The Berlin Congress took place. Russian-Turkish war (1877–1878). Berlin Congress and its decisions. See what the "Berlin Congress" is in other dictionaries

Ended up signing Berlin Treaty.

The terms of the San Stefano peace treaty were sharply criticized by the European powers. London considered the Balkan Range to be the best frontier for Bulgaria. Austria-Hungary declared violations of previous Austro-Russian agreements. Austria-Hungary and England opposed the strengthening of Russia's positions in the Balkans, against the national liberation of the Slavic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula, especially against the formation of a large Slavic state there - Bulgaria.

It was obvious that Russia would start new war against the coalition was not able to. Support from Germany also could not be expected. In private conversations with the Russian ambassador in Germany, Bismarck recommended agreeing to discuss the terms of the treaty at an international congress.

Once in isolation, St. Petersburg was forced to recognize the treaty as preliminary and agree to its revision at the Berlin Congress. The congress was attended by representatives of Russia, England, Austria-Hungary and Germany. Also present were delegations from France (led by Foreign Minister Waddington), Italy (Foreign Minister Corti) and Turkey (Carathéodory). Representatives of Greece, Iran, Romania, Montenegro and Serbia were invited to the congress.

According to the English historian A. Taylor, the Berlin Treaty "was a kind of watershed", which was preceded by 30 years of wars, and after it peacetime was established for 34 years. However, this appearance concealed a tense diplomatic struggle and the threat of war constantly hung over Europe.

Notes

Sources

  • Debidur A. Diplomatic history of Europe. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1995. Vol. 2 P. 450-469. ISBN 5-85880-089-0
  • Collection of treaties between Russia and other states, 1856-1917, M., 1952.
  • History of Diplomacy, 2nd ed., vol. 2, M., 1963.

Categories:

  • International conferences
  • Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)
  • Russian-Turkish relations
  • History of Romania
  • History of Bulgaria
  • History of Serbia
  • History of Montenegro
  • 1878
  • Events July 13

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See what the "Berlin Congress" is in other dictionaries:

    - (1 (13) June 1 (13) July 1878), an international conference convened to revise the terms of the San Stefano peace treaty (see SAN STEPAN WORLD) (1878), which ended the Russian-Turkish war (1877 1878). The congress was attended by... encyclopedic Dictionary

    Berlin Congress- (Berlin, Congress of) (1878), European conference. state c. It was revised San Stefano agreement (1878), concluded between the Ottoman Empire and Russia at the end of the Russian tour. wars of 1877-78 Held under the chairmanship of the german, ... ... The World History

    1878 convened to revise the terms of the San Stefano peace of 1878 on the initiative of Great Britain and Austria Hungary, who opposed the strengthening of Russia's positions in the Balkans. Other participants: Germany, France, Italy and Turkey. Caught in…… Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

    Under this name, the congress of representatives of the six great powers and Turkey, which took place in Berlin in 1878, from June 13 to July 13, is known to consider the Stefano treaty concluded on March 3 of the same year between Russia and Porte S. Stefano. ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

    Berlin Congress- The BERLIN CONGRESS, convened to revise the San Stefano preliminary peace treaty between Russia and Turkey, ended with the signing on July 1 (13), 1878 of B. treatise, which still serves as the main source for determining ... ... Military Encyclopedia

    The BERLIN CONGRESS of 1878 was convened to revise the terms of the San Stefano Peace of 1878 at the initiative of Great Britain and Austria Hungary, who opposed the strengthening of Russia's position in the Balkans. Other participants: Germany, France, Italy and Turkey. ... ... Russian history

    Anton von Werner. Berlin Congress. Berlin Congress of 1878 (1 (13) June 1 (13) July) an international congress convened to revise the terms of the San Stefano peace treaty of 1878, which ended the Russian-Turkish war of 1877 1878. ... ... Wikipedia

    It took place from 13.VI to 13.VII. The convocation of the congress was caused by the dissatisfaction of Austria-Hungary and England with the terms of the San Stefano peace treaty of 1878 (see). These countries sought to ensure that conditions favorable to Russia and the Slavic states in the Balkans ... Diplomatic Dictionary

June 1st 1878 in Berlin chaired Bismarck opened congress, which was attended by the states that signed the Treaty of Paris in 1856. The purpose of the congress for governments West :

- weakening of Russia's influence in the Middle East and the assertion of the leading role of states Western Europe in the Middle East

- subjugation of the newly created Slavic states in the Balkans to the policies of Western governments.

On the congress Russia was able isolation, England led the anti-Russian bloc of states. She supported Austria-Hungary's claims to Bosnia and Herzegovina and its plans to push Russia out of the Balkans. France, fearing for its capital in Turkey, did not want the independence of the Balkan states. Bismarck actually supported the anti-Russian bloc. Caused the most controversy Bulgarian question: about the border and status. The Russian delegation at the Berlin Congress was represented by the Minister of Foreign Affairs A.M. Gorchakov. The Russian delegation on many issues was forced to deviate from the terms of the San Stefano Treaty, because it a). found itself in a state of isolation, b) was afraid of a possible war with a united Europe, c) the revolutionary movement intensified in the country.

Decisions of the Berlin Congress(remained in force until the Balkan wars of 1912-1913):

- Romania, Serbia and Montenegro gained independence (confirmation of the terms of the San Stefano Treaty)

- Bulgaria along the Balkan ridge was divided into two parts - Northern and Southern. Northern Bulgaria recognized as a vassal principality(vassal of Turkey), its territory is reduced by 2/3 . The tenure of the Russian army has been reduced from 2 years to 9 months. Southern Bulgaria entitled Eastern Rumelia announced autonomous Turkish province.

England received the island of Cyprus for its support of Turkey.

Austria occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The war had positive consequences for the Balkan peoples. Two factors: internal - the national liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples and external - the Russian-Turkish war - led to their liberation from Turkish tyranny.

Most of the Russian society was dissatisfied with the decisions of the Congress, primarily in relation to Bulgaria. In addition, the war led to a financial crisis, inflation, which in turn caused public discontent. This was one of the reasons for the political crisis of 1879-1881.

The Russian-Turkish war and the decisions of the Berlin Congress aggravated the Austro-Russian contradictions in the Balkans, showed the fragility of the Union of the Three Emperors, and accelerated the German-Austrian rapprochement that emerged after the Franco-Prussian war.

Russo-Turkish war revealed the sharpness contradictions in the Union of the Three Emperors. She speeded up the folding German-Austrian alliance, which in turn contributed Russian-French rapprochement. Germany sought to strengthen its position in the Middle East, which posed a danger to Russia and France.


In 1883 Gorchakova at the post foreign minister replaced Gears(epoch of Alexander III). Girs did not have Gorchakov's international prestige, but he was practical, cautious, well versed in people and the international situation. Alexander III had a strong mind, but a small outlook.

1881 - Renewal of the Union of the Three Emperors(for three years) (it was about maintaining neutrality if one of the states is at war with a fourth country). Reasons: strong economic ties with Germany, the desire to keep Austria-Hungary from aggressive actions in the Balkans. For Russia, it was a way out of isolation after the Berlin Congress. IN 1884– a new agreement was signed between these three states (for three years). IN 1887 signed reinsurance contract between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia for a period of three years, i.e. The Union of the Three Emperors was extended for another three years. In 1890, the Union of the Three Emperors ceased to exist.

Triple Alliance. Strong European powers led fight for division of the world. England and France were the first to start this struggle, gradually losing their positions (in terms of economic development) Germany. IN 1882 an agreement was signed between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy - the Triple Alliance: the parties agreed not to participate in alliances against one of them and on the provision of military assistance in the event of an attack on one of the countries of France. The triple alliance was directed primarily against France. He aggravated the situation in the world. Until 1890, the Triple Alliance existed in parallel with the Union of the Three Emperors. In both alliances, the leading role belonged to Germany. 70s - 80s strengthened its hegemony in Europe. Germany began the struggle to create a German colonial empire.

IN 1891-1893 Russia and France signed a political agreement and a military convention on the joint actions of Russia and France in case one of the parties is threatened by Germany or Austria-Hungary. Thus was created Russian-French alliance.

Main resultforeign policy Russia:

The international status of Russia has been restored

Expanded territory of Russia

The borders of Russia have been fortified.

The formation of two opposing blocks - tripartite alliance And Russian-French alliance Led to deepening conflicts in Europe. The great European powers fought for dividing the world into spheres of influence.

Far Eastern direction Russia's foreign policy - relations with China, Japan and the United States.

The San Stefano peace treaty completely changed the territorial boundaries in the Balkan Peninsula. Turkey still had Constantinople, Adrianople, Salun, Epirus, Thessaly, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina. But all of Bulgaria, from the Danube to the Aegean Sea, from the Black Sea to Lake Ohrid, turned into an independent principality, with Christian government, with the right to elect a prince. The port recognized the independence of Montenegro, which received a significant land increment from Albania and Herzegovina and a piece of the Adriatic coast. The independence of Romania and Serbia was proclaimed, expanding its possessions to the south. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, reforms were introduced to eliminate the possibility of a repetition of Turkish rampages; the position of Epirus, Thessaly, Albania was facilitated. Reforms were also promised to the Armenians, as well as protecting them from the fury of the Kurds and Circassians.

Unfortunately, this treaty was too hastily made public and communicated to all European cabinets. Berlin did not object to it; France and Italy were too busy with their internal affairs and were not interested in the war, but England had long been beside herself because of the complete collapse of her hopes; her covert and overt help to Turkey could not fix matters. The open action of the English fleet in the Sea of ​​Marmara almost brought matters to a war between Russia and England. Russia was compelled to restrain her indignation because of acting in concert with England and Austria; the latter, having read only the "foundations of peace" signed on January 19 in Adrianople, made a sharp protest, finding that these foundations represent a whole political program that is completely contrary to the views and interests of Austria-Hungary.

Realizing that the implementation of this program would forever close off all access to the Aegean Sea and distribution across the Adriatic, Austria-Hungary began to prepare for opposition, to proceed with feverish haste to armaments.

Meanwhile, the position of the Russian army at Tsargrad, the development of severe morbidity in the ranks of the army, not protected either from the Dardanelles or from the Bosphorus, where the forces of the Turks had not yet been completely broken, was all the more dangerous because Russia was now threatened with war with Austria. Hungary. The rest of our armed forces, although gradually being mobilized in view of the Austrian uproar, were still far from ready for war. Our politicians believed that Russia was already too exhausted by the just ended war and that our finances would not be able to withstand another war.

Meanwhile, relations with England and Austria-Hungary continued to deteriorate, and the leader of the Austro-Magyar policy, Count Andrássy, saw the only way out of the current situation in convening an all-European conference, which he hastened to notify the great powers, inviting them to gather in Vienna. However, due to Russia's refusal to choose Vienna as the conference venue, this issue dragged on. It was during this period, precisely on February 19, 1878, that the preliminary peace between Russia and Turkey was signed by Turkish and Russian representatives in San Stefano, immediately ratified by the Sultan; this ratification was not recognized by either England or Austria.

Andrássy's attempt to organize a conference in Baden-Baden failed again. Then Prince Gorchakov turned to the German Chancellor, Prince Bismarck, with a request to convene in Berlin not a conference, but a congress of representatives of the great powers, under the personal chairmanship of Bismarck himself, while expressing the hope that "the German chancellor will lead the debate in the spirit of honest relations with Russia" . After some hesitation, Emperor Wilhelm and Prince Bismarck agreed.

The Berlin Congress resolved all misunderstandings with Austria-Hungary, and therefore the danger of war with her disappeared, but unexpected obstacles arose from Great Britain. English cabinet announced in a very blunt manner that he agreed to participate in the Congress only on the condition that all questions, without exception, raised in the peace treaty already concluded in San Stefano, would be subject to consideration at it and that no change in the order established by the previous treatises would be recognized as valid except with the general consent of the great powers. Prince Gorchakov, quite naturally, recognized such a statement as insulting to the dignity of Russia. Russia would come to the congress not even as an equal participant, but as if in the role of a defendant. Gorchakov, resolutely rejecting England's claim, declared that "the Russian court has already expressed its consent to the Congress discussing issues relating to European interests, and that it cannot go further than this."

Further diplomatic relations led to an even greater aggravation. On 20 May, Lord Beaconsfield issued a royal order to call up the reserves; The possibility of war with England was recognized by all of us. The new Foreign Secretary, Lord Salisbury, hastened to publish a circular to the diplomatic representatives of England, in which all the decisions of the San Stefano Peace were portrayed as measures aimed at spreading Russian predominance in the East. In his answer, Gorchakov very skillfully smashed all the arguments of the English circular.

However, during this protracted war of diplomats and Austria-Hungary presented its strong objections to the Treaty of San Stefano. She pointed out the following necessary changes, consistent with the interests of the Habsburg Empire: 1) the occupation by Austria-Hungary of not only Bosnia and Herzegovina, with the inclusion of the southern districts given to San Stefano of Montenegro, but also the Novo-Bazar pashalyk, as well as the fortress of Ada- Calais on the island of the Danube; 2) refusal of consent to the granting of any port on the Adriatic Sea to Montenegro; 3) changing the western border of the Serbian Principality, with a decrease in territory in favor of Bosnia; 4) Exclusion from Bulgaria of all of Macedonia, as well as drawing the southern border of the principality at a distance less close to Adrianople; 5) reduction of the term for the occupation of Bulgaria by Russian troops from two years to six months. If Russia agreed to these changes, Austria-Hungary pledged not to enter into a deal with England, to support Russia's demand for the return of the Danube section of Bessarabia to her, and in general to support her diplomatic program at a future congress.

Without interrupting confidential negotiations with Vienna, we began to prepare more actively for war not only with England, but also with Austria; in the General Staff, plans were drawn up for military operations in the event that England and Austria declared war on Russia. They decided to assemble an army on the Austrian border from troops that did not take part in the Russian-Turkish war, with reinforcements from the Caucasus and even from across the Danube. However, the latter could only be undertaken if the shores of the Bosphorus were captured and this strait was blocked by mines in order to prevent the English fleet from penetrating there. To do this, we had to find out the attitude of Turkey towards us. All this was requested by the commander-in-chief Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich. Disappointing news was received from San Stefano - Turkey's behavior was more than evasive. The Grand Duke wrote to the sovereign that taking possession of the Bosphorus was "an extremely difficult thing." This letter ended like this: “May God help us to end all the complicated affairs of the world! If you are destined to fight again, then believe that each of us will fulfill his duty sacredly.

Meanwhile, the situation was developing more and more unfavorably for us, Turkey completely submitted to the influence of British and Austrian diplomacy; the Grand Duke pointed out the difficult situation of our army. On April 17, at his own request, due to poor health, he was recalled to St. Petersburg with a promotion to field marshal general. Adjutant General Totleben was appointed in his place. Having thoroughly familiarized himself with the general situation in the army, Totleben considered it best, in the event of a war with England, to retreat with the army to Adrianople; then he considered it possible to separate two corps from the Danubian army to support the army concentrated against Austria.

In view of such an unfavorable situation, Prince Gorchakov continued negotiations with Austria-Hungary, gradually beginning to make concessions to her (the occupation of Herzegovina by Austria, the separation of Southern Bulgaria into a separate state); however, these concessions did not satisfy Count Andrássy.

Two months have passed since the signing of the San Stefano peace treaty, and the question of peace or war has not come a step closer to a denouement. Both sides were heavily armed, diplomatic negotiations dragged on sluggishly and fruitlessly. Finally, our London ambassador, Count Pyotr Andreevich Shuvalov, managed to persuade the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lord Salisbury, to explain: which of the articles of the San Stefano peace treaty would be recognized as valid, which ones were changed, and in what sense?

After some hesitation and consultation with Lord Beaconsfield, Lord Salisbury agreed to the proposed exchange of opinions, but on condition that the strictest secrecy be maintained. Prince Bismarck was nevertheless dedicated by Count P.A. Shuvalov into the secret of these negotiations. “You did well to agree with England,” he said, “and she alone would declare war on you, while Austria will not move without allies.”

On May 18, Count Shuvalov signed three secret conventions with Lord Salisbury, the main terms of which were as follows: Bulgaria was divided into two parts; the southern received only broad administrative autonomy; its borders were shrinking. In general, the rights of the Sultan to this part are greatly enhanced. The rights and benefits promised by the Porte to its Christian subjects in the European regions, as well as to the Armenians in Asia Minor, will be placed under the supervision of all the great powers. England does not prevent the accession to Russia of the section of Bessarabia, Kars and Batumi, but Russia refuses the Alashkert valley with the fortress of Bayazet. As regards the indemnity, Russia made sure that it would not infringe upon the rights of England as creditor of the Porte, and that it would not alter in any way the position it had held in this respect before the war.

On May 22, the German government sent to all participating powers Treaty of Paris 1856 - an invitation to gather at a congress in Berlin to discuss the terms of the "preliminary" peace treaty concluded in San Stefano between Russia and Turkey.

By June 1, members of the Congress, representatives of the great powers, had gathered in Berlin; representatives of some interested states also arrived, although they did not receive an invitation.

Representatives were: from Russia - Chancellor Prince Gorchakov (he was ill for most of the congress), the London ambassador Count P. Shuvalov, the Berlin ambassador Baron Ubri; from Germany - Chancellor Prince Bismarck, Minister von Bülow, Parisian Ambassador Prince Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst; from Austria-Hungary - Count Andrassy, ​​Count Cairoli, Baron Gaimerle; from France, Minister Waldington, Ambassador Saint-Valier; from England - Lord Beaconsfield, Lord Salisbury, Ambassador Odo Rossel; from Italy - Minister Count Corti, Berlin Ambassador Count de Lonne; from Turkey - Karateodori Pasha, Mohammed-Ali Pasha, Berlin ambassador Sadulla Bey; from Greece, Minister Delyanis; from Romania, Ministers Bratiano and Kogalniciano; from Serbia - Minister Ristic; from Montenegro - Bozhko Petrovich, as well as the Armenian archpastors and the Persian envoy Malcolm Khan.

The most important questions were discussed and resolved not during the sessions of the congress, but for the most part in private meetings that preceded them, between representatives of Russia, England and Austria-Hungary. Those of them, which until recently served as a subject of contention between Russia and England, were now already predetermined by secret conventions. But on the other hand, the congress had to agree on the hostile interests of Russia and Austria-Hungary. Thanks to the skillful mediation of Prince Bismarck, all British demands were recognized by both English and Russian representatives. On the other hand, the German Chancellor more than once, through his intervention, settled disputes in favor of Russia, which arose mainly on secondary issues and were usually raised by British representatives. Thus, when already at the end of the meetings of the Congress, in one of the English newspapers, the secret conventions of England with Russia were published and passionate attacks were printed on Lord Beaconsfield, allegedly for his excessive compliance with Russia, the British representatives declared that England would, in all probability, have to take back already expressed by her consent to the annexation of Batumi to Russia; however, the sharp intervention of Prince Bismarck, who told Lord Beaconsfield that by retreating from her obligation to Russia, Great Britain would thereby violate her obligations to Germany as well, forced Beaconsfield to yield to Russia.

The first meeting took place on June 1st. It was devoted to compiling the Bureau of Congress. Prince Bismarck was unanimously elected chairman.

The Chancellor opened the meeting with a speech, which he ended with the words: "Our goal is to establish, with common consent and on the basis of new guarantees, the world that Europe so needs."

The debate at the general meetings was sometimes very passionate, there were quite a few squabbles between diplomats, and only the diplomatic skill of the chairman, who sometimes acted very authoritatively, brought all these meetings to an end. Finally, at the last meeting of Congress, on July 1, the representatives of the great powers signed a treatise consisting of 64 articles. In this treatise, the San Stefano "preliminary" treaty was significantly modified in favor of the interests of the Western powers and mainly Austria-Hungary.

The essence of the Berlin treaty was as follows: only the Bulgarian regions north of the Balkans ceded to Bulgaria. Bulgaria was, although a vassal, but completely independent principality. Before the introduction of a new political system in it, management was entrusted to the "imperial Russian commissar", with the "purpose of control" under which the Ottoman commissar and consuls of the great powers were located. The provisional administration lasted up to nine months from the date of ratification of the Berlin Treaty.

East Rumelia formed south of the Balkans; it was under the direct authority of the Sultan, but enjoyed administrative autonomy. Its boundaries were narrowed. At the head was a Christian governor-general appointed by the Porte for five years with the consent of the great powers. The organization of Eastern Rumelia was entrusted to the European Commission (representatives of the great powers and the Ports).

Russian troops on the Balkan Peninsula should not be more than 50 thousand people. Nine months later they were withdrawn, and after 12 months they were obliged to withdraw even from Romania. The entire territory to the east from the new regions to the borders of Albania, ceded by the San Stefano Treaty to Bulgaria, was left to Turkey, which pledged to introduce a freer and more humane regional structure. Austria-Hungary received the right to occupy with its troops and introduce its administration in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as to keep its garrisons in the Novo-Bazar pashalik, left, however, behind the Port.

Montenegro was recognized as independent, it received a small land increment at the expense of Herzegovina and Albania, as well as the port of Antivari, but without the right to maintain a navy. Serbia and Romania also gained independence. Serbia received a small cut from the old lands, Romania - Dobruja, in exchange for the Danube section of Bessarabia, annexed to Russia, but without the mouths of the Danube.

Ardagan, Kars, Batumi with their districts were annexed to Russia, which returned the conquered Alashkerst valley with the Bayazet fortress to the Port. Hotur went to Persia.

The Porte undertook to introduce improvement and transformation in the areas inhabited by Armenians.

In all new independent states and Turkey proclaimed complete freedom of conscience and the enjoyment of all civil and political rights without distinction of religion. It has been established that the situation existing in holy places cannot be changed. The final article confirms all the resolutions of the Paris Treaty of 1854 and the London Treaty of 1871 that have not been canceled or not changed by the Berlin Treaty.

Close ties developed between most of the powers participating in the congress, which later culminated in alliances and agreements. Thus, England concluded a defensive alliance treaty with Turkey (of course, against Russia) and received the island of Cyprus for this. In Berlin, there was a rapprochement between the ministers of England and France, as a result, the latter received complete freedom in Tunisia. Finally, the friendship between Prince Bismarck and Count Andrássy finally grew stronger.

The Berlin Treaty was ratified by the sovereign on July 15. An official announcement appeared in the Government Gazette about its publication; it, among other things, indicated that the war was undertaken by Russia "not by calculation, not from material benefits or ambitious political plans, but by virtue of a Christian feeling, a feeling of philanthropy, that feeling that embraces every an honest man at the sight of crying evil." In conclusion, it was said that Russia “did not bargain either out of its victims or out of its successes” and that it was not in vain that “the Russian people subordinated their rights as a winner to the highest interests of the common peace and solidarity of peoples.”

The Berlin Congress (June 1 (13) - July 1 (13), 1878), an international conference convened to revise the terms of the San Stefano Peace Treaty (1878), which ended the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878). The congress was attended by representatives of Russia, Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, Germany; Delegations from France, Italy and Turkey were also present. Representatives of Greece, Iran, Romania, Montenegro, Serbia were invited to the congress. The initiators of the congress were Austria-Hungary and Great Britain, who opposed the strengthening of Russia's positions in the Balkans, against the national liberation of the Slavic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula, especially against the independence of Bulgaria. Russia, under the threat of war with Great Britain and Austria-Hungary, weakened by the war with Turkey that had just ended and not supported by Germany, was forced to agree to convene a congress. The Congress of Berlin was preceded by a series of agreements. On May 18 (30), 1878, a secret British-Russian agreement took place, which predetermined in in general terms terms of the revision of the San Stefano Treaty. On May 23 (June 4), Great Britain signed a secret convention with Turkey, under the terms of which it received the island of Cyprus, in return it pledged to protect Turkish possessions in Asia. The British-Austrian agreement on May 25 (June 6) determined common line behavior of both powers at the Berlin Congress.

The German Chancellor Otto Bismarck presided over the congress. The most important issues were usually preliminarily decided at private meetings of representatives of Germany, Great Britain, Austria-Hungary and Russia, whose delegations were headed respectively by Bismarck, Prime Minister B. Disraeli, Foreign Minister D. Andrássy and Chancellor A.M. Gorchakov. The disputes were mainly about Bulgaria, whose territory, defined by the San Stefano Treaty, Austria-Hungary and Great Britain wanted to cut to a minimum; about Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was claimed by Austria-Hungary; about the territory in the Transcaucasus, which had departed from Turkey to Russia, against which Great Britain protested. Bismarck declared himself a neutral intermediary, but in fact supported the demands of Austria-Hungary and Great Britain, forcing Russia to accept most of them.

On July 1 (13), the Berlin Treaty was signed, which changed the terms of the San Stefano Treaty to the detriment of Russia and the Slavic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. He pushed the southern border of Bulgaria beyond the Balkan range. Bulgaria was declared an autonomous principality, the elected head of which was approved by the sultan with the consent of the great powers. Temporarily, the administration of Bulgaria until the introduction of a constitution in it was retained by the Russian commissar, however, the period of stay of Russian troops in Bulgaria was limited to 9 months. Turkish troops did not have the right to be in the principality, but it was obliged to pay an annual tribute to Turkey. The Bulgarian regions south of the Balkan range constituted the Turkish province of Eastern Rumelia, which remained under the direct political and military authority of the sultan and whose governor was appointed by the sultan for a term of five years with the consent of the great powers. Thrace, Macedonia and Albania remained with Turkey. In these provinces, as well as in Crete and in the areas inhabited by Armenians, Turkey undertook to reform local government, equalizing the rights of Christians with Muslims. The independence of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania was recognized.

However, the territory that departed under the San Stefano Treaty to Montenegro was significantly reduced. The access to the sea (with the port of Bar) granted to Montenegro by the Treaty of San Stefano was preserved, but without the right to keep the navy. Control over the Montenegrin coast was transferred to Austria-Hungary. The territory of Serbia increased somewhat, but not at the expense of Bosnia, but at the expense of the lands claimed by Bulgaria. Austria-Hungary won the right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as keep garrisons in the Novopazar Sanjak, which remained with Turkey. Romania received Northern Dobruja instead of the Danube section of Bessarabia, returned to Russia, and the Danube Delta. The final decision to increase the territory of Greece was to be determined by further negotiations, which ended in 1880 with the transfer of Thessaly and part of Epirus to Greece. The Treaty of Berlin guaranteed freedom of navigation on the Danube. In Transcaucasia, Russia retained Kars, Ardagan and Batum with their districts. Bayazet with the Alashkert valley returned to Turkey. Batum was declared a free port (free port), mostly commercial.

The Treaty of Berlin remained in force until the Balkan Wars (1912-1913), but some of its provisions remained unfulfilled or were later changed. The reforms of local self-government promised by Turkey in the areas inhabited by Christians were not carried out. Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia merged into a single principality in 1885. In 1886, Russia abolished the free port regime in Batum. In 1908, Bulgaria declared itself a kingdom independent of Turkey, and Austria-Hungary annexed occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina.

In March 1878, Russia and Turkey signed the Treaty of San Stefano, which ended another war between the two empires. It would seem that the war is over, the parties have agreed among themselves, what else can we talk about? But the European powers did not think so - the signed peace categorically did not suit them. Great Britain declared its non-recognition of the San Stefano peace and demanded that a congress of the leading European countries be convened to discuss a new treaty. It took place in June-July 1878 in Berlin.

In the capital of the newly formed German Empire gathered diplomats from all the great powers late XIX century: Russia, Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, as well as representatives of Turkey and Persia. Envoys from the Balkan states also arrived, but they rather played the role of observers, not participating in the development of decisions that concerned themselves. This "sweet" European tradition - to decide the fate of other countries without being interested in the opinion of their peoples - will be respected for a long time to come. Suffice it to recall the infamous Munich Agreement of 1938...

However, only two countries most dissatisfied with Russia's victory played the first violin at the congress in Berlin - Great Britain and Austria-Hungary. The British were worried about the strengthening of Russia and its influence in the Balkans, as well as its claims to Constantinople, to which Russian troops were getting closer. The emergence of new Slavic states also did not meet the interests of Great Britain, which saw the main danger in the creation of the Bulgarian state. Austria-Hungary also did not like the formation of new countries near its borders, especially Serbia, since many Serbs (primarily in Vojvodina) and other Slavic peoples (Croats, Slovenes) lived on Austrian territory. In Vienna, they feared that they would want to unite. Austria-Hungary, on the contrary, itself wanted to get new lands in the Balkans, and the strengthening of Russia in the region was not to its liking.

Could Russia ignore the challenge of European countries? In principle, it could, but it threatened a new war, and not with a weakened Turkey, but with a whole coalition of states led by Great Britain. This is exactly what happened during Crimean War, in which England, France and Sardinia (the future Italy) intervened on the side of Turkey. Taught by the bitter experience of his father, Alexander II did not want a repetition of such a scenario. For the same reason, Russian troops stopped at San Stefano, a suburb of Constantinople, when the Turkish capital was very close. Her capture, so coveted by both the Russian army and society, did not take place precisely because of the threats of England, which sent its squadron led by Admiral Geoffrey Hornby to the shores of Constantinople. In addition, the war of 1877-1878 did not affect the budget in the best way. Russian Empire and in general on the state of the state, which was going through the era of the Great Reforms. A new campaign against the European coalition could lead to sad results. Alexander II and Russian Foreign Minister Alexander Gorchakov chose the path of negotiations.

Alexander Gorchakov

The fact that an event of this magnitude was convened in Germany, which had united only seven years earlier, significantly increased the prestige of the country. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who was the host of the event, proclaimed himself an "honest broker" and assured all those assembled of his neutrality. In fact, Bismarck, a pragmatist and politician to the core, could not stand aside. Not wanting to aggravate relations with Russia, the chancellor at the same time sought an alliance with Austria-Hungary, with which he had recently fought for supremacy in the German lands. Bismarck indirectly made it clear to the Russian delegation that it should not expect support from Berlin, and recommended agreeing to the Austro-Hungarian terms. This put Russia in fact in isolation.

Great Britain and Austria-Hungary, taking care of their own interests, disguised them as "taking care of Turkey." In an effort to curtail Russia's victory, they contributed to the preservation of a number of territories by the Ottomans, primarily at the expense of Bulgaria. This assistance provided to Turkey by European countries was by no means disinterested. For the efforts of British and Austrian diplomats, Sultan Abdul-Hamid II paid with the lands of his own country: Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Great Britain occupied Cyprus. The latter circumstance turned out to be especially important for Queen Victoria: now she became the mistress of the entire Mediterranean Sea, owning the three most important points - Gibraltar, Malta and Cyprus. With their help, Great Britain could control all Mediterranean trade and monitor the movement of the fleet of any power.

The result of the Berlin Congress, which lasted exactly a month, was the signing of the Berlin Treaty on July 1 (13), 1878. He was called upon to resolve the Balkan issue with its mutual territorial claims. In reality, the decisions made did not alleviate, but, on the contrary, complicated the situation in the Balkans, since they were based on the principle of "divide and conquer".

Bulgaria turned out to be dismembered, whose lands were cut almost three times. Between the Danube and the Balkan Range - it was on such a border that the British representatives insisted - a vassal Bulgarian principality appeared, which remained dependent on Ottoman Empire(however, this dependence consisted only in the approval of the head of the principality by the sultan and the payment of tribute). Sofia became its capital, which the British actively resisted, but here they could not break the Russian resistance. To the south, Eastern Rumelia was created - a province populated by Bulgarians within Turkey, which received some autonomy, although not as significant as the Bulgarian principality. The rest of the lands assigned to Bulgaria under the Treaty of San Stefano again became part of Turkey without any autonomy. Bulgaria not only seriously decreased in size, having lost the Macedonian lands, but also lost access to the Aegean Sea. The presence of Russian troops remained in the principality, however, not for two years, as previously planned, but only for nine months.

Serbia also lost some of the territories intended for it. At the same time, a small part of the lands cut off from Bulgaria was transferred to Serbia. In the future, this created tension between the two countries, which played a role in the following conflicts on the peninsula. A smaller territory (compared to what was decided in San Stefano) also went to Montenegro, which, although it achieved the receipt of the port of Bar, still did not have the right to keep its fleet. This was categorically opposed by Austria-Hungary, which saw itself as the ruler of the Adriatic. She also ensured that the territories of Serbia and Montenegro did not touch: a small corridor belonging to Turkey was left between them. This made it difficult to create a Serbian-Montenegrin union - a classic example of "divide and rule" politics!

Romania received small, though important increments - the Danube Delta and access to the Black Sea. This was presented as "compensation" for Southern Bessarabia, which was assigned to the Romanians after the Crimean War and was now returning to Russia (though without the Danube Delta). However, if in Bessarabia the efforts of the British were in vain, then in the Caucasus, Russia still lost part of its acquisitions. In particular, the Bayazet fortress and the Alashkert valley had to be returned to Turkey. Nevertheless, despite the protests of Great Britain, Kars, Ardagan and Batum remained behind Russia, and in the latter they created a free trade regime - free port. In addition, Turkey had to abandon the city of Khotur in favor of Persia, which did not participate in the war at all.

In addition to territorial claims, the Treaty of Berlin regulated some other issues. Thus, the European powers obliged Turkey to carry out reforms in the lands inhabited by Christians, and equalize their rights with Muslims, eliminating discrimination based on religious principles. This also applied to Turkish Armenia, where oppression was also discussed at the congress. The Sultan was obliged to carry out reforms here too, but this decision did not materialize. Finally, freedom of navigation on the Danube was guaranteed.

Despite all efforts, the Western powers failed to take away the victory from Russia - its prestige in the Balkans, which had faded after the Crimean War, was restored. General Dmitry Milyutin, who participated in the drafting of the San Stefano Treaty, wrote after the Berlin Congress: “If we achieve at least what has now been decided by the Congress, then even in this case a huge step will be taken in the historical course of the Eastern Question. The result will be enormous, and in Russia one can be proud of the successes achieved.”

In addition, the Berlin Congress could not stop the main thing - the rapid liberation of the Slavic peoples. The decisions to recognize the independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania, as well as to restore the Bulgarian statehood (albeit in a truncated form) showed that the centuries-old Turkish domination in the Balkans was ending. Subsequent events only confirmed this.

Just seven years later, the Bulgarian Principality and Eastern Rumelia united. Sultan Abdul-Hamid II could not oppose anything and was forced to come to terms with this fact, appointing the Bulgarian prince Ferdinand I as governor of Eastern Rumelia. In the same way, Turkey remained silent when, in 1908, the united principality declared full independence, and Ferdinand I became the king of Bulgaria. And in the same year, Austria-Hungary, which had occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina for 30 years, announced its annexation. As for Cyprus, it received independence from Great Britain only in 1960, and two British military bases are still preserved there.

There was no strict observance of other norms of the Berlin Treaty. The reforms that Turkey pledged to make to alleviate the plight of Christians were never implemented. The life of Turkish Armenians has not improved either. Abdul-Hamid II was afraid of the strengthening of Armenian influence in the eastern part of Turkey. In 1886, Russia canceled the free port in Batum.

Contrary to the plan of the organizers of the Berlin Congress, the adopted treatise did not become an inviolable norm. Broke out in 1912–1913 Balkan Wars they finally put an end to it, and the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina complicated the already difficult situation in the Balkans, which rightly received the nickname "the powder magazine of Europe." And already in 1914 in Sarajevo, the administrative center of Bosnia, the fatal shots of Gavrilo Princip sounded ...

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