You are here: Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (1815). Demonstration version of the courtyards between which the Parisian treatise is concluded

Tasks of this type are found in the first part of the exam and do not require a detailed answer from us. The compilers of the exam provide us with two fragments from different historical sources and a list of six characteristics. Our task is to correctly select two characteristics for each source.

According to the data stated by the FIPI, we can get a description of any event from the 8th century to the beginning of the 20th. Correct completion of this task can bring 2 primary points.

Avoiding mistakes in this task is sometimes difficult, but everyone can do it. It is very important to concentrate on the task and read the material provided. When reading, you need to pay attention to keywords, such as names, place names, dates, various controls, and so on.

Task execution algorithm

Read the task carefully
We read the fragments of the presented sources
Emphasizing important and key points
Reading the list of features
We analyze each of the list and determine the approximate event to which it may relate
Define the described events
We select characteristics
We check ourselves again and write down the answer

Analysis of typical tasks No. 6 USE in history

The first version of the task (demo version of 2018)

Establish a correspondence between fragments of historical sources and their brief characteristics: for each fragment, indicated by a letter, select two corresponding characteristics, indicated by numbers.

FRAGMENTS OF SOURCES

A) “The courts between which the Treaty of Paris was concluded ... together with other sovereigns and powers allied to them ... ordered their plenipotentiaries to draw up ... one main treatise and attach to it as inseparable parts all the other provisions of the congress. ... The Duchy of Warsaw, with the exception of those regions and districts to which a different designation is assigned in the following articles, forever joins Russian Empire. By virtue of its constitution, it will be inseparable from Russia and in the possession of His Majesty the Emperor of All Russia, his heirs and successors for all eternity. His imperial majesty intends to grant, at his own discretion, the internal structure of this state, which has to be under a special government. His Majesty, in accordance with the custom and order existing in the discussion of his other titles, will add to them the title of Tsar (King) of Poland.

B) “His Royal Majesty of Svejskoy yields this for himself and his descendants and heirs of the Svejsky throne and the kingdom of Svejsky to his royal majesty and his descendants and heirs of the Russian state in perfect unconditional eternal possession and property in this war, through his royal majesty weapons from the crown of Svejsky conquered provinces: Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland and part of Karelia with the Vyborg fief district. ... Against the same, his royal majesty promises in 4 weeks after the exchange of ratifications of this peace treaty, or before, if possible, to return to his royal majesty and the crown of Svea ... The Grand Duchy of Finland ... "

CHARACTERISTICS

This agreement was signed in Berlin.
Under this treaty, Russia received access to the Baltic Sea.
This agreement was signed in Vienna.
A contemporary of the signing of this agreement was A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin.
This agreement was signed as a result of Northern war.
In the territory annexed to Russia under this agreement, in the early 1830s. there was a massive uprising.

Write in the table the selected numbers under the corresponding letters.

After reading these passages and highlighting the key points, we understand that both documents are talking about some kind of peace agreements.

Fragment A. Let's read the passage from the first treaty again. The main focus is on the accession of the Duchy of Warsaw to Russia, which will be included with the name of the Kingdom of Poland. Knowing this moment from history, we can easily determine the date and event - the Vienna Congress of 1814-1815.

However, without knowing this, it is also possible to cope. When reading, we notice that it is about granting a constitution to the annexed kingdom. We recall that it was Alexander the First who began the policy of liberalization in the country and made attempts to abolish serfdom. The granting of a constitution and the abolition of serfdom in the Baltic vivid examples his actions. This fact helps us understand that the document refers to the reign of Alexander I.

We analyze the proposed characteristics.

If this is the Congress of Vienna, then it was signed in Vienna and not in Berlin. Russia did not receive access to the Baltic Sea, Ordin-Nashchokin was generally a contemporary of Alexei Mikhailovich and could not take any part in any way, and the Northern War ended much earlier.

By the method of exclusion, we understand that there really was an uprising in the annexed territory (Polish uprising of 1830-1831).

Fragment B. We determined that we are talking about the signing of a peace treaty. What question? The text actively discusses the annexation of the Baltic states to Russia, mentions the kingdom of Svejskoe (Sweden), and the narration is conducted on behalf of the Swedish king Charles XII. All these facts allow us to conclude that we have a fragment of the Nystadt Peace Treaty, which marked the end of the Northern War in 1721.

We analyze the characteristics. It is logical that the Peace of Nystadt was signed in the city of Nystadt, and not in Berlin. Ordin-Nashchokin also has nothing to do with these events, if only because he died long before the signing of the treaty. There are two unused options that suit us.

Answer: 3625

The second version of the task (collection of Artasov)

FRAGMENTS OF SOURCES

A) “July 1 ... followed by the highest manifesto on the restoration of the monetary system. Due to the importance of this law, which suddenly stopped the arbitrary exchange rate for money and changed all calculations, a secret observation was established everywhere by means of a corps of gendarmes: what effect would the highest manifesto have on all the estates of the empire and what rumors and reasoning would take place about it?This observation had the most satisfactory result. The new law was accepted everywhere with feelings of gratitude, and the destruction of crap, as the public says, is a true benefit for the people, stemming from the paternal care of the sovereign emperor; for here the class of people who suffered the most from the arbitrary value of money won. The cessation of the mess at the beginning produced some excitement, but by the measures taken by the Minister of Finance, all or at least most of the inconveniences are destroyed, and this important state business is brought to an end more easily than thought.

With all the shortcomings of the ministry, Count Kankrin enjoys general love and respect in all classes of the people for his straightforwardness and nobility.

B) “...As you know, Russia switched to a monetary circulation system and established extremely strict grounds for issuing credit notes into public circulation, backed by cash gold owned by the State Bank. Only the release of the first 300 million rubles. could be produced without covering it with gold, and any further increase in the number of paper banknotes put into circulation was allowed only with its gold backing ruble for ruble. Until the outbreak of war with Germany, this law had never been violated. Neither the Russo-Japanese War, nor the internal turmoil that began during this war upset him.

CHARACTERISTICS

The monetary reform in question was carried out during the reign of Nicholas I.
The author writes that the people welcome the monetary reform.
The passage mentions an event that went down in history as the First Russian Revolution.
One of the wars referred to in the passage began in 1941.
The monetary reform in question was carried out during the reign of Nicholas II.
The monetary reform in question was carried out during the reign of Alexander I.

Fragment A. After reading the entire passage, we do not find any recognizable points, except for the name Kankrin. And that's enough for us. Yegor Frantsevich Kankrin served as Minister of Finance during the reign of Nicholas I and successfully carried out a monetary reform, which went down in history with his name “Kankrin Reform”.

Analyzing the proposed characteristics, we see that the first statement is exactly right for us, and the second one is also suitable, according to the context. The rest do not need to be checked.

Fragment B. It is also about monetary reform. We understand that it was carried out even before the Russo-Japanese War, which means that this is the reform of Sergei Yulievich Witte carried out in 1895-1897 and set the gold standard.

The passage actually mentions “… internal turmoil that began during this war ”- The First Russian (Russian) Revolution.

Analyzing the years of the reform, we see that it was carried out during the reign of Nicholas II.

Answer: 1235

The third version of the task

FRAGMENTS OF SOURCES

A) “This thought was born in me at the time when I learned about the existence of a party that wanted to make a coup in favor of the Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich ... I wrote about this party in a letter that was found with me, my brother Nikolai Andreevich Ishutin in Moscow. The letter was not sent because I was afraid that in any way I would be prevented from carrying out my plan. This letter remained with me because I was in a restless state of mind and the letter was written before I attempted to assassinate the emperor. The letter K in the letter means exactly that party of Konstantinovskaya, which I informed my brother about. Upon arrival in Moscow, I verbally informed my brother about this, but my brother expressed the idea that this was pure absurdity, because nothing was heard about it anywhere, and in general expressed distrust in the existence of such a party.

B) "... Secret society, well informed about all the actions of the Grand Duke and all the military authorities, as well as about the thoughts of the officers and lower ranks, manifested in their conversations, ordered his actions in accordance with this information. It knew that it would be difficult or even completely impossible to convince all the lower ranks and many officers that Konstantin Pavlovich voluntarily renounced the throne. Even among the people, it was not Nicholas, but Michael, who was recognized as legitimate, as having been born at a time when his father was emperor. One habit of unconditional obedience and violence could force soldiers to swear allegiance at the request of their superiors; and since the commanders of the regiments were for the most part little loved by their subordinates and did not have their power of attorney, it was easy to shake their obedience. Indeed, when on the morning of December 14 people were taken out in the regiments for the oath, they generally showed bewilderment and indecision, which, at the first words of the officers, who expressed doubts about the legality of the required oath, turned into sheer obstinacy.

CHARACTERISTICS

The events in question took place in the 1820s.
Constantine, named in the passage, was the brother of Emperor Alexander I.
The events in question took place in the 1880s.
The passage mentions the leader of the revolutionary circle.
Constantine, mentioned in the passage, became the Russian emperor.
The events in question took place in the 1860s.

Fragment A. The key point in this passage was the surname Ishutin for us. We are talking about the Ishutins - a revolutionary organization that was the first to use terror in the revolutionary struggle. It was one of the representatives of this organization, D. Karakozov, who carried out an unsuccessful attack on Alexander II in 1866.

We analyze the characteristics. Definitely, the events presented in the fragment took place in the 1860s. And we also see that the head of the circle, N.A. Ishutin, was mentioned in the passage.

Fragment B. This fragment is very informative and contains many details, making it easy to understand what event is being discussed. The date of December 14 alone is a kind of beacon telling us that this is the Decembrist uprising. From this it follows logically that the events took place in the 1820s.

The statement that Constantine became the emperor of Russia is fundamentally wrong, because we have not had such an emperor in the entire history. But the fact that he was the brother of Alexander I is undeniable.

In the name of the Most Holy and Inseparable Trinity.

The courts between which the Treaty of Paris was concluded on May 18 (30), 1814, having gathered in Vienna, so that, in consequence of Article XXXII of this Act, together with other Sovereigns and Powers allied to them, to supplement the provisions of the said Treaty and add to them the orders that he made necessary the state of Europe at the end last war, desiring, moreover, to introduce into one general treaty various particular provisions, signed during the negotiations, and to approve them by mutual ratifications, they ordered Their Plenipotentiaries to compile from decrees relating to essential and indispensable benefit one Main Treatise and attach to it as inseparable parts, all other provisions of Congress: Treaties, Agreements, Declarations, Statutes and other particular Acts referred to in this Treatise. For this, the aforementioned Courts were named their Plenipotentiaries: (...)

Those of the named Plenipotentiaries who were present at the final conclusion of the negotiations, having presented their legal powers, agreed to introduce into the Main Treatise and approve by their signing the following articles:

Article I

The Duchy of Warsaw, with the exception of those regions and districts to which a different designation is assigned in the following articles, forever joins the Russian Empire. By virtue of its constitution, it will be inseparable from Russia and in the possession of e.v. emperor of all Russia, his heirs and successors for all eternity. His Imperial Majesty intends to grant, at his own discretion, the internal structure of this state, which has to be under a special government. His Majesty, in accordance with the custom and order existing in the discussion of His other titles, will add to them the title of Tsar (King) of Poland.

The Poles, as Russian subjects, as well as Austrian and Prussian subjects, will have people's representatives and national state institutions concordant with that mode of political existence, which each of the above-named governments will recognize as the most useful and most decent for them, in the circle of its possessions.

Article II

Part of the Duchy of Warsaw, coming into full sovereign possession and ownership of e. v. the King of Prussia and his heirs, by the name of the Grand Duchy of Posen, will be enclosed within the limits indicated below.

Article XV

The Saxon King for all eternity, for himself and for all his descendants and successors, refuses in favor of e. v. King of Prussia from all rights and claims to the regions, districts and lands or plots of land indicated below, formerly belonging to the kingdom of Saxony. These will be in full sovereign possession and ownership of e. King of Prussia and annexed to his state ...

Article XXV

E. in. The King of Prussia will also have in full sovereign possession and ownership on the left side of the Rhine the lands contained within the boundaries indicated below.

Article LIII

All sovereign sovereigns and free cities of Germany, including their majesties, the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, Denmark and the Netherlands, the first, that is, the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia as sovereigns of those of their possessions, which in former times belonged to German Empire; and the kings of Denmark, in their capacity as Duke of Holstein, and of the Netherlands, in their capacity as Grand Duke of Luxembourg, decide among themselves an eternal alliance, under the name of the common German Confederation.

Article LIV

The purpose of this alliance will be to maintain the external and internal security of Germany, the independence and inviolability of the lands belonging to it.

Article LVI

The management of the affairs of the union will be entrusted to the Sejm, in which all members, without any violation of the rights, the rank of their belonging, will cast their votes through their plenipotentiaries, others especially, others in conjunction with other members ...

Article LXV

The former united Netherlands regions and the former Belgian provinces within the boundaries, which are defined for both of them by the following article, together with the other lands designated throughout the article, will constitute a special state under the power of e. Kingdom of the Netherlands...

Article LXXIV

The integrity and inviolability of the nineteen cantons of Switzerland ... are recognized as the basis of the Helvetic Union.

Article LXXV

Wallis, the Geneva region and the Principality of Neuchâtel join Switzerland to form three new cantons...

Article LXXXV-XCIII

(Establishing the borders of the Kingdom of Sardinia in Northern Italy.)

Article XCIV

(Transfer of the Venetian region and Dalmatia to Austria.)

Article IV

E.V., King Ferdinand IV, the throne of Neapolitan is returned to his heirs and posterity, and all powers recognize him as king of the kingdom of both Sipilii.

Art. CXVIII. Treatises, Conventions, Declarations, Statutes and other separate Acts appended to this main Treatise, namely the following:

1. Treatise between Russia and Austria on April 21 (May 3), 1815. 2. Treatise between Russia and Prussia on April 21 (May 3), 1815. 3. An additional treatise between Austria, Prussia and Russia on the city of Krakow on April 21 (May 3), 1815 (...) should be considered as integral parts of the general decisions of the Congress and everywhere will have the same force and effect as if they were included word for word in this main Treatise.

Art. CXIX. All the Powers whose Plenipotentiaries are present at the Congress, equally, and the Princes and Free Cities, who have taken part in the above decrees or Acts approved by this Main Treatise, are invited to proceed thereto.

Art. CXX. Although in all lists of this Treatise one French, however, it is recognized by the Powers that participated in the drafting of this Act that this should not serve as a rule for the future, that henceforth every Power will use the same language for negotiations and setting conditions that it would hitherto use in diplomatic affairs, and that this Treatise will not be reckoned as evidence of a change in former habits.

Art. CXXI. This Treatise will be ratified and the ratifications thereof exchanged by all the other Powers in six months, and by the Portuguese Court in a year, or perhaps sooner.

A copy of this general Treatise will be deposited in the State Court Archives of His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty and serve as evidence whenever any of the European Courts wishes to see the true words of the Treatise.

As an assurance of what, the mutual Plenipotentiaries have signed this Act and attached their seals to it.

Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Meeting first. Volume 33. 1815-1816. SPb., 1830. S. 144-147,176-177.

Only registered users can leave comments.
Please login or register.

- 116.50 Kb

The Vienna system began to crumble in 1830–1831, when an insurgent Belgium seceded from the Kingdom of the Netherlands and gained independence. The final blow was dealt to her by the Austro-Franco-Sardinian War of 1859, the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and Franco-Prussian War 1870, as a result of which the united Italian and German states arose.

CONCLUSION

Thus, the Congress of Vienna approved the dominance of feudal reaction and consolidated the territorial changes in the map of Europe and domination over the colonies, the new balance of forces between states, which was the result of the defeat of Napoleonic Empire. Having restored the state independence of a number of countries oppressed by Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna established feudal-aristocratic reactions in them, and some of these countries were placed under a new foreign yoke. The Congress of Vienna was the first congress in the history of Europe, at which all European great powers concluded common treaties that for a long time determined the borders of states. Napoleon's attempt to seize power for the second time ("hundred days") and the movement of peoples against national and feudal oppression aroused the fear of the congress participants and prompted them to supplement the "Viennese treaties" with an act of the Holy Alliance, a second Peace of Paris and the renewal of the union of Austria, England, Russia and Prussia with the aim of to prevent the restoration of the Bonapartist regime in France. As a result, the Congress of Vienna led to the formation and development of the Vienna system of relations.

The model of international relations created in Vienna had both strengths and weaknesses. She proved to be quite stable and stable. Thanks to it, for several decades, it was possible to save Europe from the clashes of the great powers. Although military conflicts arose from time to time, the mechanism created in Vienna made it possible to work out a solution quite quickly and without great losses, on the basis of which the settlement of disputed issues was achieved.

The ideas of cooperation, consultations and reaching a compromise in solving conflict problems are increasingly penetrating into the sphere of interstate relations. On the other hand, the creators of the Vienna system poorly considered the influence of ideas french revolution on the European civilization. The principle of legitimism increasingly came into conflict with the liberal idea, with the growth of national self-consciousness.

The Vienna system was notable for its stability. However, any system is constantly evolving, inevitably new factors appear, which, no doubt, undermine the foundations of the system, if, of course, it is not capable of modernization. The question of the extent to which the Vienna system was capable of modernization is also the subject of heated debate in scientific literature. One way or another, but with its creation, a relatively stable order was established in Europe for a whole century, which made it possible to avoid a pan-European conflict. Of course, this is not tantamount to the fact that lasting peace has reigned on the continent. One can agree with H. Kissinger, who asserted that Europe has entered "rather an age of small wars than of general peace."

As a result of the Napoleonic wars, a classical system of pentarchy, a five-power system, is taking shape. There were five great powers in Europe, whose forces were practically equal and the agreement between which ensures peace in Europe for forty years. This is England dominating the seas; France, significantly weakened, but thanks to the skill of diplomats, retains the status great power, an indemnity was assigned to it, but its borders were preserved; Prussia is growing very seriously; Austria is relatively weak; Russia at the height of its power.

LIST OF USED SOURCES

1. Large historical encyclopedia. / Compound. S. V. Novikov. – M.: Philol. about-vo "SLOVO": OLMA-PRESS Education, 2005. - 943 p.: ill.

2. The eighteenth brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. / K. Marx, F. Engels: Op. Ed. 2. T. 8. / K. Marx. - M.: IP "ECOPERSPEKTIVA", 1986. - 682 p.

3. Age of Napoleon: people and destinies. / M. M. Magometovich, M. V. Ponamorev. - M.: "MIROS", 1997 - 240 p.

4. Age of revolutions: Europe 1789-1848. / E. Hobsbaum. - Rostov-on-Don: "Phoenix", 1999 - 477p.: ill.

5. Congress of Vienna in modern foreign historiography / New and recent history. / M. A. Dodolev. - M .: "Political publishing house", 1994. - 385 p.

6. Foreign policy of Russian tsarism. / K. Marx, F Engels.: Op. Ed. 2. T. 22. / F. Engels. - M .: "ACADEMY", 1951. - 507 p.

7. Diplomacy. / G. Kissinger. - M .: "Ladomir", 1997. - 848 p.: ill.

8. Diplomatic history of Europe, 1814-1878, T. 2. / A. Debidur. - Rostov-on-Don: "Phoenix", 1995. - 583 p.

9. Diplomatic history of Europe: Holy Alliance from Vienna to Berlin Congress, 1814-1878. T. 1. / A. Debidur. - Rostov-on-Don: "Phoenix", 1995. - 507 p.

10. History of Europe. / D. Norman. - M.: "AST", 2004. - 943 p.: ill.

11. History of Europe. / J. Aldeber, N. Bender and others - Minsk: “Higher. School”, 1966. – 384 p.

12. History foreign policy Russia. The first half of the 19th century (From the wars of Russia against Napoleon to the Peace of Paris in 1856). / F. A. Rothstein. - M .: "International Relations", 1995. - 448 p.

13. History of international relations: Proc. allowance: At 4 hours Part 1. / Yu. I. Malevich, S. F. Svilas, R. M. Turarbekova and others; Ed. And V. Sharapo. - Minsk: BGU, 2004. - 375 p.

14. Brief world history. / A. Z. Manfred. - M .: "Nauka", 1966 - 591 p.

15. International politics of modern times in treaties, notes and declarations. / Yu. E. Klyuchnikov. - M .: "PROGRESS", 1925 - 379 p.

16. Napoleon. / E. V. Tarle. - M .: "Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences" of the USSR, 1957. - 429 p.

17. Napoleon I in Russia. / V. V. Vereshchagin. Tver: "Constellation", 1993. - 288 p.

APPENDIX

Final Act of the Congress of Vienna

(extract)

In the name of the Most Holy and Inseparable Trinity.

The courts between which the Treaty of Paris was concluded on May 18 (30), 1814, having gathered in Vienna, so that, in consequence of Article XXXII of this Act, together with other Sovereigns and Powers allied to them, to supplement the provisions of the said Treaty and add to them the orders that he made necessary the state of Europe at the end of the last war, desiring, moreover, to introduce into one general treaty various particular provisions, signed during the negotiations, and to approve them by mutual ratifications, they ordered Their Plenipotentiaries to draw up one Main Treatise from decrees, to the essential and indispensable benefit concerning, one Main Treatise and attach to hereby, as integral parts, all other provisions of Congress: Treaties, Agreements, Declarations, Statutes and other particular Acts referred to in this Treatise. For this, the aforementioned Courts were named their Plenipotentiaries: (...)

Art. I. The Duchy of Poland, with the exception of those regions and districts to which a different designation is assigned in the following articles, shall forever join the Russian Empire. By virtue of its Constitution, it will be inextricably linked with Russia and in the possession of His Majesty the Emperor of All Russia, His Heirs and Successors for all eternity. His Imperial Majesty intends to grant, at His discretion, internal expansion to this State, which has to be under a special administration. His Majesty, in accordance with the custom and order existing in the discussion of His other titles, will add to them the title of Tsar (King) of Poland.

The Poles, as Russian subjects, as well as Austrian and Prussian subjects, will have people's representatives and national State institutions, in agreement with that mode of political existence, which each of the above-named Governments will recognize as most useful and decent for them, in the circle of His possessions.

Article XXV

E. in. The King of Prussia will also have in full sovereign possession and ownership on the left side of the Rhine the lands consisting of the following

borders.

Article LIII

All sovereign sovereigns and free cities of Germany, including their majesties, the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, Denmark and the Netherlands, the first, that is, the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia as sovereigns of those of their possessions, which in former times belonged to the German Empire; and the kings of Denmark, in their capacity as Duke of Holstein, and of the Netherlands, in their capacity as Grand Duke of Luxembourg, decide among themselves an eternal alliance, under the name of the common German Confederation.

Article LIV

The purpose of this alliance will be to maintain the external and internal security of Germany, the independence and inviolability of the lands belonging to it.

Article LVI

Article LXV

Article LXXIV

The integrity and inviolability of the nineteen cantons of Switzerland ... are recognized as the basis of the Helvetic Union.

Article LXXV

Wallis, the Geneva region and the Principality of Neuchâtel join Switzerland to form three new cantons...

Article LXXXV-XCIII

(Establishing the borders of the Kingdom of Sardinia in Northern Italy.)

Article XCIV

(Transfer of the Venetian region and Dalmatia to Austria.)

Article IV

E.V., King Ferdinand IV, the throne of Neapolitan is returned to his heirs and posterity, and all powers recognize him as king of the kingdom of both Sipilii.

Art. CXVIII. Treatises, Conventions, Declarations, Statutes and other separate Acts appended to this main Treatise, namely the following:

Art. CXX. Although in all lists of this Treatise only French is used, it is recognized by the Powers that participated in the drafting of this Act that this should not serve as a rule for the future, that henceforth every Power for negotiations and setting conditions will use the same language that hitherto we use it in Diplomatic matters, and that this Treatise will not be regarded as evidence of a change in former habits.

Art. CXXI. This Treatise will be ratified and the ratifications thereof exchanged by all the other Powers in six months, and by the Portuguese Court in a year, or perhaps sooner.

2.1.Participants Congress of Vienna 10
2.2. Interests and territorial claims of congress participants 11
2.3.Results of the Congress of Vienna 14
CONCLUSION 18
LIST OF USED SOURCES 20
APPENDIX 22

To the question What were the terms of the Peace of Paris in 1856? given by the author Katyushka Smolina the best answer is Peace of Paris 1856
The fall of Sevastopol determined the outcome of the war. England was ready to continue hostilities, but France preferred to end them. Negotiations between the European coalition and Russia were started back in 1854, after the cleansing of the Danubian principalities, but did not lead to any agreement and resumed after the fall of Sevastopol and the death of Nicholas I. The new tsar, Alexander II, still hoped for an improvement in the military situation and hesitated to make peace on the terms set by the allies. At the end of 1855, Austria demanded that Russia accept these conditions, threatening military action in case of refusal.
The tsar convened a meeting of senior dignitaries to discuss the Austrian ultimatum. It was impossible to fight further against the powerful European coalition with the military and economic backwardness of Russia revealed. The losses of manpower were enormous: during the defense of Sevastopol alone, 102,000 killed and wounded left the Russian army. Tens of thousands of soldiers lay in hospitals, decimated by a typhoid epidemic. The ministers told the tsar about the depletion of the state treasury, about the possible loss of new territories, about the growing internal ferment. Russia informed the powers of its consent to accept the proposed conditions, and on February 13 (25), 1856, meetings of the peace congress began in Paris with the participation of representatives of the interested powers.
England and Austria made a number of annexationist demands. France took on the role of "conciliator", wanting not to strengthen Britain too much and, just in case, enlist Russian support against its own allies. Taking advantage of the contradictions between England and France, Russian diplomacy achieved some success and managed to ease the conditions for peace. As a result of lengthy negotiations, on March 18 (30), 1856, the powers signed the Treaty of Paris on the following grounds: 1) all conquered regions and cities were returned back to Turkey and Russia (thus, Sevastopol and other Russian cities were “exchanged” for Kars returned to Turkey ) ; 2) the independence and integrity of the Ottoman (Ottoman) Empire was ensured by the combined guarantee of all powers; 3) The Black Sea was declared neutral, that is, open to merchant ships of all nations, and inaccessible to the navy of both coastal and other powers (due to this condition, Russia lost the right to have a navy and coastal naval arsenals on the Black Sea) ; 4) the southern part of Bessarabia went to Moldova; 5) Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia were placed under supreme power the sultan and the guarantee of the contracting powers; 6) patronage of Turkish Christians passed into the hands of all the great powers. By a special convention on the straits, it was established that the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus are closed to the passage of military ships of all foreign states.

June 1815

(Extracts)

The cited articles of the General Act of the Congress of Vienna cover next questions: 1) the division of the Duchy of Warsaw between Russia and Prussia, 2) the acquisition by Prussia of part of Saxony, the Rhine province, Danzig, 3) the acquisition of the Venetian region and Dalmatia by Austria, 4) the formation of the German Union, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Helvetic Union, 5) the restoration of the Bourbons in the kingdom both Sicilies.

In the name of the Most Holy and Inseparable Trinity.

The courts between which the Treaty of Paris was concluded on May 18 (30), 1814, having gathered in Vienna, so that, in consequence of Article XXXII of this Act, together with other Sovereigns and Powers allied to them, to supplement the provisions of the said Treaty and add to them the orders that he made necessary the state of Europe at the end of the last war, desiring, moreover, to introduce into one general treaty various particular provisions, signed during the negotiations, and to approve them by mutual ratifications, they ordered Their Plenipotentiaries to draw up one Main Treatise from decrees, to the essential and indispensable benefit concerning, one Main Treatise and attach to hereby, as integral parts, all other provisions of Congress: Treaties, Agreements, Declarations, Statutes and other particular Acts referred to in this Treatise. For this, the aforementioned Courts were named their Plenipotentiaries: ...

The Poles, both Russian subjects and equally Austrian and Prussian, will have people's representatives and national state institutions in agreement with that mode of political existence, which each of the above-named governments will recognize as the most useful and decent for them, in the circle of its possessions.

Article XXV

E. in. The King of Prussia will also have in full sovereign possession and ownership on the left side of the Rhine the lands contained within the boundaries indicated below.

Article LIII

All sovereign sovereigns and free cities of Germany, including their majesties, the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, Denmark and the Netherlands, the first, that is, the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia as sovereigns of those of their possessions, which in former times belonged to the German Empire; and the kings of Denmark, in their capacity as Duke of Holstein, and of the Netherlands, in their capacity as Grand Duke of Luxembourg, decide among themselves an eternal alliance, under the name of the common German Confederation.

Article LIV

The purpose of this alliance will be to maintain the external and internal security of Germany, the independence and inviolability of the lands belonging to it.

Article LVI

Article LXV

Article LXXIV

The integrity and inviolability of the nineteen cantons of Switzerland ... are recognized as the basis of the Helvetic Union.

Article LXXV

Wallis, the Geneva region and the Principality of Neuchâtel join Switzerland to form three new cantons...

Article LXXXV-XCIII

(Establishing the borders of the Kingdom of Sardinia in Northern Italy.)

Article XCIV

(Transfer of the Venetian region and Dalmatia to Austria.)

Article IV

E.V., King Ferdinand IV, the throne of Neapolitan is returned to his heirs and posterity, and all powers recognize him as king of the kingdom of the two Sicilies.

Art. CXVIII. Treatises, Conventions, Declarations, Statutes and other separate Acts appended to this main Treatise, namely the following:

Art. CXXI. This Treaty shall be ratified and ratifications thereof shall be<осуществлены>by all the other Powers in six months, and by the Portuguese Court in a year, or perhaps sooner.

As an assurance of what, the mutual Plenipotentiaries have signed this Act and attached their seals to it.

Martens F. F. Decree. op. T. XIII. C.213-315.