The results of the reforming activities of Peter I. Reasons, goals and results of the reforming activities of Peter I Peter 1 specific results of their activities

The reforms of Peter I split Russian society, led to the formation of two different ways. One of them, according to the terminology of V.O. Klyuchevsky, called "soil", the other - "civilization".

“Soil” is a way of life, the main features of which were formed in the conditions of the Muscovite kingdom. It was dominated by a community-corporate structure, vertical ties, relations of subjects

stva. Development was slow and tended to stagnation. The vast majority of the population was associated with this way of life, primarily the communal peasantry, which was dependent on the landowner or the state. Collectivism, leveling principles dominated here.

principles of social justice, anti-proprietary sentiments.

All aspects of the soil structure were determined by Russian Orthodoxy. The Church urged to focus on the spiritual side of life, to renounce earthly worries and burdens, to humbly bear one's cross. She condemned the desire for profit as the goal of economic activity, and did not agree to recognize entrepreneurship as a charitable activity. The anti-market orientation of Orthodoxy is obvious.

Soil developed the richest traditions of folk culture: songs, legends, epics, folk rituals. There was its own system of education, which ensured the continuity of the tradition.

The “soil” was a way of life that also prevailed in terms of volume: the majority of the population was associated with it. The worldview here was determined by Russian Orthodoxy and the traditions of communality.

"Civilization" is a way of life of the Western type. It included only a small part of Russia, mostly literate and active. Within the framework of this mode, the modernization of public life began: the formation of a class structure, the development of entrepreneurship, market relations, the emergence of professional intelligentsia. But this way of life was imposed by the state, it was controlled by it, it was not ordained.

ganic for society, and therefore was not in the full sense of the word

fallen. It was significantly deformed.

The outlook of this part of the population became rationalistic. The personal principle received impulses for its development, and social ideals were formed under the influence of European education, European thinkers. European achievements began to boil in the cauldron of national culture: the ideas of the French enlighteners and socialists, the achievements of the latest philosophy and science.

However, the possibilities for the rationalization of consciousness and the individualization of society were limited. Pressed corporatism and a powerful state. The state intervened in everything, pointed out

what to produce, what to trade, in which ports to unload goods, where to live, etc. The formation of the market was slower than it was possible with the resources of the country. The circle of owners, people with capital, was narrow. The stratum of small and medium-sized proprietors practically did not grow. There was no small private ownership of land.

Lack of a developed market for hired labor, competition

among workers held back the growth of skills, reduced the growth of production. AT 1721 Peter I issued a decree allowing private entrepreneurs to buy serfs to work in factories. Labor is strong

This method was extremely inefficient, and therefore the way of solving this issue can be considered Asian. In most European countries in the seventeenth century. much softer than in Russia, serfdom was abolished. in Russia in the seventeenth century. serfs were not only peasants, but also a new class of workers. Allegiance relations remained unchanged.

The Western way of life in Russia had strong eastern features. Competition in the industry was very weak. All entrepreneurs were obliged to fulfill, first of all, government orders. Everything that was produced in excess of the state order was sold on the free market. The lack of competition did not provide incentives for improving technology and production in general.

The culture of the Western way was secular: theater, literature, painting - everything developed on a rational basis. Despite the fact that Western culture of the secular type began to take shape in Russia only with early XVIII century, that is, relatively recently, in a short historical period, it has reached unprecedented heights. The culture of the "soil" as a whole was little studied and was unknown to "civilized" Russia. The Western way, despite state control, in comparison with the "soil" developed dynamically, was leading in importance. It was its development that determined Russia's place in the world.

Between "soil" and "civilization" there was an abyss. Within the framework of one state, two societies coexisted, possessing different values and ideals, following different paths of development. The gap in the levels of development of these ways was constantly increasing. Confrontation between the two ways of life from top to bottom, the constant threat of violating social harmony and sliding into civil war were an everyday reality and the most important factor in social development during the 18th–20th centuries. Society was constantly faced with a choice: either the “soil” and, therefore, the eastern type of development, as happened during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, or the European path and the revival of traditions Kievan Rus, Republican Novgorod.

Thus, the reforms of Peter I had large-scale long-term consequences, which have a tangible effect in modern Russia. The legacy of Peter the Great for almost three centuries causes controversy and ambiguous assessments. Westerners argued that Russia owed all the best in its history to Peter I, he made the state European, reunited Russia with Europe.

Supporters of the "soil" (they are called Slavophiles) argued the opposite: Peter I betrayed the national principle in the history of Russia, distorted Russian culture by borrowing from the West and harmed the natural course of the country's development.

Decembrist historian M.A. Fonvizin assessed the Petrine era in the following way: “If Peter tried to introduce European civilization into Russia, then he was attracted by a more external side. The spirit of this civilization, the spirit of lawful freedom and citizenship, was alien to him, the despot, and even repugnant. Dreaming of re-educating his subjects, he did not think of instilling in them a high sense of human dignity, without which there is neither true morality nor virtue. He needed capable tools for material improvements on the models seen abroad.

The results of the transformational activities of Peter I are as follows:

1. Russia received access to the Baltic Sea and thus entered the environment of European peoples.

2. Created a first-class army and navy.

3. A new apparatus of state power has been created, more suitable

ny for society than the old system of orders.

4. A large industry was created, which made Russia an eco-

nomically independent from other countries.

5. The foundations of secular Russian culture have been laid.

6. A start has been made on the creation of a system of national education

vaniya and medicine.

7. The church is subordinate to the state, the patriarchate is liquidated.

8. Russia became an empire.

Thanks to the vigorous activity of Peter I in the economy, the level and forms of development of the productive forces, in the political system of Russia, in the structure and functions of the authorities, in the organization of the army, in the class and class structure of the population, in the life and culture of peoples, tremendous changes took place. Medieval Muscovite Rus turned into Russian empire. The place of Russia and its role in international affairs has changed radically.
The complexity and inconsistency of the development of Russia during this period determined the inconsistency of the activities of Peter I in the implementation of reforms. On the one hand, these reforms were of great historical significance, since they met the national interests and needs of the country, contributed to its progressive development, being aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, the reforms were carried out by the same feudal methods and thereby contributed to the strengthening of the rule of the feudal lords.
The progressive transformations of the time of Peter the Great from the very beginning carried conservative features, which, in the course of the development of the country, became more and more powerful and could not ensure the elimination of its backwardness in full. Objectively, these reforms were of a bourgeois nature, but subjectively, their implementation led to the strengthening of serfdom and the strengthening of feudalism. They could not be different - the capitalist way of life in Russia at that time was still very weak.
It should also be noted those cultural changes in Russian society that took place in the time of Peter the Great: the emergence of first-level schools, schools in specialties, Russian Academy Sciences. A network of printing houses appeared in the country for printing domestic and translated publications. The first newspaper in the country began to appear, the first museum appeared. Significant changes have taken place in everyday life.

13) Peter's military reform1

Essence military reform consisted in the liquidation of the noble militias and the organization of a permanent combat-ready army with a uniform structure, weapons, uniforms, discipline, charters.

In the spring of 1690, the famous "amusing regiments" - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky - were created. , the "capital city of Preshburg" is being built on the Yauza.
The Semyonovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments became the core of the future permanent (regular) army and proved themselves during the Azov campaigns of 1695-1696. By the end of Peter's reign, Russia became one of the strongest maritime powers in the world, having 48 linear and 788 galley and other ships.

Before Peter the army consisted of two main parts - the noble militia and various semi-regular formations. The revolutionary change was that Peter introduced a new principle of recruiting the army - periodic convocations of the militia were replaced by systematic recruitment sets. Recruitment sets were distributed to the population. In 1699, the first recruitment set was made, since 1705, sets have become annual. From 20 yards they took one person, single, aged 15 to 20 years. The service life of a recruit was practically unlimited.
Officers Russian army replenished at the expense of the nobles who studied in the guards noble regiments or in specially organized schools (Pushkar, artillery, navigation, fortification, Naval Academy, etc.). In 1716, the Military Charter was adopted, and in 1720 - the Naval Charter, a large-scale rearmament of the army was carried out. Peter had a huge strong army - 200 thousand people (not counting 100 thousand Cossacks),
The main results of the military reforms of Peter the Great are as follows:
- the creation of a combat-ready regular army, one of the strongest in the world, which gave Russia the opportunity to fight with its main opponents and defeat them;
- the emergence of a whole galaxy of talented commanders (Alexander Menshikov, Boris Sheremetev, Fedor Apraksin, Yakov Bruce, etc.);
- creation of a powerful navy;
- a gigantic increase in military spending and covering them through the most severe squeezing of funds from the people.

14) The empire grew in the era of palace coups (1725-1762)

Peter I died on January 28, 1725 without appointing a successor to the throne. A long struggle of various noble groups for power began. In 1725, A.D. Menshikov, a representative of the new tribal nobility, enthroned the widow of Peter I, Catherine I. To strengthen her power in 1726, the Empress established the Supreme Privy Council. From 1726 to 1730 The council, limiting the power of the Senate, actually decided all state affairs. After the death of Catherine I, 12-year-old Peter II, the grandson of Peter I, became the crown emperor. Dolgoruky and Golitsyn. Peter II fell under the influence of the old boyar aristocracy, in fact, gave power to the Supreme Privy Council. In 1730, Peter II died of smallpox, and the niece of Peter I, the wife of the Duke of Courland, Anna Ioannovna, was invited to reign. Before accepting the crown, she agreed to the terms of limiting her power in favor of the Supreme Privy Council, but, after becoming Empress, she immediately dissolved the council and repressed its members. From 1730 to 1740 the country was ruled by the favorite of the Empress E.I. Biron and his close associates from the Germans. It was a decade of dominance of foreigners, a time of rampant cruelty of the authorities and embezzlement of public funds. In 1740, Anna Ioannovna declared her sister's three-month-old grandson heir to the throne, and appointed Biron as regent.

In November 1740, as a result of a palace coup, the regency was transferred to Anna Leopoldovna. In November 1741, after another coup caused by dissatisfaction with the continuation of German dominance, Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761) ascended the throne, supported by the guards, with help from France and Sweden, she arrested and imprisoned the baby emperor, exiled to Siberia I.Minich, A.I.Osterman and other foreigners who claimed power. During her reign, there was a return to the Petrine order and their strengthening. Elizabeth pursued a policy of strengthening the rights and privileges of the nobility. The landowners were given the right to sell peasants as recruits. Customs fees were abolished. The aggressive policy of Prussia forced Russia to conclude an alliance with Austria, France and Sweden. The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763 began. 100 thousandth Russian army was sent to the territory of Austria against Prussia. In the summer of 1757, Russian troops, having entered Prussia, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Prussians near the village of Gros-Egersdorf. In 1758 Koenigsberg was taken. In the same year, the main battle took place with the main forces of King Frederick II near Zorndorf. The Russian army under the command of General P.S. Saltykov, with the support of the allied Austrian troops, practically destroyed the Prussian army as a result of a bloody battle. The capture of Berlin in 1760 brought Prussia to the brink of disaster. From this, she was saved by the death of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, which occurred on December 25. 1761

After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, her nephew Peter III (1761-1762) ascended the throne, who ended the war and returned all the previously conquered lands to the Prussian king Frederick II. He made peace with Prussia and entered into a military alliance with Frederick II. Peter III did not understand beliefs and customs Orthodox Church and neglected them. The pro-Prussian policy caused dissatisfaction with his rule and led to the growth of the popularity of his wife, Sophia Frederica Augusta of Zerbst. Unlike her husband, she, being a German, converted to Orthodoxy, observed fasts, and attended divine services. In Orthodoxy, she received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna.

On June 29, 1762, with the help of the guardsmen of the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky regiments, Catherine seizes power. Peter III signs the act of renunciation and dies at the hands of security officers.

Since 1892 By 1898 Historians call "University of Peter". During this period of time, his sister Sophia was regent for two heirs, Ivan and Peter. During this period, he lives with his mother in the village of Preobrazhensky, and on the other side of the German settlement Kukuy, where immigrants from Western Europe lived, who were invited under Ivan III. Peter, coming on boats to them, there he absorbed the foundations of Western Europe, their culture. And comparing our Russian identity, he comes to the conclusion that Russia needs to be deployed to Western Europe. After the "great embassy" (a trip to Western Europe). 1697 He begins to carry out reforms to change the life of the Russian nobility (drink coffee, shave beards, introduced dresses according to the Hungarian model).

Purpose: To turn the development of Russia along the Western path. But not in order to stand next to them, but in order to make Russia a big prosperous power.

Results: Russia gained access to the Baltic Sea, and became a maritime power with a strong fleet, strong army, the developed economy of the country, from a carrier has turned into an exporter. Rise of the international prestige of Russia.

The policy of enlightened absolutism in Russia. Catherine II.

1762-1796 The reign of Catherine II is called the "Golden Age of the Nobility" and the era of enlightenment of absolutism. Spread of culture, education in Russia.

Enlightened absolutism is the union of philosophers and monarchs. At this time, the theory according to which the feudal foundations of society can be overcome not by revolutionary, but by evolutionary ones, by the monarchs themselves and their nobles with the help of wise advisers of philosophers and other enlightened people, became widespread. The kings, who should be enlightened people, students of the ideologists of enlightenment, were: Frederick II (King of Prussia) and Catherine II. During this period there was a "Golden Age of the nobility", according to the charter of the nobility of 1762. The nobles were allowed not to serve, and this made it possible for them to engage in education, send their children to study abroad. At this stage, the nobility was a highly enlightened elite society.

Liberalization measures peasant question and attempts at political modernization in the first half of the 19th century. Alexander I, Nicholas I.

Liberalization of the peasant question - the reform of serfdom. Alexander I, grandson of Catherine II, his reign can be divided into two parts:

1. The days of Alexander are a great start;

2.Reigning;

In 1802, a decree was issued "On free cultivators", which permitted the release of their peasants with land. In 1808-1809 it was forbidden to sell peasants, print newspapers about sales, and send them into exile at the will of the landowner. But the results were insignificant.

Nicholas I carried out many reforms. Reform "On State Peasants" (1837-1842). Partial self-government was given to this category, schools, hospitals were opened, peasants were enlightened on agricultural technology, saturated with agricultural culture. Under Nicholas I, every community grew potatoes. 1842 Decree on "obliged peasants". The landlords could give the peasants personal freedom, and for the use of land, the peasants must perform certain duties.

Political modernization of Alexander I:

1. In the first half of his reign, his secretary Speransky developed a draft constitution. On the basis of which, it is created: the State Duma, the local Duma, as an elected representative body of power. 1810 A state body was approved, which consisted of: state dignitaries, who were supposed to take a legislative initiative before the king. This is the only organ that existed until the revolution of 1917.

Nicholas I (1825-1855). He considered his task to strengthen the power of the nobles, relying on the army and the bureaucracy (officials), to protect and spy on unreliable people, the II Department of His Own Imperial Majesty Chancellery was created. For the work of this office, the Jardamv corps was created, which was engaged in political investigation.

2.1833 The Code of Laws of the Russian Empire was issued.

3. Financial reform.

4.Industrial revolution (growth of urban population), railway construction.

5. Real education is being introduced (institutions).

Lesson objectives: 1. Repeat, summarize the studied material on the topic "The era of Peter I." Give an assessment of the activities of Peter I. 2. Show the skills and abilities of using ICT in preparation for the lesson, as well as the skills and abilities of conducting an active search and research activities, work with sources and literature. 3. Show your Creative skills, interest in history; development of speech culture public speaking, development of skills to defend one's conviction, respect the opinions of others, answer questions, lead a discussion.

Problem questions: What is the role of Peter I in the history of Russia? Can we say that his role in the history of Russia was controversial? What is the role of Peter I in the history of Russia? Can we say that his role in the history of Russia was controversial? Why didn't the name of Peter I win the "Name of Russia" competition? Why didn't the name of Peter I win the "Name of Russia" competition?

Lesson content Repetition, generalization, control of the studied material Repetition, generalization, control of the studied material Protection creative work(Sagngalieva A.) Protection of creative work (Sagngalieva A.) Solving problematic issues Solving problematic issues

For almost three hundred years now, the figure of Peter I, his transformations have caused controversy among scientists. From the very beginning, two opposite approaches were outlined in the dispute: apologetic (admiration) and critical, which at times converged, but then diverged again. Apparently, a compromise assessment of the activities of Peter I is more realistic.

Childhood. Youth. The beginning of the reign On April 27, 1682, the ten-year-old prince Peter was proclaimed king, but soon he was approved by the 3rd Yemsky Cathedral as the "second king", and John as the "first". Their ruler became their elder sister Princess Sophia. Until 1689, Peter and his mother, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, lived in the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow, coming to Moscow only for official ceremonies. In 1689, Sophia was removed from power and imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent. Until 1694, his mother, Natalya Kirillovna, ruled on behalf of Peter I. In 1696, after the death of John V, Peter became the sovereign king.

Personality of Peter I characteristic features Peter was the mind, will, energy, breadth of views, purposefulness, curiosity, incredible performance. Peter, having not received a systematic education in his youth, studied all his life. At the same time, Peter was quick-tempered and cruel, personally involved in torture and executions. The king did not take into account the interests and life of an individual.

The Great Embassy In 1697, the tsar sent a "Great Embassy" to Europe and joined it himself under the name of Peter Mikhailov. In Prussia, the tsar studied artillery and received a certificate of a firearms master. Peter went to England and Holland to study shipbuilding. During his stay in Europe, Peter visited factories, libraries, listened to lectures at universities. In 1698 the tsar hastily returned to Russia.

The First Transformations In 1699 the calendar was reformed. A printing house was set up in Amsterdam to publish secular books in Russian. The first Russian order of St. Apostle Andrew the First-Called was founded. The king ordered to send young men from noble families to study abroad. In 1701, the Navigation School was opened in Moscow.

Transformations in the economy Peter I clearly understood the need to overcome the technical backwardness of Russia and in every possible way contributed to the development of Russian industry and trade, including foreign trade. Many merchants and industrialists enjoyed his patronage, among whom the Demidovs are most famous. Many new plants and factories were built, new branches of industry arose.

Lessons Northern war The war began with the defeat of the Russian army near Narva in 1700. However, this lesson went to Peter for the future: he realized that the reason for the defeat was primarily in the backwardness of the Russian army. The construction of metallurgical and weapons factories began, supplying the army with high-quality cannons and small arms. Soon, Peter I managed to win the first victories over the enemy, capture and devastate a significant part of the Baltic. In 1703, at the mouth of the Neva, Peter founded St. Petersburg, the new capital of Russia.

Management Reform In 1711, setting off for the Prut campaign, Peter founded the Senate. Senate. In 1714, the Decree on Single Succession was issued. In 1714, the Decree on Single Succession was issued. From 1717, the creation of central collegiums began. From 1717, the creation of collegiums of central bodies of branch administration, branch administration bodies began. In 1718, the poll tax was introduced in Russia. In 1718, a poll tax was introduced in Russia. In 1720, the General Regulations were issued. In 1720, the General Regulations were issued. Detailed instructions for organizing the work of new institutions. Detailed instructions for organizing the work of new institutions. institutions. In 1721, Russia was proclaimed an empire, and the Senate. In 1721, Russia was proclaimed an empire, and the Senate awarded Peter the titles "Great" and "The Father honored Peter with the titles" Great "and" Father of the Fatherland. fatherland". In 1722, Peter signed the Table of Ranks, which determined In 1722, Peter signed the Table of Ranks, which determined the organization of military and civil service. organization of military and civil service.

Transformations in the field of culture The time of Peter I was a time of active penetration into Russian life of secular European culture. Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded. Success in the service of Peter made the nobles dependent on education. By a special decree of the tsar, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people for Russia. The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc., have changed. Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, and aesthetic ideas took shape in the educated environment.

Personal life of the tsar In January 1689, at the insistence of his mother, Peter I married Evdokia Fedorovna Lopukhina. After 10 years, he imprisoned her in a monastery. Subsequently, he became friends with the captive Latvian Marta Skavronskaya (Catherine I). She bore him several children, of whom only daughters Anna and Elizabeth survived. Peter, apparently, was very attached to his second wife and in 1724 crowned her with the imperial crown, intending to bequeath the throne to her. The relationship between the tsar and his son from his first marriage, Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, did not develop, who died under unclear circumstances in the Peter and Paul Fortress during the years of hard work and bad habits undermined the health of the emperor. On January 28, 1725, as a result of illness, Peter I died without leaving a will. He was buried in the Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress in St. Petersburg.

Results of Peter's reforms 1) The most important result of Peter's reforms was overcoming the crisis of traditionalism by modernizing the country. 2) Russia became a full-fledged participant in international relations, conducting an active foreign policy. 3) Significantly increased the authority of Russia in the world, and Peter himself became for many a model of the ruler-reformer. 4) At the same time, violence was the main tool for carrying out reforms. 5) Peter's reforms did not save the country from the previously established system social relations, embodied in serfdom, but, on the contrary, conserved and strengthened its institutions.

2. Result reform activities Peter I is considered 1) overcoming the economic backwardness of Russia from Western countries 2) turning Russia into a strong European power 3) the rapid growth of the Russian economy 4) the beginning of the democratization of political life Correct answer: 2

5. Among the phenomena that prompted Peter I to carry out reforms in Russia, there was no such thing as 1) Russia's economic lagging behind the advanced countries of the West 2) backwardness in the organization and armament of the Russian army 3) the isolation of Russian cultural life from European 4) the promise of European powers to support reforms in Russia with their capital investments Correct answer: 4

6. The reasons for the uprising under the leadership of K. Bulavin cannot be attributed to 1) attempts by the authorities to limit Cossack self-government 2) mass mobilization of peasants to build a fleet 3) increased repression against fugitive peasants 4) dissatisfaction with the dominance of foreigners in the Russian service Correct answer: 4

7. The increase in agricultural productivity under Peter I was associated primarily with 1) the annexation of more fertile lands 2) the strengthening of state coercion of peasants 3) the replacement of the sickle with a Lithuanian scythe during harvesting 4) the provision of assistance to peasants by the state Correct answer: 2

8. As a result of government and administrative reforms Peter I in Russia 1) the absolute power of the monarch increased 2) the foundations of a constitutional monarchy were laid 3) the emperor began to rule together with the Supreme Privy Council 4) the functions of Zemsky Sobors expanded Correct answer: 1

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The period of the reign of Peter the Great (his transformations and reforms) is accompanied by complexity and inconsistency historical development countries at this time. On the one hand, his actions were of great progressive significance, they met the national interests and needs, contributed to a significant acceleration of the country's historical development and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by feudal lords, using feudal methods and were aimed at strengthening their dominance. That is why the progressive transformations of the time of Peter the Great from the very beginning carried conservative features, which later came out more and more strongly. As a result of the transformations of Peter I, Russia was rapidly catching up with the development of European countries, in which the dominance of feudal-serf relations prevailed.

This complexity and inconsistency manifested itself with all its force in the transformative activity of Peter I, which was distinguished by inexhaustible energy, unprecedented scope, courage in breaking the already established laws, foundations, way of life and way of life. Perfectly understanding the importance of the development of trade and industry, Peter I carried out a number of measures that corresponded to the interests of the merchants. But he also strengthened the serfdom, substantiated the regime of autocratic despotism. The actions of Peter I were distinguished not only by decisiveness, but also by extreme cruelty.

1. Formpersonality of Peter the Great

Peter the Great was born on May 30, 1672. On this day, thanksgiving prayers were served throughout Moscow, and cannons were fired. The happy father, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov, forgave government debts, gave gifts to his neighbors, and canceled harsh sentences for criminals. From everywhere people with all kinds of gifts went to the royal palace.

Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich had great hopes for his youngest son. He himself was married a second time to Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina. From his first marriage with Marya Miloslavskaya, he already had three children - Fedor, Ivan and Sophia. But they were not able to translate their father's plans into reality, since one of them was sick and the other weak-minded.

Until the death of his father, Tsar Alexei, Peter lived as a darling in the royal family. He was only three and a half years old when his father died. Tsar Fedor was the godfather of his little brother and loved him very much. He kept Peter with him in the great Moscow palace and took care of his education. In 1676 Alexei Mikhailovich died. Peter was then three and a half years old, and his older brother Fedor ascended the throne, but in 1782 he also died, leaving no heirs to the throne.

Soon, Patriarch Joachim and the boyars proclaimed the younger Tsarevich Peter, who at that time was 10 years old, as king. However, the rights of Tsarevich Ivan were violated and his relatives could not come to terms with what had happened. The most intelligent and decisive among them were Princess Sofya Alekseevna and the boyar Ivan Mikhailovich Miloslavsky. Against their enemies - the Naryshkins, they raised an army of archers.

The archers were told that Tsarevich Ivan had been strangled and they were given a list of "traitor-boyars" in their hands. In response to this, the archers began an open rebellion. On May 15, 1682, armed, they came to the Kremlin. Tsarina Natalya Kirillovna led Tsar Peter and Tsarevich Ivan to the Red Porch of the Palace and showed them to the archers. However, the latter did not calm down, broke into the royal palace and in front of the members royal family boyar Matveev and many relatives of Queen Natalia were brutally murdered.

Peter, being an eyewitness to these bloody scenes, caused surprise with his stamina - standing on the Red Porch, when the archers picked up Matveev and his supporters on spears, he did not change his face. But the May horrors are indelibly engraved in the memory of Peter, probably from here both the well-known nervousness and his hatred of the archers originate.

A week after the start of the rebellion - on May 23, the winners demanded from the government that both brothers be appointed kings, and a week later, at the new demand of the archers, for the youth of the kings, the reign was handed over to Princess Sophia. Peter's party was excluded from any participation in state affairs.

After these events, Tsaritsa Natalia, together with her son, left for the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow. Peter has been addicted to war games since childhood. There he formed two “amusing” battalions from his peers, which in the future became real military units - the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments - the main guard of Peter. Foreign officers were engaged in their training, and Peter himself went through all the soldier ranks, starting with a drummer. With great interest, the king began to study arithmetic, geometry, and military sciences, which were taught to him by the Dutchman Timmerman. The surviving notebooks of Peter testify to his persistent efforts to master the applied side of arithmetic, astronomical and artillery wisdom: the same notebooks show that these wisdom remained a mystery to Peter. But turning art and pyrotechnics have always been Peter's favorite pastimes. Peter's passion for boats and ships is widely known. After Peter found an abandoned nautical boat in the village of Izmailovo and learned to sail on it, he all went into this business and, under the guidance of the Dutch shipbuilder Brant, Peter sailed on his boat, first along the Yauza River, and then on Lake Pereyaslavsky, where he laid the first shipyard for the construction of ships. To many, this seemed like empty fun. Petra and its closeness to the Germans were condemned. Peter often visited the German settlement, because it was there that he could find explanations for many things that were incomprehensible to Russian people. Peter became especially close to the Scot Gordon, a general in the Russian service, a scientist, and to the Swiss Lefort, a colonel, a very capable and cheerful man. Under the influence of Lefort, Peter got used to noisy feasts and revelry. Unfortunately, neither Prince Boris Alekseevich Golitsyn, the tutor of Peter, nor his tutor Nikita Zotov, could keep the young tsar from revelry and noisy feasts.

Due to unfavorable childhood conditions, Peter was left without a proper education and instead of theological and scholastic knowledge, he acquired military-technical knowledge. The young sovereign was an unusual cultural type for Moscow society. He had no love for the old customs and orders of Moscow court life, but formed close relations with the "Germans". Peter did not like Sophia's government, he was afraid of the Miloslavskys and the archers, whom he considered Sophia's support and friends.

Princess Sophia considered Peter's military occupations to be foolish folly, but was pleased that he did not interfere in the royal affairs. For the time being, the mother also calmly treated her son's fun, but then she decided that it was time for him to settle down, lead a life worthy of the royal title, and found him a bride. This was the mother's only major and unsuccessful intervention in Peter's private life. In 1689, before reaching his seventeenth birthday, Peter marries the daughter of the Moscow boyar Evdokia Lopukhina. Tsarina Natalya hoped to distract her son from empty amusements and make him more respectable. According to Russian custom, he was now considered an adult and could claim independent rule.

With his marriage, Peter did not change his habits. The dissimilarity of the spouses' characters and the dislike of the court for Lopukhina explains the fact that Peter's love for his wife did not last long, and then Peter began to prefer family life- marching, in the regimental hut of the Preobrazhensky regiment. A new occupation - shipbuilding - distracted him even further: from the Yauza, he, along with his ships, moved to Lake Pereyaslav and had fun there even in winter.

However, Princess Sophia did not want to lose power and raised archers against Peter. Peter found out about this at night and, as if in a nightgown, mounted a horse and rode off into the nearest forest, and from there to the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. According to historians, this was the only case when he was mortally afraid for his life, remembering his childhood horror after the death of his father, when in front of him the archers raised his own uncle on spears and killed his other relatives. From that time on, he developed a nervous tic and convulsions, which from time to time distorted his face and shook his body.

But soon Peter came to his senses and brutally crushed the uprising. As a result, Princess Sophia was exiled to the Novodevichy Convent, the most active supporters were executed, and the rest were sent to eternal hard labor. Thus began the reign of Peter.

2. Reforms of Peter the Great

In his reforms, Peter I could not adhere to a predetermined plan and exact sequence, because all his transformations took place under the pressure of military needs. this moment. And each of them gave rise to discontent, covert and open resistance, conspiracies and struggle, characterized by extreme bitterness on both sides.

The war with the Swedes took on a protracted character, was difficult, unprofitable and dangerous. Peter was fully involved in military affairs. He either fought in the forefront of his army, then rushed to Arkhangelsk and Voronezh in order to organize the defense of the country's northern and southern borders from possible enemy attacks. Under such conditions, the ruler could not think of systematic reforms. His main concern was to get enough men to successfully continue the war. The war demanded regular troops: he was looking for ways to increase and better organize them, and this circumstance pushed him to reform military affairs and reorganize the nobility and, in particular, the noble service.

The war required money - and in the process of finding them, Peter became more and more aware of the need for a tax reform and changes in the situation of the peoples of the country and the peasantry as a whole. Under the pressure of military needs, Peter hastily made a number of innovations that destroyed the old order, but did not create anything new in government.

2.1 Reform of government and authorities

Of all the transformations of Peter, this reform occupied a central position. The old clerk's apparatus was not able to cope with the existing management tasks. The essence of the reform was reduced to the formation of a noble-bureaucratic centralized apparatus of absolutism.

All the fullness of legislative, executive and judicial power was concentrated in the hands of the king. In 1711 Boyar Duma was replaced by the highest body of executive and judicial power - the Senate. Members of the Senate were appointed by the king on the basis of merit. In the exercise of executive power, the Senate issued resolutions - decrees that had the force of law. In 1722, the Prosecutor General was placed at the head of the Senate, who was entrusted with control over the activities of all government agencies. He carried out this control through prosecutors appointed in all government offices. To them was added a system of fiscals, headed by the chief fiscal. The duties of the fiscals included reporting on all abuses of institutions and officials and their violation of “public interest”.

In 1717-1718, the outdated system of orders was replaced by colleges. Each collegium was in charge of a particular branch or area of government. Three boards were considered the main ones: foreign, military and admiralty. Issues of trade and industry were in charge of: Commerce, Manufactory and Berg Collegiums. The last of them was in charge of metallurgy and mining. Three boards were in charge of finances: the Chamber Board - income, the State Board - expenses, and the Audit Board controlled the receipt of income, the collection of taxes, taxes, duties, the correctness of spending by the institutions of the amounts allocated to them. The College of Justice was in charge of civil proceedings, the Votchinnaya College, established somewhat later, was in charge of noble land ownership. To them was added the Chief Magistrate. A special place was occupied by the Theological College, or Synod, which governs the church. The boards received the right to issue decrees on those issues that they were in charge of.

In 1708, Peter for the first time introduced the division of the province into Russia. Several former counties were united into a province, and several provinces into a province. At the head of the province was the governor (or governor-general), subordinate to the Senate; at the head of the provinces and counties - governors. When they were elected from the nobility, landrats, later - zemstvo commissars, who helped them in managing the general council and in the counties.

The new management system secured the active participation of the nobility in the implementation of their dictatorship in the field. But at the same time she expanded the volume and forms of service of the nobles, which caused him discontent. Thus, after the reform, the state was ruled at the top by officials, and at the bottom by elected authorities, as before Peter. In general, the matter of management has become much more complicated, and not all parts have been sufficiently worked out.

2.2 Military reform

Military reform was badly needed. Peter gradually abolished the old type of troops. He destroyed the streltsy regiments immediately after the streltsy search in 1698. He gradually abolished the noble cavalry militias, recruiting the nobles to serve in the regular regiments.

Peter increased the number of regular regiments, gradually making them the main type of field troops. For the acquisition of these regiments, a general conscription, universal for the nobility, recruiting for other classes. Only the families of the clergy were released from service. Also, Peter attached the Cossack troops to his army as a permanent component.

The results of Peter's military reforms were amazing: at the end of his reign, he had an army in which there were about 200 thousand regular troops (field and garrison) and at least 75 thousand regular Cossacks; in addition, 28 thousand people served in the fleet, there were 48 large ships and up to 800 small ships.

2.3 Convertformations in the device of estates

1. Service class. The fight against the Swedes required the establishment of a regular army, and Peter gradually transferred all the nobles and service people to the regular service. The service for all service people became the same, they served without exception, indefinitely and began their service from the lower ranks.

All the former ranks of service people were united together, into one estate - the gentry. All the lower ranks could equally rise to the higher ranks. The order of such length of service was precisely determined by the “Table of Ranks” (1722). In this table, all ranks were divided into 14 ranks or according to their seniority. Anyone who reached the lowest rank 14 could hope to take the highest position and the highest rank. The “Table of Ranks” replaced the principle of generosity with the principle of length of service and serviceability. But Peter made one concession to people from the upper old nobility. He allowed noble youth to enter predominantly in his favorite guards regiments Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky.

Peter demanded that the nobles must learn to read and write and mathematics, and those who were not trained were deprived of the right to marry and receive an officer's rank. Peter limited the landowning rights of the nobles. He stopped giving them estates from the treasury when they entered the service, but provided them with a monetary salary. Noble patrimonies and estates were forbidden to be divided when transferred to sons (the law “On Majorate”, 1714).

Peter's measures regarding the nobility aggravated the position of this estate, but did not change its attitude towards the state. The nobility both before and now had to pay for the right to land ownership by service. But now the service has become harder, and land ownership more constrained. The nobility was indignant and demanded to ease their hardships. Peter severely punished attempts to evade service.

2. Urban estate (townspeople and city people). Before Peter I, the urban estate was a very small and poor class. Peter wanted to create an economically strong and active urban class in Russia, similar to what he saw in Western Europe.

Peter expanded the city self-government. In 1720, the chief magistrate was created, who was supposed to take care of the urban estate. All cities were divided according to the number of inhabitants into classes. Residents of cities were divided into "regular" and "irregular" ("mean") citizens. Regular citizens made up two "guilds": the first included representatives of the capital and the intelligentsia, the second - small merchants and artisans. Craftsmen were divided into "shops" according to crafts. Irregular people or "mean" were called unskilled workers. The city was governed by a magistrate of burgomasters, elected by all regular citizens. In addition, city affairs were discussed at town meetings or councils of regular citizens. Each city was subordinated to the main magistrate, bypassing any other local authorities.

Despite all the transformations, the Russian cities remained in the same miserable situation as they had been before. The reason for this was the structure of Russian life, far from the commercial and industrial system, and difficult wars.

3. Peasantry. In the first quarter of the century, it became clear that the household principle of taxation did not bring the expected increase in the receipt of taxes.

In order to increase their incomes, the landowners settled several peasant families in one yard. As a result, during the census in 1710, it turned out that the number of households had decreased by 20% since 1678 (instead of 791 thousand households in 1678 - 637 thousand in 1710). Therefore, a new principle of taxation was introduced. In 1718 - 1724. a census of the entire taxable male population is carried out, regardless of age and ability to work. All persons included in these lists (“revision tales”) had to pay 74 kopecks of poll tax per year. In the event of the death of the recorded person, the tax continued to be paid until the next revision, the family of the deceased or the community in which he was a member. In addition, all tax-paying estates, with the exception of the landlord peasants, paid the state 40 kopecks of quitrent, which was supposed to balance their duties with those of the landlord peasants.

The transition to per capita taxation increased the figure of direct taxes from 1.8 to 4.6 million, accounting for more than half of the budget receipts (8.5 million). The introduction of the poll tax increased the power of the landlords over the peasants, since the submission of revision tales and the collection of taxes were entrusted to the landowners.

In addition to the poll tax, the peasant paid a huge amount of all kinds of taxes and fees, designed to replenish the treasury, which was empty as a result of wars, the creation of a cumbersome and expensive apparatus of power and administration, the regular army and navy, the construction of the capital and other expenses. In addition, the state peasants carried duties: road - for the construction and maintenance of roads, pit - for the transportation of mail, government cargo and officials, and so on.

At the end of the reign of Peter the Great, a lot has changed in the life of the estates. The nobles began to serve differently. Citizens received a new device and benefits. The peasantry began to pay differently and, on private lands, merged with the serfs. And the state determined their life by duty, not by right.

2.4 Church reform

An important place in the development of absolutism was occupied by church reform. In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished, and its place was taken by the Theological College, or "Holy Governing Synod." Its head was the chief prosecutor of the Synod appointed by the tsar. The liquidation of the patriarchate, the establishment of the Synod meant the liquidation of the independent political role of the Church. It became an integral part of the state apparatus.

In parallel with this, the state increased control over the income of the church from the monastery peasants, systematically withdrew a significant part of them for the construction of the fleet, the maintenance of the army, the disabled, schools and other expenses. It was forbidden to create new and limited the number of monks in existing monasteries. These actions of Peter aroused the discontent of the church hierarchy and the black clergy, and was one of the main reasons for their participation in all kinds of reactionary conspiracies.

2.5 Financial changes

Peter I not only changed the direct tax, making it a poll tax, but also significantly increased indirect taxes, invented new sources of income.

During the 8 years of the war, he recruited about 200 thousand soldiers, bringing the size of the army from 40 to 100 thousand. The cost of this army in 1709 is almost twice as expensive as in 1701 - 1,810,000 rubles. instead of 982.000. During the first 6 years of the war, more than 1.5 million rubles were paid. Polish king in the form of subsidies. The costs of the fleet, artillery, and the maintenance of diplomats caused by the war amounted to 2.3 million in 1701, 2.7 million in 1706 and 3.2 million in 1710. Already the first of these figures is too large compared to the funds that Peter received in the form taxes from the population (about 1.5 million). We had to look for additional sources of income.

At first, Peter took for his purposes from public institutions not only their free funds, but also the amounts that were previously spent on other purposes: this upset the correct course of the state machine. The army was supported from the main income of the state - customs and tavern duties. For the maintenance of the cavalry, it was necessary to assign a new tax "dragoon money", for the fleet - "ship" and so on. However, these direct taxes were rather insufficient, especially since they were collected very slowly. Therefore, other sources of taxes were invented.

The earliest invention of this kind, introduced on the advice of Kurbatov - stamped paper, did not give the profits expected from it. The more important was the damage to the coin. A new measure to increase incomes was the "returning" in 1704 of old quitrent items and the return of new quitrents. By 1708, the total amount of government revenues under this item had risen from 300,000 to 670,000 rubles. annually. Further, the treasury took over the sale of salt, which brought it up to 300 thousand rubles. annual income, tobacco (this enterprise was unsuccessful) and other products that gave up to 100 thousand rubles. annually. As a result, at the end of Peter's reign, state revenues increased to more than 10 million.

Of course, this growth did not come easily to the people. Peter wanted to come to the aid of his subjects, improve their working conditions, and raise their well-being. He encouraged trade in every possible way. Knowing the poverty of Russian townspeople, he advised them to unite in companies and attracted nobles to trade. In addition, Peter encouraged the development of industry, he started factories, put them into operation, and then gave them to private hands. Under him, the mineral wealth of the Urals was first estimated, and coal was found in the South.

Peter I was looking for means of national enrichment and wished to raise labor productivity. To do this, he applied a policy of protectionism, patronizing every step of trade and production.

2.6 Reform of culture and life

The first secular school was opened in 1701 in Moscow's Sukharev Tower "School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences", which served as the basis for the Naval Academy in St. Petersburg. In the wake of it, medical, engineering, shipbuilding, mining, navigation, craft schools are being created. The emergence of a secular school required the creation of new textbooks. Of great importance was the creation in 1703 of "Arithmetic, that is, the science of numerals" by L. Magnitsky, which was a textbook on all sections of mathematics. Initially, when the need for specialists was especially great, the government allowed children of taxable estates into schools, but already at the end of the 17th century, schools acquire the character of estate noblemen. educational institutions. Next to them grows a system of theological seminaries.

For the printing of secular educational, scientific, political literature and legislative acts, new printing houses were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg. The development of printing was accompanied by the beginning of an organized book trade, the creation in 1714 state library, which formed the basis of the library of the Academy of Sciences, the emergence of large libraries in many aristocrats. Since 1703, the first Russian newspaper Vedomosti was systematically published, publishing information about the international, domestic and cultural life of that time, the course of hostilities.

The Kunstkamera, created by Peter I, laid the foundation for collecting collections of historical and memorial items and rarities, weapons, natural science collections, and so on. This was the beginning of the museum business in Russia.

The logical outcome of all the activities in the field of the development of science and education was the preparation for the opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. Since the country did not have a system secondary school, then its constituent parts were the academic university and the gymnasium. The opening of the academy, most of whose members were foreign scientists invited to Russia, took place at the very end of 1725.

From the first quarter of the 18th century, a transition to urban planning and regular city planning was carried out. The appearance of the city is no longer determined by religious architecture, but by palaces and mansions, houses of government agencies and aristocracy in painting, icon painting is replaced by a portrait. By the same time, there were attempts to create a Russian tetra. Festive holidays with illuminations, the performance of cantatas, the construction of triumphal arches have become more firmly established in life.

The old habitual long-sleeved clothes with long sleeves were banned and replaced with new ones. Camisoles, ties and frills, wide-brimmed hats, stockings, shoes, wigs quickly replaced old Russian clothes in the cities. The ban on wearing beards caused great resistance and discontent.

The establishment of ensembles marked the beginning of the establishment among the Russian nobility of "rules of good manners" and "noble behavior in society", and conversation in a foreign, mainly French language.

Changes in everyday life and culture were of great progressive significance. But they even more emphasized the separation of the nobility into a privileged noble estate, turned the use of the benefits and achievements of culture into one of the noble estate privileges and were accompanied by the widespread gallomania and contempt for the Russian language and Russian culture among the nobles.

Conclusion

Opinions about the reign and reforms of Peter diverged greatly already during his lifetime. A small group of Peter's closest associates were of the opinion that they were very successful. The masses of the people, on the contrary, were ready to agree with the schismatics' assertion that Peter was the Antichrist. Both those and others proceeded from that general idea that Peter made a radical revolution and created a new Russia, not like the old one.

A new army, navy, relations with Europe, finally, a European appearance, European technology - all these were facts that caught the eye: they were recognized by everyone, differing only in a fundamental way in their assessment. What some considered useful, others considered harmful to Russian interests; what some considered a great service to the fatherland, others saw in it a betrayal of other traditions. Both views could bring factual evidence in their favor, since both elements were mixed in Peter's reforms - both necessity and chance.

The scale of the changes that took place during the reign of Peter is enormous. The territory of the country, which, after many centuries of struggle, gained access to the sea and eliminated the state of political and economic isolation, entered the international arena, took a prominent place in the system of international relations and turned into a great European power, has grown significantly. At that time, a manufacturing industry arose in Russia, in which powerful metallurgy acquired special significance. The nature and extent of domestic and foreign trade and the volume of economic ties with other countries have changed radically. A powerful regular army and navy were created, a huge step was taken in the development of culture and education. A strong blow was dealt to the spiritual dictatorship of the church in culture, education and other areas of the country's life. The old routine patriarchal way of life was being broken.

All these changes took place in the conditions of the entry of feudal-serf relations into the stage of decomposition and the emergence in their depths of new bourgeois relations. Aimed at eliminating the technical, economic and cultural backwardness of the country, at accelerating and developing, they were of great progressive significance.

Their implementation was to a large extent connected with the activities and personality of Peter the Great, perhaps the most prominent statesman of pre-revolutionary Russia, with his exceptional determination, energy and courage with which he broke routine orders and overcame countless difficulties. An outstanding politician, military figure and diplomat, he was able to correctly assess the situation, highlight the main thing, draw the right conclusions from mistakes and failures.

Possessing broad knowledge, showing great interest in literature, history, law, art, crafts and natural sciences, he was well aware of military affairs, shipbuilding, navigation and artillery. He knew how to select active and energetic fans in each of the industries and areas. state activity.

But all changes and reforms were carried out on a feudal basis, by feudal methods, and were aimed at preserving and strengthening the feudal-absolutist system, the estate structure of society, estate rights and privileges of the ruling class. They were accompanied by the spread of feudal relations to new territories and new categories of the population, to new spheres of economic life. This hindered the formation of capitalist relations in the country, the economic and cultural development of the people and did not allow to eliminate the technical, economic and cultural backwardness of the nation. The negative side of changes and transformations was organically connected with the activities of Peter I himself, who was characterized by extreme cruelty, arbitrariness, substantiation and implementation of the principles of unlimited autocratic arbitrariness.

I think that Pushkin's lines could become the motto of that time: "My friend, let us dedicate our souls to the homeland with wonderful impulses!" Peter the Great spared neither strength nor health for the sake of the prosperity of Russia, he tried to make his associates and the entire Russian people follow his example.

Bibliography

1. History of the USSR from ancient times to the end of the XVIII century. Ed. B.A. Rybakova. M., Publishing house " graduate School", 1975.

2. Klyuchevsky V.O. " historical portraits”, M., Pravda Publishing House, 1991.

3. Pavlenko N.I. "Peter I and his time", M., Publishing house "Enlightenment", 1989.

4. Platonov S.F. "Textbook of Russian history for high school. Systematic course”, M., Publishing House “Link”, 1994.

5. Solovyov S.M. "Readings and stories on the history of Russia", M., Pravda Publishing House, 1989.

6. Syrov S.N. "Pages of history", M., Publishing house "Russian language", 1983.

The results of the reforming activities of Peter I. Reasons, goals and results of the reforming activities of Peter I Peter 1 specific results of their activities

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