battle with the Chechens, he could not resist and galloped behind the chain under enemy fire.

All these years before his accession to the throne, Alexander always tried to accurately and faithfully carry out the orders of the emperor. He did not commit any independent actions, did not express any political ideas. He apparently shared all the conservative views of his father and, while working, for example, in the Peasant Committee, did not show any liberal intentions. Even outwardly, he tried to resemble his father. Tyutcheva, who closely recognized Alexander in 1853, wrote: “His features were correct, but sluggish and not clear enough, his eyes were large, blue, but his eyes were not very spiritualized; in a word, his face was inexpressive and there was even something unpleasant in it. in those cases when in public he considered himself obliged to take on a solemn and majestic appearance. He adopted this expression from his father, from whom it was natural, but on his face it gave the impression of an unsuccessful mask. On the contrary, when the Grand Duke was in the family or in a circle of intimate faces, and when he allowed himself to be himself, his whole face lit up with kindness, a friendly and gentle smile, which made him really likeable.At that time, when he was still an heir, this last expression was predominant in him; As emperor, he considered himself obliged almost always to assume a severe and imposing air, which in him was only a poor copy.This did not give him that charm, which at one time Emperor Nicholas possessed, and deprived him of that which was given to him by nature and with which he could so easily attract hearts to himself.

During his lifetime, Emperor Nicholas completely overshadowed and suppressed his son with his personality. He always remained only an obedient executor of the will of his parent, but on February 18, 1855, Nikolai died suddenly. The next day, Alexander ascended the throne. He assumed power at the most difficult moment, when it was obvious to everyone that Russia was doomed to defeat in the Crimean War. Amazement, resentment, pain, anger and irritation reigned in society. The first years of his reign became for Alexander a harsh school of political education. It was then that he fully felt all the discontent accumulated in society and drank all the bitterness of cruel and fair criticism.

Not immediately, but only after long hesitations and mistakes, he stumbled upon the road that Russia was supposed to take. At first, there is no intention of reform at all in Alexander. The day after assuming power, February 19, 1855, he declared in the State Council that he recognized himself as the successor of the "desires and types" of "our unforgettable parent", and on February 23, at the reception of the diplomatic corps, he definitely promised to adhere to the political principles of his father and uncle. He did not want to hear about the conclusion of peace, rightly considering the proposed conditions humiliating and unacceptable for Russia. But his firmness could not last long - the circumstances were too unfavorable to rule in the old way. In August, Sevastopol fell - it was a terrible blow. They say that Alexander wept when he received the fatal news. He himself went south, watched the construction of bastions around Nikolaev, inspected the fortifications around Ochakov and Odessa, and visited the army's headquarters in Bakhchisarai. But all efforts were in vain. Russia could not continue the war. In the international arena, it found itself isolated, its internal forces were undermined, discontent swept through all sections of society.

Possessing a sound and sober mind, a certain flexibility, not at all prone to fanaticism, Alexander, under the pressure of circumstances and having no program, began to make new decisions that did not fit into the old system and even directly opposed to it. He embarked on the path of liberation reforms not because of his convictions, but as a military man on the throne, who realized the "lessons" of the Crimean War, as an emperor and autocrat, for whom the prestige and greatness of the state were above all else.

The contours of this new course were gradually taking shape. On December 3, 1855, the Supreme Censorship Committee was closed. The ban imposed by Nicholas 1 on the printed word was canceled - so great was the need for society to speak out. One after another, new independent publications began to appear. Glasnost was the first manifestation of the thaw that came shortly after Alexander's accession. The restrictions introduced at the universities after 1848 were also abolished.

In March 1856, with the active participation of Prince Gorchakov, the Peace of Paris was concluded. He cost Russia Black Sea Fleet, but was still much less shameful than one might expect. Shortly after the signing of the peace, the remaining military settlements were abolished, the term of service in the army was reduced from 25 to 15 years.

On August 14, the royal family from the Nikolaevsky railway station went by train to Moscow, and on August 26, the coronation took place in the Assumption Cathedral. On the occasion of the holiday, Alexander canceled recruitment duty for three years, forgave arrears, amnestied or eased the lot a large number criminals, including the Decembrists. The surviving participants in the uprising were returned estates and titles.

It is difficult to say when Alexander finally realized that serf relations had become obsolete, but the fact that he became convinced of this soon after his accession to the throne is beyond doubt. It remained to decide how to carry out this grandiose reform. In March 1856, shortly after the conclusion of peace, the emperor went to Moscow. The Moscow governor-general, the well-known serf-owner Count Zakrevsky, petitioned Alexander about the desire of the local nobility to present themselves to the sovereign about a rumor that had spread among him that the government was plotting to abolish serfdom.

The emperor received the Moscow provincial marshal of the nobility, Prince Shcherbatov, with district representatives and told them: “Rumors are circulating that I want to announce the liberation of serfdom. Petersburg. But I will not tell you that I am completely against it. We live in such an age that in time this must happen. I think that you, too, are of the same opinion with me; therefore, it is much better for this to happen from above, than below." The sovereign asked to think about it and express their proposals.

On January 3, 1857, to consider the issue of abolishing serfdom, a new secret committee was formed from the closest trustees. At the beginning of December of the same year, a circular was sent out on behalf of the Minister of the Interior, in which it was proposed to form committees in each province to discuss this important issue. By the middle of July 1858 committees were opened in all provinces. They worked for about a year, developing local regulations on the arrangement of the life of the landlord peasants. In February 1859, the first secret committee for peasant affairs received a public official existence as the main leader of the undertaking. As soon as the drafts developed by the provincial committees began to arrive, editorial commissions were formed under him, which were supposed to give the final development to the provincial projects. On October 10, 1860, Alexander ordered the developments to be transferred to the disposal of the main committee, and on January 28, 1861, the first meeting of the State Council took place, which was supposed to approve the project. Speaking at it, Alexander said that it was no longer possible to postpone the work of freeing the peasants, that it was necessary to finish it in February in order to declare the will to start field work. But despite the direct support of the sovereign, the project met with serious opposition in the State Council. Eventually Alexander approved it against the opinion of the majority of the members. On February 19, the final text of the law on the liberation and organization of the life of the peasants, as well as the Supreme Manifesto on this, were signed, and on March 5, the manifesto was read in all churches.

Thus the great deed of the abolition of serfdom was accomplished. When evaluating the peasant reform, it should be remembered that it was what it could only be at that time, that is, a compromise between the two main classes of Russian society: nobles and peasants. As a result of the reform, the peasants received much more than what the overwhelming mass of feudal landlords wanted to give them, but much less than what they themselves expected from them after so many years of talk. If we recall that among the reform projects submitted in 1859 by the provincial committees, almost a third represented those in which the emancipation of the peasants was completely rejected, and in a third of the others it was proposed to emancipate the peasants without land, if we add to this that the members of the drafting commission (who all , by the way, were nobles) did not include in the final version of the law a lot of semi-feudal fetters with which the landlords wanted to tie their former serfs hand and foot, it cannot be denied that the law of February 19, 1861 was of tremendous progressive significance and was, according to Klyuchevsky, one of the most important acts of Russian history. And truly, the personal merit of Alexander in this is enormous. He should be recognized as the main engine of the reform, for he started it alone, without yet having assistants in the government and family, and completed it, despite the stubborn resistance of the landlords and senior officials. He put a lot of his energy into this business, personally traveling around the provinces and trying to soften the bitterness of the landowners: he persuaded, persuaded, shamed. In the end, thanks to his personal authority, the most liberal of the options for release possible at that time (with land for ransom) was approved.

But on the other hand, the financial situation in which the peasants found themselves after liberation did not correspond to their real needs so much that many of them were brought to the brink of complete poverty in a few years. The emperor was well aware that the peasants were dissatisfied with the decrease in allotments, high duties and redemption payments, but he did not consider it possible to yield on this issue. Speaking on August 15, 1861 in Poltava before the peasant elders, Alexander categorically stated: “I hear rumors that you are looking for another will. There will be no other will like the one I gave you. Do what the law and the Regulation require. and work. Be obedient to the authorities and the landowners." He remained true to this opinion until the end of his life.

The liberation of the peasants significantly changed all the foundations of Russian state and social life. It created a new populous social class in the central and southern regions of Russia. Previously, to manage it, they were content with the power of the landowners. Now the state had to manage the peasants. The old Catherine's institutions, which established noble self-government in the counties, were no longer suitable for the new heterogeneous county population. It was necessary to create anew the local administration and the court. The abolition of serfdom, therefore, inevitably led to other transformations. In the first half of the 1960s, the university reform and the reform of local self-government were consistently carried out, a new all-estate court was created, and censorship control was softened. Despite the limitations and incompleteness of the reforms carried out, they were of great progressive significance for Russia. Many of the fetters that bound the development of the country were eliminated. This was the key to Russia's industrial success. Construction became a serious stimulus to economic life under Alexander. railways strongly encouraged by the government. Soon, about 20 thousand miles of railway tracks were built. This influenced the development of industry and trade. Trade with neighboring countries increased tenfold. The number of commercial and industrial enterprises, factories and factories has increased noticeably. Credit institutions also appeared - banks, headed by the State Bank in 1860. Russia began to gradually lose the character of a patriarchal agricultural state.

But many years passed before the Russian society realized the correctness of the chosen course. Alexander had to drink in full the bitterness of disappointment, familiar to many great reformers. Instead of the gratitude he might have expected from his subjects, the emperor was severely criticized. Some reproached him for having crossed the line of what was permitted in his transformations and embarked on a disastrous path for Russia, while others, on the contrary, believed that the sovereign was too slow to introduce new institutions and that even in his reforms he was more reactionary than liberal.

In fact, both were right. Public and state order in Nicholas Russia was maintained through military force, overt national oppression and brutal censorship. As soon as the regime was softened, Russia began to be shaken by national uprisings and revolutionary ferment. New ideas, penetrating into all strata of society, gradually corroded loyalist feelings. As early as 1862, revolutionary proclamations appeared calling for the overthrow of the autocracy and an equal division of the land. Power and society for the first time felt themselves opposed to each other.

At the same time, the national liberation movement revived in its northwestern outskirts. As soon as the order established by Nicholas 1 in the Kingdom of Poland was slightly softened by Alexander, a strong patriotic movement for the independence of Poland began. All attempts to find a compromise, satisfying the most modest demands of the opposition, did not produce results, concessions were regarded as evidence of the weakness of the authorities, which should be taken advantage of. In January 1863, the underground movement turned into an armed uprising, which began with an attack by the rebels on the soldiers of a number of garrisons. Having exhausted all the possibilities of negotiations, Alexander finally decided on tough measures. In the summer of 1863, he recalled Grand Duke Konstantin from Poland, appointing Count Berg in his place, and sent Muravyov, known for his propensity for drastic measures, as governor general to the northwestern provinces. The use of a huge regular army against the rebels, the death sentences for those involved in the murders - all this made it possible to quickly stabilize the situation on the western outskirts of Russia.

A decade of tireless work has not passed without a trace. Since 1865, fatigue, even some apathy, has been noticed in Alexander. transformative activity weakens, and although the initiated reforms continue to be steadily implemented, new beginnings are becoming rare. A significant role was played here by personal misfortunes and attempts on the life of the sovereign, which followed one after another with terrible method.

In April 1865, Alexander suffered a severe blow both as a person and as an emperor. In Nice, his eldest son Nikolai died of spinal meningitis, a young man who had just turned 21, who had successfully completed his education, found a bride for himself, and intended to start public activity as an assistant and future successor to his father. The second son of the emperor, Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich, was declared the new heir to the throne. Both in terms of his abilities and education, he frankly did not correspond to his high appointment. The emperor could not but feel anxiety for the future of Russia. It was still possible to try to fill in the gaps in the training course (and this was done), but time had already been lost, because we were talking about an established twenty-year-old man.

The death of Grand Duke Nicholas most severely affected the Empress. She loved him especially, was engaged in his education, invariably invited to evenings in her living room. There was a deep bond between mother and son. After her son died in her arms, the empress withdrew into her grief, her health deteriorated even more.

The married life of Alexander and his wife had not gone well for a long time. Perhaps the death of her son dealt her the last fatal blow. During the first twenty years of marriage, Maria Alexandrovna gave birth to eight children. Meanwhile, her health from the very beginning was not distinguished by strength. Numerous births further shattered him. After forty, the Empress began to suffer from acute heart attacks. Doctors strongly advised Maria Alexandrovna to refrain from marital relations. And like his father, Alexander at the age of forty turned out to be a straw widower. One after another, he changed several mistresses. Among them are Princess Alexandra Dolgoruky, Zamyatina, Labunskaya, Makarova, Makova and Wanda Carozzi. All these were impeccable beauties (Alexander from his youth was known as a connoisseur and lover of women), but they could not fill the void that somehow imperceptibly arose around the emperor.

And Alexander still did not feel like an old man at all. The French poet Theophile Gauthier, who saw him shortly after the death of his son, described his appearance as follows: “The sovereign’s hair was cut short and well framed a high and beautiful forehead. The facial features are amazingly regular and seem to be carved by a sculptor. time of long travels. The outline of the mouth is so thin and defined that it resembles Greek sculpture. The expression of the face is majestically calm and soft, from time to time adorned with a gracious smile. "

In the spring of 1865, Alexander began a new, most stormy romance in his life, which was destined to be his last. Walking in the Summer Garden, he noticed a young girl, graceful, fashionably dressed, with a blush all over her cheek, with large radiant eyes. It was eighteen-year-old Princess Ekaterina Dolgorukova. The emperor had known her for a long time, since 1857, when she was still a little girl. Now, captivated by her fresh beauty, he began to woo her, becoming more and more infatuated. He managed to gradually awaken counter feelings, but the relationship of lovers remained platonic for a long time, they had to go through many trials before their attraction turned into an all-consuming passion.

On April 4, 1866, Alexander, having finished his usual walk in the Summer Garden, went out of the gate to get into the carriage. Suddenly, a young man approached him, pulled out a revolver and pointed it right in the chest. The attack was so unexpected that it should have ended tragically, but Osip Komissarov, who was standing nearby, managed to hit the killer on the hand. The bullet flew past. The gendarmes seized the assassin and brought him to the emperor's carriage. "You're polish?" Alexander asked first of all. "Russian," the terrorist replied. "Why did you shoot me?" - the emperor was surprised. "You deceived the people," he answered, "you promised him land, but did not give it." The arrested person was taken to the 3rd section. It soon became clear that the revolutionary's name was Dmitry Karakozov. He was a member of the "Moscow Circle", one of the fragments of Chernyshevsky's "Earth and Freedom", which had been crushed before. The circle consisted of pupils and students who were preparing for a violent coup and actively propagated the socialist doctrine. 36 people were put on trial in Karakozov's case. All of them were sentenced to hard labor and exile, and Karakozov himself was hanged on September 3 on the Smolensk field.

An attempt of this kind was the first in Russian history and therefore made a huge impression on contemporaries. It had no less strong effect on the emperor. After the obvious success of the reforms (in which few people dared to believe ten years earlier), it was extremely difficult to suddenly be face to face with such intolerance, aggressiveness and misunderstanding. The attempt on April 4 marked a definite change both in the emperor himself and in his policy. Alexander suddenly, as if immediately exhausted and tired. “The sovereign was really constantly in a nervous irritability,” Golovnin later recalled, “he seemed extremely sad and frightened and inspired condolences.” From that time begins the "protective" period of the reign of Alexander, when he was more concerned not so much with new reforms as with the preservation of the achieved position. Even some reactionary traits began to appear in politics, although there was no obvious turn to the past. The government closed the most radical magazines Sovremennik and Russkoe Slovo. The minister of education Golovnin, the governor of St. Petersburg Suvorov were removed - people of a moderately liberal orientation, the chief of the gendarmes, Prince Dolgorukov, resigned. The first place was taken by Count Muraviev, who was appointed head of the Investigative Commission, and Prince Gagarin, the creator of the Special Commission for the Development of Measures to Strengthen Internal Peace. General Trepov became governor of St. Petersburg III department headed by the young and energetic Count Shuvalov, who soon became the closest and most trusted person of the sovereign.

In the spring of the same 1866, Ekaterina Dolgorukova's mother died. Fearing loneliness, the princess reached out with all her heart to Alexander, who, by age, was suitable for her father. On the night from the first to the second of June in Peterhof, in the "Babigon" pavilion, their first love date took place. Parting with his beloved, Alexander promised that he would marry her as soon as he was free. According to the maid of honor of Empress Alexandra Tolstoy, the court soon learned about the emperor’s new novel and at first regarded it as another hobby. “I did not take into account,” wrote Tolstaya, “that his advanced age increased the danger, but most of all I did not take into account the fact that the girl on whom he turned his gaze was of a completely different type than those whom he was fond of before. .. Although everyone saw the birth of a new hobby, they were not at all worried, even the persons closest to the emperor did not assume a serious turn of affairs.On the contrary, everyone was very far from suspecting that he was capable of a real love affair; a romance that was ripening in secret. They only saw what was happening before our eyes - walks with frequent, as if by chance meetings, looking at each other in theater boxes, etc., etc. They said that the princess was pursuing the emperor, but no one knew yet that they saw each other not only in public, but also in other places - by the way, with her brother, Prince Mikhail Dolgoruky, who is married to an Italian.

Much later, they learned that Alexander was meeting with Dolgorukova in the Winter Palace itself, in the former office of Nicholas 1, which had a separate entrance directly from the square and a secret staircase connecting it with Alexander's apartments. Society unambiguously did not approve of the new connection: the authority of the empress in the eyes of the world was extremely great, they pitied her, quietly condemned the emperor and loudly grumbled at the princess. Catherine's older brother was married to the beautiful Neapolitan Marquis de Cherchemaggiore. Having learned about the scandalous connection of her sister-in-law with the sovereign, she hastened to take her to Italy. Perhaps Alexander, conscious of his guilt before his wife, wanted to get rid of his feelings in this way, but it turned out to be stronger than him. During the six months of separation, love only grew stronger. New meeting Alexandra and Catherine happened under extraordinary, even romantic circumstances.

On May 16, 1867, the emperor with two sons - Alexander and Vladimir - went to France for the World Exhibition. On May 20, the royal family arrived in Paris, where they were met by Napoleon III. Alexander settled in the Elysee Palace in the same apartments that Alexander 1 occupied in 1814. A ball and a performance at the Opera were given in honor of the distinguished guest at the Tuileries, and then a visit to the exhibition followed. But it soon became clear that Alexander did not come to Paris for this at all. “As it became known later,” Alexandra Tolstaya wrote, “the true purpose of the trip was a meeting with Princess Dolgorukova, who at that time was in Paris with her daughter-in-law. Even Count Shuvalov, who cannot be called naive and who had at his disposal all the possibilities for this "In order to be more informed, he made this discovery only in hindsight. The situation soon became clear, his eyes were finally opened to the threat that this connection carried, and this is how. He himself told me about it in the following expressions: "At the first On the day of our arrival in Paris, the sovereign went to the Opera Comique, but did not stay there long, finding that the performance was boring. We returned with him to the Elysee Palace, pleased that we could finally rest after a hard day. Between eleven o'clock and midnight the emperor knocked on the door of Count Adlerberg. "I'll take a walk," he said, "it's unnecessary to accompany me, I'll do it myself, but please, dear, give me some money." - "How much do you need?" - "I don't even know, maybe a hundred thousand francs?"

Adlerberg immediately informed me of this strange incident, and since I had my own agents (not to mention the French police) at my disposal, who were supposed to follow the sovereign from a distance, wherever he went, I remained almost calm. We returned to our rooms, of course, forgetting about the dream, waiting any minute for the return of the emperor. But when midnight struck, then one and two, and he did not appear, anxiety seized me, I ran to Adlerberg and found him also alarmed. The most terrible assumptions flashed through our souls.

Police agents, who were instructed to monitor the emperor very delicately, could lose sight of him, and he, having little knowledge of the layout of the Parisian streets, could easily get lost and lose his way to the Elysee Palace. In a word, the thought of the emperor, alone at such a late hour in the street with a hundred thousand francs in his pocket, made us live nightmare hours. The suggestion that he could be at someone's house did not even cross our minds; as you see, this proves our complete ignorance of the main motives of his actions.

Finally, at three in the morning, he returned, not even realizing that we were awake waiting for him. What happened to him that night? Going out into the street, the emperor hired a cab, bent under a lantern, read some address to which he ordered the cab driver to take him to Rue Rampar, number such and such. Arriving at the place, he got off the cab and went through the gate into the courtyard of the house. He was gone for about twenty minutes, during which the policemen watched in amazement as he fumbled unsuccessfully with the gate. The emperor did not know that it was necessary to pull the rope to open the door, and he was trapped. Luckily, the surveillance agent figured out what was going on. Pushing the gate, he quickly walked into the depths of the courtyard past the emperor, as if not paying attention to him, and thus gave the emperor an opportunity to exit. The driver had the wrong number, and the house indicated by the emperor was two steps away. This time he entered there unhindered. While Adlerberg and I were shaking with fear, the emperor probably calmly drank tea in the company of two ladies. "One of them was Princess Ekaterina Dolgorukova, the other was her daughter-in-law. In the following evenings, the princess secretly visited the emperor in the Elysee Palace, penetrating there through the gate on rue Gabrielle and avenue Marigny.

Shuvalov was not in vain worried about Alexander's safety. French society was hostile towards Russia. When Alexander appeared on the streets of Paris, defiant cries of "Long live Poland!" were often heard. Polish emigrants staged demonstrations every now and then. On May 25, in honor of the Russian sovereign, a review of the troops was arranged on the Longshansky field. Upon its completion, Alexander, Napoleon and the retinues of both emperors slowly and solemnly went to the city through the Bois de Boulogne. Both emperors were sitting in an open carriage, when suddenly a shot rang out. The bullet hit the horse of the French ringmaster. The terrorist was captured. It turned out to be a Polish emigrant Anton Berezovsky.

The second attempt had a depressing effect on Alexander. All the signs of regret and sympathy, all the efforts of the French emperor and Empress Eugenie could not dispel his bad mood. It was further aggravated by unsuccessful negotiations: despite outward courtesy, Napoleon refused to renegotiate the terms of the humiliating Paris Peace Treaty of 1856, according to which Russia was forbidden to keep a fleet on the Black Sea.

Alexander returned to St. Petersburg with the firm intention of never again parting with his beloved. In addition to a large, official family, he, as it were, acquired a second, "small" one. In September 1872, Princess Catherine informed the emperor that she was pregnant. In due time, she gave birth to a boy, who was named George. The following year, daughter Olga was born.

This scandalous story not only tormented the sick empress, but also caused indignant rumors of the courtiers. The sons were also worried, fearing that the side brothers and sisters would someday declare their rights. Count Shuvalov considered it his duty to report to Alexander about the general dissatisfaction that had arisen because of the sovereign's connection with Dolgorukova. The emperor coldly listened to Shuvalov and made him understand that he would not allow anyone to interfere in his personal life. From that time on, the position of the all-powerful favorite was shaken, and in 1874 Alexander suddenly sent Shuvalov as an ambassador to London. In the same year, he granted his illegitimate children the title of the Most Serene Princes of Yuryevsky.

After the Peace of Paris, perceived by the entire Russian society as a national humiliation, Russia's foreign policy prestige fell extremely low. Alexander had to spend a lot of effort before he returned to his state the weight that it had before the Crimean War. Only after going through the shame of defeat, Alexander was able to decide on reforms, but he never forgot the main goal of these reforms - to revive the military power of the Russian Empire. It is reported that, presiding over a meeting in 1863, the sovereign said: “Seven years ago I committed one act at this table, which I can determine, since I did it: I signed the Treaty of Paris, and it was cowardice.” And, striking the table with his fist, he said: "Yes, it was cowardice, and I will not repeat it!" This episode sharply characterizes the sharpness of the bitter feeling concealed by the sovereign. Neither he nor Gorchakov forgot the humiliation of 1856. The goal of Russian foreign policy since that time was the destruction of the Paris Treaty. The means is the renewal of the destroyed military power. Military articles under Alexander absorbed the lion's share of the budget. The implementation of the military reform was entrusted to Count Dmitry Milyutin, who remained Minister of War throughout the reign of Alexander. Milyutin introduced new principles for recruiting troops, created a different structure for them, paid much attention to the rearmament of the army, the restructuring of the military education system. In 1874, a charter on universal military service was adopted, which completed the reform of Russian society. Service in the army turned from a heavy class duty of the peasantry into a civic duty, equal for all classes, and Russia received a modern army, staffed and organized according to the European model. Not much time passed, and Alexander had to test it in combat conditions.

The situation in the East escalated in 1875, when an uprising broke out against the Turks in the Serb-populated Turkish regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and then in Bulgaria. Alexander found himself in an extremely difficult position. On the one hand, all the leading ministers - foreign affairs, military and finance - convinced him of the need to remain neutral. It was obvious that Russia would meet the opposition of all European powers, primarily England and Austria, that the war would require colossal expenses, that its outcome was very doubtful, since the Turkish army received an abundance of modern weapons from England. But on the other hand, he had to reckon with the powerful pressure of public opinion, which demanded immediate military assistance to the Serbs and Bulgarians. Could the emperor show restraint when such excitement and unprecedented patriotic excitement reigned in society?

On April 12, 1877, war was declared. Trying to maximize the prestige of the imperial power and the reigning family, Alexander attracted almost all adult grand dukes to participate in the campaign. The tsar's brother Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich was appointed commander-in-chief in the Balkans, another brother Mikhail was appointed commander-in-chief on the Caucasian front. The heir commanded the Ruschuk detachment. The youngest son of Alexander, Vladimir, was also at the front. Alexander himself stayed in the Balkans from May to December 1877. He was not going to interfere with the command, but considered it his duty to be in the rear of the army, where the wounded were. He said, leaving the capital: "I am going as a brother of mercy."

In June, the Russian army crossed the Danube and began the siege of Plevna, defended by a strong Turkish garrison. The Turks defended themselves with exceptional stubbornness, made daring sorties, inflicting heavy losses on the Russians. At one time it seemed that the war would end in nothing and would have to return in disgrace across the Danube. With each month, the murmur of the dissatisfied both in the army and in Russia intensified. Count Milyutin wrote in September: “The troops do not lose heart; however, murmuring at the authorities is heard. In Russia, this murmur takes on the character of general displeasure; both the army authorities and the sovereign himself are loudly condemned. to the grand dukes, as if the whole campaign is being done only to give the members of the royal house an opportunity to decorate themselves with St. Russia, in St. Petersburg itself, intend to give the sovereign an address to convince him to return to his capital. It seemed to many that by his departure the emperor would ease the position of the generals. But it is obvious that Alexander could not return to Russia, leaving the army in such a difficult situation. He felt on his shoulders a heavy burden of responsibility for the outcome of this war, and the understanding that a lot was happening and being done wrong, served as the cause of many disappointments and disappointments for him. Colonel Gasenkampf wrote in his diary in September: "... For the first time I understood the full depth of the tragedy of the sovereign's position. It became clear to me that he really could not stay in the theater of operations. He needs to see and hear for himself everything that is here is done, otherwise there is not and cannot be a moment of rest for his tormented soul. He is physically weak and mentally torn: he is deceived in his best expectations, disappointed and upset by the failures of his noblest efforts for the good of his people; he lost faith in people. And despite this "What majestic simplicity and what deep humility! All Russia and everyone around us grumble and look for scapegoats for all failures and disappointments - one sovereign does not complain about anything, does not reproach or blame anyone, but only prays and cries. I watched followed him all day: it was evident that every nerve was tense in him, that his whole body had turned into tormenting expectation, that there was mortal anguish in his soul. and even a dissatisfied look ... "

The emperor patiently endured the hardships of camp life, bad roads and lack of sleep. He went around the wards of the wounded, consoled the desperate, rewarded those who distinguished themselves and cheered everyone up. Finally, in mid-November, a turning point came. On November 16, in Transcaucasia, the Russians took Kare, and on November 28 Plevna fell. Encouraged by this victory, the Russian troops crossed the Balkans into Romania in the winter. The city surrendered after the city, whole corps of Turkish troops capitulated. The forward detachments occupied Philippopolis and Andrianopol, approaching Istanbul. The Sultan asked for peace. In February 1878, a preliminary peace treaty was concluded in the town of Saint Stefano. Under this treaty, Turkey recognized the independence of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania, agreed to the formation of a separate principality of Bulgaria from its Bulgarian and Macedonian regions; committed to reform in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Turkey conceded back to Russia the mouth of the Danube, which moved away from it in 1856, and, moreover, the cities of Batum and Kara in Transcaucasia.

But England and Austria categorically refused to recognize the terms of this peace. The relations of these powers with Russia became so aggravated that a new European war was about to begin. With the mediation of Germany, a peace congress began in Berlin. But the peace conditions proposed by Bismarck were not directed in favor of Russia. Under pressure from all European diplomacy, Prince Gorchakov had to agree to concessions. The acquisitions of Serbia and Montenegro were reduced; instead of a united Bulgaria, two Bulgarian regions were created - the principality of Bulgaria and the autonomous province of Eastern Rumelia, both under Turkish rule. Serbia and Romania were recognized as independent kingdoms. Bosnia and Herzegovina came under the control of Austria. Thus, the consequences of the war for the liberation of the Balkan Slavs turned out to be unsatisfactory. Military success was not accompanied by a corresponding political result. Russia did not achieve its goals and remained completely isolated, without allies and friends. That is why in Russian society the Eastern War and Berlin Congress caused feelings of dissatisfaction and disappointment.

Chancellor Prince Gorchakov himself, who represented Russia at the congress, admitted in a note to Alexander: "The Berlin Congress is the darkest page in my service career." The emperor noted: "And in mine too." Such was the end of the war, for which more than a billion rubles were spent (with a total budget of 1878 of 600 million) and for the sake of which domestic finances were completely upset. Alexander returned to Russia aged. All witnesses of his then life unanimously say that he lost weight, haggard and hunched over. Maurice Palaiologos wrote about the state of the sovereign at the end of 1878: “Sometimes he was seized by severe melancholy, reaching deep despair. He was no longer interested in power; everything that he tried to implement ended in failure. people: he abolished slavery, abolished corporal punishment, established a jury, conducted wise and liberal reforms. Unlike other kings, he never aspired to bloody laurels of glory. How much effort he spent to avoid the Turkish war imposed on him by his people! And after its completion, he prevented a new military clash ... What did he get as a reward for all this? From all over Russia, reports from governors came to him, reporting that the people, deceived in their aspirations, blamed the tsar for everything. And the police reports reported a menacing rise in revolutionary ferment. With a confused soul, he involuntarily rushed to the only person who sacrificed for him his honor, worldly pleasures and successes, "to the person who thought about his happiness and surrounded him with signs of passionate adoration."

Shortly after his return, Alexander ordered to prepare apartments in the Winter Palace for Princess Dolgorukova and her children. They were located directly under his rooms. For the convenience of communication between the floors, an elevator was arranged. The emperor was already so in need of the constant presence of this woman that he became completely indifferent to the opinion of the world and his mortally ill wife. Meanwhile, the assassination attempts on Alexander became more and more daring. The third attempt to kill him was made on April 20, 1879. At ten o'clock in the morning, the sovereign took his usual walk: he walked along Millionnaya, Zimnaya Canal and Moika, and then turned to the Guards Headquarters Square. Here he met a tall young man in a bureaucrat's cap. Having missed him, Alexander turned around and saw a revolver in the hands of a stranger. Instantly realizing what was the matter, he rushed to run in zigzags towards the Pevchesky Bridge. The killer ran after him, firing as he went. Before he was captured, he managed to shoot five times, but did not hit once. The shooter was a former student of St. Petersburg University, 33-year-old Alexander Solovyov. A short time later, the Supreme Court sentenced him to death. He was hanged on 28 May. Although Solovyov belonged to an underground socialist circle, the assassination attempt was his personal affair. But in August, the Emperor was sentenced to death by the Executive Committee of the People's Will. From that moment on, the hunt for Alexander took on more severe forms.

In December 1879, terrorists staged an explosion on the route of the royal train from Livadia to Moscow. By mistake, they blew up a bomb not under the imperial train, but under the one on which the royal retinue followed. Alexander himself remained unharmed, but he understood that with each new attempt, the chances of salvation were becoming less and less. Petersburg was too big, and the police could not guarantee the safety of all members of the imperial family outside their palaces. The grand dukes asked the sovereign to move to Gatchina, but Alexander flatly refused to leave the capital and change the routes of his daily walks and the Sunday parades of the guard troops. Subsequent events showed that the emperor could no longer feel safe in the palace. On February 5, 1880, at six and a half in the evening, when Alexander, surrounded by his family, was talking in his apartment with the Empress's brother, Prince Alexander of Hesse and his son Alexander of Bulgaria, who had arrived in St. Petersburg, a terrible blow was heard: the walls trembled, the lights went out, the smell, bitter and stuffy, filled the palace. Alexander realized that this was another assassination attempt. His first movement was to run to the rooms of Ekaterina Dolgorukova. Fortunately, she was alive and ran into him on the stairs.

What happened? Several pounds of dynamite, it turns out, were blown up under the headquarters of the main guard, where eight soldiers were killed and forty-five wounded. The terrorists hoped that the explosion would destroy the royal dining room, where the emperor and his relatives were supposed to dine just at that time. To the annoyance of the revolutionaries, the sovereign was half an hour late for dinner. However, the explosion still did not overcome the strong palace building; only the floor of the dining room sank, furniture fell and windows burst. The guardhouse was destroyed - just under the dining room.

A few days after the explosion, Alexander called an emergency meeting in the Winter Palace. He was gloomy, hunched over, turned black, and spoke in a hoarse, cold voice. Amid the general confusion, only Count Loris-Melikov, a military general, hero of the Turkish war and conqueror of Kars, who had served as Kharkov governor-general for the last year, inspired some optimism in the emperor. He managed to quite successfully fight the revolutionaries in his province, and Alexander put him at the head of the extraordinary Supreme Administrative Commission with broad, almost dictatorial powers.

The emperor and the heir saw in Loris-Melikov, first of all, a "firm hand" capable of bringing "order". But it was obvious that tough measures alone could not achieve this goal. Although society condemned the wild methods of struggle of the Narodnaya Volya, it fully sympathized with the ideals for which they began terror. This was understood by the inner circle of the emperor. It was necessary to convince the moderate, enlightened part of society that the government was still in a position to carry out reforms. Therefore, Loris-Melikov tried, first of all, in his explanations with public figures and publicists to convince everyone that the reaction was over and that the reforms would continue. The main thing in the plans of Loris-Melikov was a plan to establish a very limited representative body under the emperor.

Although Alexander did not like everything in the Loris-Melikov program, he gradually began to agree with his arguments. The emperor felt weary of the burden of power and was ready to place at least part of this burden on other shoulders. In addition, personal affairs occupied Alexander at that time almost more than state affairs. In May 1880, Empress Maria Alexandrovna died. Alexander decided that the time had come to fulfill the promise he had made to Princess Dolgorukova fourteen years earlier. The wedding took place on July 6 in the Grand Tsarskoye Selo Palace in one of the small rooms, where they set up a camp altar - an ordinary table. The wedding was attended only by Count Adlerberg, two adjutant generals on duty and the maid of honor Shebeko, an attorney for this love from the very first day of its inception. Bogdanovich writes that Alexander married in civilian clothes, saying: "This is not an emperor, but a private person who corrects a mistake and restores the reputation of a young girl." On the same day, he granted his wife the title of Most Serene Princess Yuryevskaya and granted her all the rights enjoyed by members of the imperial family.

Immediately after the wedding, Alexander left for the whole summer and autumn with his wife in the Crimea, in Livadia. He wanted to give his entourage time to get used to the new wife of the emperor and to live in an atmosphere of relative peace with his family. There is a legend that he was going to carry out the state reforms planned by Loris-Melikov, and then abdicate in favor of the crown prince and leave for Nice to lead the life of a private person.

Trying to improve relations with his eldest son, who was deeply offended by his father's hasty marriage, Alexander summoned him to the Crimea. But Princess Yuryevskaya occupied the chambers of her predecessor in the Livadia Palace, and this turned out to be an unbearable insult for the Tsarevich and his wife. Reconciliation did not take place. The heir avoided meeting with his stepmother at the dinner table, so the emperor had to divide the week into duty days: if his son dined, then his wife did not show up in the dining room, if she was at the table, Alexander Alexandrovich went for a walk. At the end of November, Alexander and his family returned to St. Petersburg, where Princess Yuryevskaya settled in the luxurious apartments of the Winter Palace, specially decorated for her.

On January 28, 1881, Count Loris-Melikov submitted a report to Alexander, in which he finally outlined his program. Its most significant part was the creation of two deputy commissions from representatives of the nobility, zemstvos and cities, as well as government officials to consider finances and administrative and economic bills, which then come to the general commission, and from it to the State Council, supplemented by deputies. Alexander immediately rejected the idea of ​​introducing elected officials into the State Council, while the rest of the plan was preliminarily approved, but, as usual, instructed to consider the case in meetings with a narrow composition. A week later, the first such meeting was held at the emperor's house and fully approved Loris-Melikov's report. It remained to prepare a government message and publish it to the public. The draft was submitted to the Emperor, who approved it in advance and on the morning of March 1 ordered the Council of Ministers to be convened to finalize the text of the message. Valuev, one of the last dignitaries who worked with the emperor that day, made the most favorable impression of his mood. “For a long, long time I have not seen the sovereign in such a good spirit and even in appearance so healthy and kind,” he recalled the next day.

The decision was not easy for Alexander, but as soon as he accepted it, he felt relieved. Of course, one cannot overestimate the significance of the proposed reform - it was still very far from the introduction of a constitution in Russia, but nevertheless it meant a new step towards the liberal restructuring of the state. Who knows - had Alexander succeeded in implementing the Loris-Melikov program in full, and, perhaps, the history of Russia would have taken a completely different path. But he was not destined to continue his undertakings - the time allotted to him came to an end.

Having finished with business, Alexander after breakfast went to the Manege for a divorce, and then to the Mikhailovsky Castle to his beloved cousin. According to Chief Police Officer Dvorzhitsky, who accompanied the emperor that day, Alexander left the castle at two and ten minutes and ordered to return to Zimny ​​by the same road. Having passed Inzhenernaya Street, the coachman turned onto the Ekaterininsky Canal and started the horses at a gallop, but before he had time to drive even a hundred fathoms, there was a deafening explosion, from which the sovereign’s crew was severely damaged and two escort Cossacks were injured, as well as a peasant boy who happened to be nearby. After a few more steps, the emperor's carriage stopped. Dvorzhitsky helped the sovereign get out of the carriage and reported that the terrorist Rysakov, who had thrown the bomb, had been detained. Alexander was completely calm and answered the excited questions of those around him: "Thank God, I'm not wounded." Dvorzhitsky offered to continue the journey in his sleigh. Alexander said: "Well, just show me the criminal first." Glancing at Rysakov, who was already being searched by guards, and learning that he was a tradesman, the emperor slowly walked towards the Theater Bridge. Dvorzhitsky again asked to get into the sleigh. Alexander answered: "All right, but first show me the place of the explosion." They went back. At this time, another terrorist threw a second bomb right at the feet of the emperor. When Dvorzhitsky, stunned by the explosion, ran up to Alexander, he saw that both of his legs were completely crushed and blood flowed profusely from them.

At least two dozen dead and wounded lay around. Pieces of torn clothing, sabers and epaulets, parts of human bodies, fragments of a gas lantern, the skeleton of which had bent from the explosion, were scattered everywhere. Alexander managed only to say: "Help!" - and lost consciousness. He was put in Dvorzhitsky's sleigh and, accompanied by Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolayevich, was taken to Zimny, where he died at about half past four from blood loss, never regaining consciousness.

Shortly after the funeral, Tyutcheva wrote in her diary, comparing the murdered emperor with Alexander III, his son, who began his reign: “Seeing him, you understand that he recognizes himself as an emperor, that he assumed responsibility and prerogatives of power. To his father, the late emperor, he always lacked this instinctive feeling of his position, faith in his power, he did not believe in his own power, no matter how real it was, he suspected opposition everywhere and, irritated by his own doubts, began to create this resistance around him. for his kindness, they feared him more than they loved him, and, despite his humility, only flatterers had influence on him, which is why he was so badly surrounded at the end of his life and fell into the hands of bad people. Feeling weak, he did not trusted himself, but even less trusted others; in the people he used, he preferred nonentities, because he thought that it was easier to rule over such people It is easier to direct them, while, on the contrary, they are more prone to deceit and flattery. This weakness of character of the late sovereign made him so inconsistent and ambivalent in all his words, deeds and attitudes, and this, in the eyes of all of Russia, discredited the government itself and brought the country into the state of that deplorable anarchy in which we are currently. The wonderful reforms of the reign of Alexander II, the gentleness, generosity of his character should have ensured him the enthusiastic love of his people, but meanwhile he was not a popular sovereign in the true sense of the word; the people did not feel attraction to him, because in himself there was absolutely no national and popular string, and in gratitude for all the good deeds rendered to Russia by him, in the majestic worship rendered to his memory, one feels rather the influence of reason than the direct impulse of the masses. Human nature is such that it values ​​people more for themselves than for their deeds. In character and mind, the late emperor was inferior to the deeds he had done. He was really lofty with the inexhaustible kindness and generosity of his heart, but this kindness could not replace the strength of character and mind, which he was deprived of.

Perhaps in this posthumous assessment of Alexander by one of his smart and observant contemporaries, who knew the court well and royal family, really lies the key to the ill-fated fate of the emperor-liberator and the amazing fact that, having done more for Russia than all his ancestors after Peter the Great, he did not deserve for this either the love of his contemporaries or the gratitude of his descendants.

Buried in St. Petersburg, in the Peter and Paul Cathedral.

All the monarchs of the world. Russia. 600 short biographies. Konstantin Ryzhov. Moscow, 1999.

- The Emperor of All Russia, the eldest son of Emperor Nikolai Pavlovich and Empress Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, was born in Moscow on April 17, 1818. His tutors were Generals Merder and Kavelin. Merder drew attention to himself as a company commander in the school of guards ensigns established on August 18, 1823. Nikolai Pavlovich, then still the Grand Duke, having learned about his pedagogical abilities, meek disposition and rare mind, decided to entrust him with the upbringing of his son. Merder entered this important position on June 12, 1824, when the Grand Duke was barely 6 years old, and with tireless zeal he performed it for 10 years. There is no doubt that the influence of this highly humane educator on the young heart of his pet was the most beneficial. No less beneficial was the influence of another mentor of the Grand Duke - the famous poet Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, the head of his class studies. The best characterization of the upbringing received by Alexander can be the words spoken by Zhukovsky about his partner in the upbringing, General Merder, which can be fully attributed to himself: “There was nothing artificial in the upbringing given to them; but the unceasing action of his beautiful soul ... His pet ... heard one voice of truth, saw one disinterestedness ... could his soul not fall in love with good, could at the same time not acquire respect for humanity, so necessary in any life, especially in life near the throne and on the throne. There is no doubt that Zhukovsky, with his general influence, contributed to the preparation of the heart of his pupil for the future emancipation of the peasants.

Upon reaching the age of majority, the heir to the crown prince traveled around Russia, accompanied by Kavelin, Zhukovsky and the adjutant wing Yuryevich. He was the first of the royal family to visit (1837) Siberia, and as a result of this visit, the fate of political exiles was mitigated. Later, while in the Caucasus, the Tsarevich distinguished himself during the attack of the highlanders, for which he was awarded the order St. George 4th degree. In 1838, Alexander Nikolaevich traveled around Europe and at that time, in the family of the Grand Duke Ludwig of Hesse-Darmstadt, he chose Princess Maximilian-Wilhelmina-Augusta-Sophia-Maria (born July 27, 1824) as his wife, who upon arrival in Russia received St. chrismation according to the charter Orthodox Church, December 5, 1840, with the name of Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna. The next day, the betrothal followed, and on April 16, 1841, the marriage took place.

From the marriage of Emperor Alexander II with Empress Maria Alexandrovna, the following children were born: led. book. Alexandra Alexandrovna, b. August 19, 1842, d. June 16, 1849; led. book. heir Tsarevich Nikolai Alexandrovich, b. September 8, 1843, d. April 12, 1865; led. book. Alexander Alexandrovich - now safely reigning Emperor Alexander III (see), genus. February 26, 1845; Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich, born April 10, 1847, from August 16, 1874 in marriage to Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna, daughter of the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin Friedrich Franz II, b. May 2, 1854; led. book. Alexey Alexandrovich, b. January 2, 1850; led. book. Maria Alexandrovna, b. 5 October 1853, married to Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, from 11 January 1874; led. book. Sergei Alexandrovich, b. April 29, 1857, in marriage since June 3, 1884 with Elisaveta Feodorovna, daughter of Grand. hertz. Hessian, b. October 20, 1864; led. book. Pavel Alexandrovich, b. September 21, 1860, married since July 4, 1889 with the Greek Queen Alexandra Georgievna, b. August 30, 1870

While still heir, Alexander participated in the affairs of government. IN last years the reign of Emperor Nicholas and during his travels, Alexander repeatedly replaced his august parent; in 1848, during his stay at the Vienna, Berlin and other courts, he performed various important diplomatic missions. Having taken over the military educational establishments, Alexander with special love took care of their needs and the gradual improvement of both scientific teaching and education.

The accession of Alexander II to the throne on February 19, 1855 took place under very difficult circumstances. The Crimean War, where Russia had to deal with the combined forces of almost all the major European powers, was taking an unfavorable turn for us. The forces of the allies by that time had increased even more due to the addition of 15 tons of Sardinian troops to them; the enemy fleet acted against Russia on all seas. Despite, however, his peacefulness, which was also known in Europe, Alexander expressed his firm determination to continue the fight and achieve an honorable peace. Up to 360 tons of militia men were recruited, the same number was given by 3 recruiting sets. The steadfastness and courage of the Russian troops in defending Sevastopol caused enthusiastic surprise even from the enemies; the names of Kornilov, Nakhimov and others were covered with unfading glory. Finally, however, the terrible action of the enemy artillery, which destroyed our fortifications and daily carried off thousands of people, and the combined assault of Sevastopol by all the allies, carried out on August 27, forced the Russian troops to leave the southern part of the city and move to the north. The fall of Sevastopol, however, did not bring significant benefits to the enemy. On the other hand, the Russians were partly rewarded with success in M. Asia: Kars is this impregnable fortress, reinforced by the British, - on November 16 was taken by General Muravyov with all his numerous garrison. This success gave us the opportunity to show our readiness for peace. The allies, also weary of the war, were willingly ready to enter into negotiations, which began through the mediation of the Vienna court. Representatives of 7 powers (Russia, France, Austria, England, Prussia, Sardinia and Turkey) gathered in Paris and on March 18, 1856 a peace treaty was concluded. The main conditions of this agreement were as follows: navigation on the Black Sea and the Danube is open to all merchant ships; the entrance to the Black Sea, the Bosporus and the Dardanelles is closed to warships, with the exception of those light warships that each power maintains at the mouth of the Danube to ensure free navigation on it. Russia and Turkey, by mutual agreement, maintain an equal number of ships in the Black Sea. Russia, in terms of ensuring free navigation along the Danube, cedes to the Danubian principalities part of its territory at the mouth of this river; she also promises not to fortify the Åland Islands. Christians in Turkey are compared in rights with Muslims, and the Danubian principalities come under the general protectorate of Europe.

The peace of Paris, although unfavorable for Russia, was nevertheless honorable for her in view of such numerous and powerful opponents. However, its disadvantageous side - the limitation of the naval forces of Russia on the Black Sea - was eliminated during the life of Alexander II by a statement on October 19, 1870.

But the disadvantages of the treaty were redeemed by the good of the peace itself, which made it possible to turn all attention to internal reforms, the urgency of which became obvious.

Indeed, the Crimean War exposed many internal ulcers of our fatherland, showed the complete failure of our former way of life. A complete reorganization of many parts turned out to be necessary, but serfdom stood inexorable obstacles in the way of any improvement. The need for reforms became palpable, urgent. And with the advent of peace, a new era of internal renewal was not slow to begin. Already in the concluding words of the royal manifesto on March 19, 1856, announcing the end of the Crimean War, a whole program of the future activities of the tsar-liberator was expressed: may the striving for enlightenment and all useful activity develop everywhere and with renewed vigor, and each under the shadow of laws, equally fair for all, equally patronizing, may enjoy in the world the fruit of the labors of the innocent. Finally, and this is Our first living desire, light saving Faith, illuminating minds, strengthening hearts, may it preserve and improve more and more social morality, this surest guarantee of order and happiness.

In the same year, it was ordered to attend to the opening of women's gymnasiums and a scientific committee was established to draw up and review teaching programs and study guides. On the day of the coronation, August 26, the new manifesto of the sovereign was marked by a number of favors. Recruitment was suspended for 3 years, all state arrears, miscalculations, etc. were forgiven, various criminals, including state ones, who participated in the rebellion on December 14, 1825 and in secret societies of that time, the recruitment of underage Jews was canceled and recruitment between the latter was ordered to be carried out on a general basis, etc.

But all these private measures, met with enthusiasm by Russia, were only the threshold of those fundamental reforms that marked the reign of Alexander II. First of all and most urgently, it seemed to solve the question of serfdom, which, as it was obvious to everyone, was the main root of all other shortcomings of our warehouse. The idea of ​​the need to liberate the peasants and, moreover, with a plot of land prevailed already in the time of Emperor Nicholas. The entire intelligentsia regarded serfdom as a terrible and shameful evil. Literature continuously continued in this sense the glorious tradition of Radishchev. Suffice it to mention the names of Griboyedov, Belinsky, Grigorovich, I. S. Turgenev. But the mood of the intelligentsia, which was predominantly noble, did not interfere with the fact that when the question in any form passed to the class discussion of the nobles, then in this environment it often met with a rebuff. Imp. Alexander II, assuming the throne, was convinced that the liberation of the peasants should take place precisely in his reign. Such was the general mood of the intelligentsia, and even among the peasants themselves there was a vague premonition of the imminent "will." The decrees on the militia of 1854 and at the beginning of 1855 caused considerable unrest in as many as 9 provinces, since the masses of the peasants expressed their desire to join the militia, considering service in the militia a transition to “freedom”.

The question seemed, therefore, urgent. When the sovereign spoke in Moscow about the need and timeliness of the liberation of the serfs, all of Russia was seized with enthusiastic, joyful hopes ... And in 1856 a special secret committee was established, and on January 3, 1857 had its first meeting under the direct supervision and chairmanship of the emperor, whose task was to consider the decrees and assumptions about serfdom. The composition of this committee included: Prince Orlov, gr. Lanskoy, Count Bludov, Minister of Finance Brock, Count VF Adlerberg, Prince Vas. A. Dolgorukov, Minister of State Property M. N. Muravyov, Chevkin, Prince P. P. Gagarin, Baron M. A. Korf and Ya. I. Rostovtsev. Of these, only Lanskoy, Bludov, Rostovtsev and Butkov, who managed the affairs of the committee, spoke in favor of the real emancipation of the peasants; the majority proposed only a number of measures to alleviate the situation of the serfs. The sovereign was dissatisfied with the course of affairs and appointed Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich a member of the committee. Meanwhile, on August 18, a petition was received from the nobility of 3 Lithuanian provinces for the release of the peasants, but with the preservation of the right to land for the landowners. In response to this petition, on November 20, the highest rescript was given to the Vilna military, Grodno and Kovno governors-general, in which the sovereign allowed the nobility of each of the named provinces to establish a committee that would develop a project to improve the life of the peasants. In the same year, the same permission was given to the nobility of St. Petersburg and Nizhny Novgorod, and the next year - to the nobles of Moscow and other provinces; On January 8, 1858, the secret committee was transformed into the "main committee on peasant affairs", which also included Count Panin, the Minister of Justice, and in March of the same year it was formed in the Ministry of Internal Affairs under the name "Zemstvo department of the Central Statistical Committee" a purely administrative body that played an important role in the whole affair. It included such persons as N. A. Milyutin, Ya. A. Solovyov, zealous champions of the idea of ​​liberation. The journalism of that time was also an energetic ally of the minority, and thanks to the positive will of the sovereign, the good cause, despite the opposition of the majority in the committee, quickly moved forward and even assumed wider dimensions than those that were set in the original rescripts to the nobility. Instead of "improving the life of the peasants," the question was posed directly on the basis of their complete emancipation. Feb 17 In 1859, a decree was announced on the establishment of "editorial commissions", of which Adjutant General Rostovtsev was appointed chairman. The projects worked out by the provincial committees were submitted to these commissions. The project developed by the editorial committee was supposed to go to the commission, which was composed of gr. Lansky, Count Palen and Gen. Muravyov and Rostovtsev, where the head of affairs was d.s. from. Zhukovsky. Finally, this commission presents the draft with its own considerations to the main committee. When the provincial committees finally submitted their drafts to the editorial commissions, landowners were called up from the provinces 2 times (in August and December 1859), two from each, to deliver necessary information. Between these latter there were many conservatives, the main committee was also willing to slow down the matter, but the decisive will of the sovereign, who demanded that the committee finish its work by January 1861, and the influence of its new chairman, led. K. Konstantin Nikolaevich, who replaced Orlov, quickly moved things forward. On January 28, the provisions worked out by the editorial commissions and passed through the main committee were considered by the State Council, which adopted them with some changes in the sense of reducing the size of the peasant allotment. Finally, on February 19, 1861, a great manifesto followed, which is the glory of the liberator tsar, a manifesto on the liberation of the 22 million peasant population from serfdom.

The emancipation of the landlord peasants took place on the following principles. First of all, it was declared obligatory for the landowner to allocate his former peasants, in addition to the estate land, arable and haymaking, in the amounts determined in the regulation. Such an obligation for the landowner to assign the allotment to the peasants was limited only to small landlords, landowners of the Don Army Land, Siberian landowners and owners of private mining plants, for whom special allotment rules were established. Secondly, along with such an obligation for the landowner to give the peasants allotments, an obligation was declared for the peasants to accept the allotment and keep in their use for the duties established in favor of the landowner the worldly land allotted to them for the first nine years (until February 19, 1870). After 9 years, individual members of the community were given the right both to leave it and to refuse to use field lands and lands if they redeem their estate; the society itself also receives the right not to accept for its use such plots that individual peasants refuse. Thirdly, with regard to the size of the peasant allotment and the payments connected with it, according to general rules, it is customary to base on voluntary agreements between landowners and peasants, for which purpose a charter charter is concluded through mediators established by the situation, their congresses and provincial presences for peasant affairs, and in app. lips. - and special verification commissions. Such a voluntary agreement is limited only by the requirement that the peasants have at least the amount of land that is determined in the local regulations grouping the provinces, to determine the size of the shower allotment in each of them, into three lanes; and then, in accordance with the number of per capita allotments, local regulations also determine the size of the duties that the temporarily liable peasants had to bear in favor of the landowners before the ransom was made. These duties are either monetary, or determined in the form of quitrent, or in the form of a product service, corvée. As long as the temporarily liable peasants do not redeem their lands and are in the relationship of the guilty to the former landowner, the latter is provided with patrimonial police in the rural society of the temporarily liable peasants.

The regulation, however, is not limited to the rules of assigning land to the peasants for permanent use, but makes it easier for them to buy out the plots allotted for ownership with the help of a state buyout operation, and the government lends the peasants a certain amount against the land they acquire with payment by installments for 49 years and, giving this amount to the landowner in state interest-bearing papers, he takes all further settlements with the peasants upon himself. Upon approval by the government of the redemption transaction, all binding relations between the peasants and the landowner are terminated, and the latter enter the category of peasant proprietors.

This was done peacefully and without significant shocks to the state mechanism great reform, which since the time of Catherine II was considered to be on the waiting list, but which they were still afraid to start. Instead of 22 mil. enslaved people created a free peasant class with significant self-government within the community and volost. The rights granted to the landlord peasants by the regulation of February 19, 1861, were gradually extended to the peasants of the palace, appanage, ascribed and state.

After the peasant position in a row administrative reforms the most important place is occupied, without any doubt, by the provision on zemstvo institutions. As early as March 25, 1859, the highest command was given to transform the provincial and district administrations, and the following leadership was indicated: “When organizing the executive and investigative part, enter into consideration the economic and administrative administration in the county, which is now divided among several committees and part is included in the composition of the police department; in this consideration, it is necessary to provide the economic administration in the county with greater unity, greater independence and greater confidence; at the same time, it is necessary to determine the degree of participation of each estate in the economic administration of the county. On October 23, 1859, these beginnings were indicated to be distributed for the transformation of provincial institutions. As a result, a special commission was set up at the Ministry of the Interior, the activity of which from the very beginning was facilitated by modern work carried out in a special commission at the Ministry of Finance to revise the system of taxes. As a result of all these works, the published 1 Jan. 1864 regulation on provincial and district zemstvo institutions, to which these latter are entrusted with the following matters: management of the property, capital and monetary collections of the zemstvo, arrangement and maintenance of buildings belonging to the zemstvo and means of communication, management of mutual zemstvo property insurance, care for the development of local trade and industry, the affairs of the people's food and public welfare of the poor, participation, mainly in economic terms, within the limits of the law, in the care of building churches, public education, public health and the maintenance of prisons, layout, appointment, collection and expenditure of local and some state monetary fees to meet zemstvo needs of the province or county. To manage all these zemstvo affairs, they are established: in each county - district assembly, meeting once a year and having its own permanent executive body called county zemstvo council; the province has provincial zemstvo assembly with its permanent executive body - provincial land administration. In connection with the reform of the zemstvo administration, there is also a decree approved on June 16, 1870. city ​​position, to which our cities are granted considerable self-government. According to this Regulation, the city public administration consists of city ​​election meetings, city duma And city ​​government chaired by the mayor. The scope of urban self-government within the city is very extensive. The Duma independently arranges city administration and economy, elects officials and appoints their salaries, establishes city taxes, manages city property, spends sums, takes care of the external improvement of the city, its health, education and industry, charitable institutions, etc., moreover, the exact execution of the decrees issued by city public institutions must be strictly monitored by the police authorities.

Among the reforms that marked the reign of Alexander II, one of the leading places undoubtedly belongs to judicial reform. This deeply thought-out reform had a strong and direct influence on the entire structure of state and public life, it introduced into it completely new, long-awaited principles - which are: the complete separation of the judiciary from the administrative and accusatory, the publicity and publicity of the court, the independence of judges, advocacy and adversarial order of legal proceedings, moreover, more important in terms of the severity of crimes, criminal cases are indicated to be transferred to the court of public conscience in the person of jurors. Already 29 Sept. In 1862, the main provisions regarding the transformation of the judiciary, drawn up by the Second Department of His Own imp. majesty's office. Then a special commission was established under the direct chairmanship of the Secretary of State, which, developing these provisions, drew up draft judicial statutes, later discussed in detail and corrected by the Council of State, and, finally, on November 24, 1864, by the highest decree, the Charter of Criminal and Civil Proceedings and the Charter about the penalties imposed by justices of the peace.

Essence judicial reform comes down to the following. The court is made oral and public; judicial power is separated from accusatory power and belongs to the courts without any participation of administrative power; the main form of legal proceedings is the adversarial process; the case on the merits can be dealt with no more than in two instances; to the third instance (the cassation department of the Senate) can be transferred only upon requests for cassation of decisions in cases of a clear violation of the direct meaning of laws or rituals and forms of production; in cases of crimes entailing punishments, connected with the deprivation of all or some of the special rights and advantages of the state, the determination of guilt is left to jurors elected from local residents of all classes; clerical secrecy is abolished, and to intercede in cases and defend defendants, there are sworn attorneys at the courts, who are under the supervision of special councils composed of the same corporation. New judicial institutions received the following types: world courts, congresses of justices of the peace, district courts and judicial chambers. A county, constituting a world district, is divided into world sections, the number of which is determined by a special timetable. In each district of the peace there is a district justice of the peace, and in the district - several honorary justices of the peace; all of them are elected for 3 years from local residents who meet the conditions specified in the law, and are approved by the Governing Senate. For the final decision of the case subject to a world trial, district and honorary justices of the peace of the district convene regular congresses at the appointed time, the chairman of which is elected for 3 years from their own midst. - For several counties, a district court is established, consisting of a chairman appointed by the government and a certain number of members, and from one or more provinces a supreme judicial district is constituted, in which a judicial chamber is established, divided into departments, and both the chairman and the regular members of them are appointed government. In district courts and judicial chambers, to determine the guilt or innocence of the defendant in criminal cases, jurors are elected from local residents of all classes. Then, each of these two institutions has a special prosecutor and a certain number of his comrades. The prosecutor of the district court is subordinate to the prosecutor of the judicial chamber, and the latter is directly dependent on the Minister of Justice, as the prosecutor general.

Military administration also underwent transformations. Already at the beginning of the reign, military settlements were destroyed, the term of soldier's service was reduced from 25 to 15 years, humiliating corporal punishment was abolished, special attention was paid to raising the level general education army officers through the reform of military educational institutions. Further, due to the observed shortcomings in the structure of military command, which stemmed from its excessive centralization, in 1862 the highest order was given to the Ministry of War to subject the system of military command to a radical revision, bearing in mind the absolute need to strengthen command at the locations of troops. As a result of this revision, the highest approved on August 6, 1864, the Regulations on the military district administrations. Based on this provision, initially 10 military districts were organized, and then (Aug. 6, 1865) another 4. In each district, a chief commander appointed at the direct highest discretion was appointed, bearing the name of the commander of the troops of such and such a military district. This position may also be assigned to the local governor-general. In some districts, an assistant to the commander of the troops is also appointed. - Another significant measure for the transformation of our military system was the Charter on military service issued on January 1, 1874, according to which the entire male population of the empire, without distinction of status, is subject to military service, and this service consists in staying for 6 years in the ranks, 9 years in exile and up to 40 years of age in the militia. It must also be borne in mind that in 1867 a public court was also introduced in the army, judicial power is distributed among the regimental courts, district courts and the main military court in St. Petersburg. The composition of the courts, excluding the regimental ones, was supposed to be replenished with officers graduating from the course at the Military Law Academy.

public education also attracted the attention of the emperor. Of particular importance in this respect was the issuance of a new and general statute Russian universities June 18, 1863, in the development of which, on the initiative of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovnin, a special commission under the Main Board of Schools, composed mainly of professors from St. Petersburg, participated. university. According to this statute, each university (under the general authority of the Minister of Public Education) is entrusted to the trustee of the educational district, who is entrusted with government control, within the limits determined by the statute, over the independent orders of the university. Each university consists of a certain number of faculties, as components of one whole. The management of the educational part is entrusted to the faculties and the council of the university. Each faculty constitutes an independent faculty meeting of ordinary and extraordinary professors, chaired by a dean elected by them for a term of 3 years. The council is made up of all ordinary and extraordinary professors, chaired by the rector, who is elected by the council for 4 years and confirmed in the rank by the highest order. The rector was also entrusted with the immediate management of the university. The charter determines what matters the faculties and the council can decide with their own power and what must go to the approval of the trustee and minister. For economic affairs, under the chairmanship of the rector from the deans and the inspector (invited only for student affairs), a board was established. A university court of three judges, annually elected by a council of professors, has been established to try student misdemeanors. In addition, the content of professors, the number of departments and the funds of the university are increasing.

On November 19, 1864, a new statute on gymnasiums also appeared, significantly modified and supplemented by the statute of June 19, 1871. According to these statutes, secondary educational institutions are divided into classical, in which the classical system is carried out with great firmness, and real. Public education in the full sense is regulated by the highest approved on June 14, 1864. Regulations on primary public schools. Attention was also paid to women's education. Already in the 60s, instead of the former closed women's institutions, open ones began to be arranged, with the admission of girls of all classes, and these new institutions were under the control of the Institutions of Empress Maria. Similar gymnasiums were also established by the Ministry of Public Education. In 1870, on May 24, a new Regulations on women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education. These educational institutions are accepted under the highest patronage of the Empress. They may be established with the permission of the trustees of educational districts in such cities where it will be possible to ensure their existence by public or private donations, and the ministry is allowed to provide these institutions with benefits, for which it is allocated annually a certain amount in accordance with the funds of the treasury, but not more than 150 t. r. in year. Finally, the need for higher education for women led to the establishment of pedagogical courses and higher courses for women in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan and Odessa.

The reform of the press also had a profound and beneficial effect on the development of public consciousness. Already in 1862, the main department of censorship was closed and part of its duties was assigned to the Ministry of the Interior, and the other - directly to the Minister of Education. Finally, on April 6, 1865, Temporary Rules for Press. The Central Administration for Press Affairs was entrusted to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, within which the Main Directorate for Press Affairs was opened. This department is entrusted with three types of affairs: 1) monitoring of printed works published without the permission of censorship; 2) the supervision of printers, lithographs and bookshops, and 3) the administration of the remaining preliminary censorship. All periodicals and essays of at least 10 sheets published in the capitals, as well as all publications of scientific institutions, drawings, plans and maps are everywhere exempted from preliminary censorship.

The reign of Alexander II, so rich in terms of internal reforms, was also marked in terms of foreign policy a whole series of hostilities, which in the end again raised the temporarily diminished importance of Russia after the Crimean War and again brought her a proper position in the host of European powers. As a matter of fact, despite the fact that the matter of internal renewal absorbed almost all the attention of the government, especially in the first half of Alexander's reign, the war with external enemies went on almost continuously on the outskirts of the state. First of all, upon his accession to the throne, Alexander II had to end another war, inherited from his previous reign along with the Crimean one. It was a war with the Caucasian highlanders. This struggle, which has been going on for a long time, costing us a lot of strength and means, has not yet given any decisive results. Shamil, the leader of the highlanders, even pushed us back from Dagestan and Chechnya. At the end of the Crimean War, the sovereign appointed Prince Baryatinsky as commander-in-chief in the Caucasus, and things went faster. Already in April 1859, Vedeno, the seat of Shamil, was taken, which entailed the subordination of almost all of Dagestan. Shamil with his adherents withdrew to the impregnable heights of Gunib, but was surrounded on all sides by Russian troops and on August 25, after their decisive attack, was forced to surrender. The Eastern Caucasus was thus conquered; there was still the conquest of the West. The latter was all the more difficult because the highlanders were actively supported by all our enemies, who did not want to allow the end of the Caucasian war. Despite the peace concluded with us, Turkey accepted the highlanders as Muslims under its protection, delivered weapons and reinforcements through its emissaries. England also collected money in favor of the Circassians, and the French ambassador in Constantinople clearly took their side. In Trabzon, the European consuls (with the exception of the Prussian) even formed a committee of "assistance to the highlanders." Despite, however, all these out-of-work city election meetings, urban thinking, the work of subjugating and gradually pushing the highlanders to the sea moved forward, albeit slowly, thanks to the energy and familiarity with local conditions of General Evdokimov. At the beginning of 1863, Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolayevich was appointed governor of the Caucasus, and things went faster, so that on May 21, 1864, the Grand Duke could telegraph the sovereign about the complete conquest of the Western Caucasus.

In the same year, 2 more major events took place - the pacification of Poland and the conquest of Turkestan.

After the suppression of the Polish uprising in 1831, Poland was in the position of a rebellious country, so that, next to the ordinary administration, there was also a special military and police department in it. Emperor Alexander II, having ascended the throne, destroyed this distinction between Poles and other Russian subjects. An amnesty was granted to political criminals, many benefits were granted to the Poles, and the establishment of an Agricultural Society with an unlimited number of members under the chairmanship of Count Zamoyski was allowed. Despite all these benefits, however, the revolutionary party did not give up its aspirations. The agricultural society also began to pursue the goals of national unification. The success of the Italian national movement, the unrest in the Austrian possessions - all this increased the hopes of the Polish patriots. In 1860, a series of demonstrations began against the Russians, which especially intensified in 1861. Despite these demonstrations, which even went as far as clashes between the people and the troops, the government continued its restrained and peaceful policy. The Poles were even announced the appointment of a well-known Polish patriot, the Marquis of Velepolsky, director of education and spiritual affairs, the establishment in the Kingdom of new schools and the State Council from eminent persons of the region, elected councils in provinces and counties and an elected municipal government in Warsaw. But all this could not satisfy the revolutionary party. An attempt was even made on the life of the newly appointed viceroy of the kingdom, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich, and the establishment of a new Polish government (zhond) with a central people's committee was announced in all parts of former Poland. In view of all these threatening actions, the government resorted to a decisive measure - it announced a general recruitment in the Kingdom not by lot, but by nominal call, limiting it to the urban population and those of the rural residents who are not engaged in arable farming. This measure brought the revolutionary party to the last degree of irritation, and at the beginning of 1863, when the announcement of recruitment followed, the revolutionary committee called all Poles to arms. On the night of January 10-11, an attack was made on our detachments located in different places of the Kingdom. The company generally failed. When the last attempt made by the government towards reconciliation, namely the granting of forgiveness to those who lay down their arms before May 1, did not lead to anything, the government took vigorous measures to suppress the uprising. The intercession of the Western powers, who sent their notes on the Polish question, was rejected, and the general indignation that seized Russia due to the importunate and perky tone of these notes and expressed itself in a whole mass of addresses from all noble assemblies, expressing their devotion to the sovereign and readiness to die for him, forced the uninvited intercessors back down from their demands. The uprising was suppressed thanks to the energetic actions of the governor of Warsaw, gr. Berg and the Vilna governor-general gr. Muraviev. Following this, a number of measures were taken that contributed to the final appeasement of Poland, and the main figures in this field were Prince Cherkassky and N. A. Milyutin. Polish peasants were granted landed property and secular self-government, cities and towns were freed from patrimonial dependence in relation to landlords, in provinces (which number from 5 increased to 10) and counties a management similar to that in force in the empire was introduced, etc. In 1869 (March 28) the highest will was proclaimed to take measures for the complete merger of the Kingdom with the other parts of the empire and to abolish for this purpose all central government institutions in the Kingdom. Finally, in 1869, the Imperial University was established to replace the Main School in Warsaw.

Simultaneously with all these events, a struggle was also waged on our Asian frontier. Already in the reign of Emperor Nicholas I, the Russians became a firm foot in Turkestan thanks to the subjugation of the Kirghiz. In 1864, as a result of the energetic and intensified actions of General Verevkin and Colonel Chernyaev, our frontier line moved forward significantly: Chernyaev took Aulieta and Chekment by storm, and Verevkin, for his part, conquered Turkestan. Having learned that the Emir of Bukhara intended to occupy Tashkent, which depended on Kokand, Chernyaev in 1865 quickly moved to this city, protected by 30 tons. garrison, and, with only 2000 people. and 12 cannons, took it by open assault. The struggle with the emir continued until 1868, when Samarkand and Uzhgut were taken. The emir was forced to accept and conclude an agreement, according to which he provided Russian merchants with complete freedom of trade and abolished slavery in his possessions. Back in 1867, the Turkestan Governor General was established from the Turkestan region with the addition of the Semirechensk region to it again. In 1871, Russian possessions were enriched by the annexation of Kulja, and in 1875 Kokand itself, which is now the Fergana region, was occupied. Even before the conquest of Kokand, the struggle with the Khiva khan began. Under the protection of their unfortunate, waterless steppes, this latter did not pay attention to the treaty of 1842 concluded with the Russians, attacked Russian merchants, robbed them and took them into captivity. I had to take drastic measures. In 1873, three detachments moved to Khiva from three different directions: a detachment led by General Markozov marched from the shores of the Caspian Sea, General Verevkin marched from Orenburg, and General Kaufman, the chief commander of the entire expedition, marched from Tashkent. The first detachment was supposed to return, but the remaining two, despite the 45 ° heat, lack of water and all sorts of difficulties, reached Khiva, took it and conquered the entire state in 2 weeks. The Khan was forced to admit his dependence on the White Tsar, to cede part of his possessions at the mouth of the Amu Darya; further, he granted the Russian merchants complete freedom of trade and exclusive navigation along the Amu Darya, their disputes with the Khivans were to be resolved by the Russian authorities; under the khan himself, a council of noble Khiva and Russian officers was established, and, finally, he had to pay an indemnity of 2,200,000 rubles. After the subjugation of the Kirghiz and Turkmens, the annexation of Samarkand and Kokand, and the subjugation of Khiva and Bukhara, the Russians remained in Central Asia only one more opponent - it was the Khan of Kashgar Yakub, patronized by the British, who delivered him the title of emir from the Sultan of Constantinople. When in 1870 the Russians occupied Gulja and thus approached his possessions, he tried to resist, supported by the British. Yakub died in 1877, and the Chinese claimed his possessions, demanding that the Russians also return Kulja. After lengthy negotiations in St. Petersburg on February 24, 1881, through the Chinese authorized Marquis Tzeng, an agreement was concluded with the Chinese, according to which the Russians ceded Gulja to them and renounced their claims to Kashgar in exchange for various trade privileges.

In order to punish the Turkmens, who lived on the borders of Afghanistan and owned the cities of Geok-Tepe and Merv, for their predatory raids, an expedition was undertaken against them. On December 20, 1880, General Skobelev stormed Yanshkale, then Dengil-Tepe and Geok-Tepe, and on January 30, 1881, took Askhabad. The cession of Akhal-Teke by the Shah in connection with the acquisition of Lehabad and Geok-Tepe, however, brought us very advantageous positions on the northern border of Afghanistan. (cf. I. Strelbitsky"Land acquisitions of Russia in the reign of Emperor Alexander II from 1855 to 1881", St. Petersburg, 1881).

On the eastern outskirts of Asia, during the reign of Alexander II, Russia also made quite important acquisitions, moreover, by peaceful means. According to the Aigun Treaty concluded with China in 1857, the entire left bank of the Amur departed to us, and the Beijing Treaty of 1860 provided us with part of the right bank between the river. Ussuri, Korea and the sea. Since then, rapid settlement began Amur region, various settlements and even cities began to arise one after another. In 1875, Japan ceded a part of Sakhalin that did not yet belong to us in exchange for the Kuril Islands, which we did not need at all. In the same way, in order not to scatter its forces and round off the Asian border, the government decided to abandon our former possessions in North America and ceded them to the United North American States for a monetary reward, which served as the basis of our friendship with the latter.

But the largest, most glorious military enterprise of the reign of Alexander II is Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878

After the Crimean War, Russia, preoccupied with its own internal affairs, for some time completely removed from Western European affairs. So, in 1859, during the Austro-Italian clash, Russia limited itself to armed neutrality. The latter responded to the intervention of the Roman Curia in the government's relations with its Catholic subjects by canceling the concordat of 1847 on December 4, 1866, and in June 1869 forbidding the Catholic bishops of the empire to take part in the council convened by Pius IX. During the Danish-Prussian War, the emperor tried to be only an intermediary and remained in the same neutral position during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Franco-Prussian War 1870 gave rise to the abolition of the article of the Paris Peace, which was unfavorable for us, which did not allow us to have a fleet on the Black Sea.

Taking advantage of the defeat of France and the isolation of England, the Russian Chancellor, Prince Gorchakov, in a circular dispatch dated October 19, declared that Russia did not intend to embarrass itself with the mentioned article any longer, and the London Conference on March 1 (13), 1871 recognized this change, deleting the article from the treaty. After the fall of Napoleon 3, the emperors entered into a close alliance with each other, called the "Triple". The Berlin Congress of 1872, the arrival of the German emperor in St. Petersburg in 1873 and the frequent visits of the 3 emperors further strengthened this alliance. The Eastern question, however, soon subjected this friendship of the West to us to a severe test.

The fate of the Slavic tribes kindred to us on the Balkan Peninsula has always attracted the attention and sympathy of the Russian people and government. Of these tribes, in the 60s, the Serbs, Romanians and Montenegrins achieved some independence; this was not the fate of the Slavs in Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria. Here Turkish oppression and arbitrariness reigned in all its unbridledness, causing frequent desperate uprisings of the inhabitants, brought to extremes. In 1874 an uprising broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Turks suffered defeat after defeat. To calm the rebels, the representatives of Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary drew up a reform program for Turkey in Berlin. But the Turks, relying on England's obvious sympathy for them, not only rejected this program, but boldly killed the French and German consuls in Thessaloniki, who stood up for one Bulgarian girl, and then, not being able to defeat the rebels in Bosnia and Herzegovina, attacked the defenseless Bulgaria. Since 1864, the Port began to settle here the Circassians who were evicted from the Caucasus in order to avoid Russian domination. Accustomed to living in their homeland by robbery and robbery, these predators, called bashi-bazouks, began to oppress the Bulgarian peasants, forcing them to work for themselves, like serfs. The ancient hatred between Christians and Muslims flared up with renewed vigor. The peasants took up arms. And so, in order to avenge this uprising, Turkey sent thousands of Circassians, bashi-bazouks and other irregular troops against Bulgaria. Civilians were treated equally with the rebels. Terrible rampages and massacres began. In Batak alone, out of 7,000 inhabitants, 5,000 people were beaten. An investigation undertaken by the French envoy showed that 20,000 Christians perished within 3 months. All Europe was indignant. But this feeling was most pronounced in Russia and in all the Slavic lands. Serbia and Montenegro stood up for the Bulgarians. General Chernyaev, the winner of Tashkent, took command of the Serbian army as a volunteer. Russian volunteers from all classes of society flocked to the aid of the rebels; The sympathy of society was expressed by all sorts of voluntary donations. Serbia, however, was not successful due to the numerical superiority of the Turks. Public opinion in Russia loudly demanded war. Emperor Alexander II, in his characteristic peacefulness, wanted to avoid it and reach an agreement through diplomatic negotiations. But neither the Constantinople Conference (November 11, 1876) nor the London Protocol led to any results. The Turks refused to fulfill even the mildest demands, counting on the support of England. War became inevitable. On April 12, 1877, our troops stationed near Chisinau were ordered to enter Turkey. On the same day, our Caucasian troops, whose commander-in-chief was appointed Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolayevich, entered the borders of Asiatic Turkey. started Eastern War 1877- 78G.(see this word), covering such a loud, unfading glory of the valor of the Russian soldier.

Treaty of San Stefano 19 Feb. 1878, in addition to its direct goal - the liberation of the Balkan Slavs - brought brilliant results to Russia. The intervention of Europe, which jealously followed the successes of Russia, with the Treaty of Berlin, significantly narrowed the scope of these results, but nevertheless they remain very significant. Russia acquired the Danube part of Bessarabia and the Turkish regions bordering on Transcaucasia with the fortresses of Kars, Ardagan and Batum, turned into a free port.

Emperor Alexander II, who sacredly and courageously did the work entrusted to him by fate - the construction and exaltation of a huge monarchy, aroused the delight of true patriots and the astonishment of enlightened people of the whole world, and met evil ill-wishers. With madness and fury pursuing goals incomprehensible to anyone, the organizers-destructors created a whole series of attempts on the life of the sovereign, who was the pride and glory of Russia, attempts that interfered so much with his great undertakings, embarrassed his peace and bewildered the numerous kingdom, completely calm and the king devoted. Various police measures, one after another created, and the enormous powers given at the end of the reign to the Minister of the Interior, Count. Loris-Melikov, to the great sadness of the Russian people, did not reach the goal. On March 1, 1881, the sovereign, for whom a large population was ready to lay down his life, died a martyr's death from a villainous hand that threw an explosive projectile. On the terrible site of the murder of the great sovereign in St. Petersburg, the Church of the Resurrection is being erected, the same temples and various monuments in memory of the liberator tsar were built in different places of the Russian land, and the Russian people, remembering the name of the liberator tsar, always make the sign of the cross.

Encyclopedia Brockhaus-Efron

Emperor Alexander 2nd was born on April 29, 1818. Being the son of Nicholas 1st and heir to the throne, he received an excellent and versatile education. Alexander's teachers were Zhukovsky and combat officer Merder. A noticeable influence on the formation of the personality of Alexander the 2nd was also exerted by his father. Alexander ascended the throne after the death of Nicholas 1st - in 1855. By that time, he already had some experience in government, since he acted as sovereign while his father was away from the capital. This ruler went down in history as Alexander the 2nd Liberator. When compiling a brief biography of Alexander the 2nd, it is necessary to mention his reforming activities.

The wife of Alexander the 2nd in 1841 was the Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt Maximilian Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria, better known as Maria Alexandrovna. She gave birth to Alexander seven children, two older ones died. And since 1880, the tsar was married (by a morganatic marriage) to Princess Dolgoruky, from whom he had four children.

The domestic policy of Alexander the 2nd was strikingly different from the policy of Nicholas 1st and was marked. The most important of them was peasant reform Alexander 2nd, according to which in 1861, on February 19, it was. This reform caused an urgent need for further changes in many Russian institutions and entailed the implementation by Alexander 2nd.

In 1864, by decree of Alexander the 2nd, it was held. Its goal was to create a system of local self-government, for which the institute of the county zemstvo was established.