The invasion of Batu troops into Europe. Western campaign of the Mongols: years, purpose and meaning, result, interesting facts. Batu's invasion of South Russia

At the beginning of 1241, the first reliable news reached the peoples of Europe that the wild Tatars, who had come out of the bowels of Asia and had passed through the whole Russian land with fire and sword, are now marching on them. A terrible anxiety gripped the whole of Europe. This fear was so great that many kings and dukes, countries and cities were paralyzed and could not take any measures to repel the common enemy.

For a quarter of a century, disturbing rumors about the formation of a centralized Mongol state headed by Genghis Khan, about the conquests of the Mongol khans, as a result of which China, Khorezm and other countries ceased to exist, reached Europeans in fragments. But, in particular, they were worried about the news of the war of the Mongols against the Polovtsians and Russian principalities. All this testified that a terrible and cruel enemy was not far off. Some European monarchs, whose possessions were in close proximity to the theater of operations, sent their scouts to the Mongols. Their information was clear and precise: the Mongols would not stop there, but would try to invade Europe. But no one took it seriously. Everyone wanted to believe that the war would pass him by. And in vain. Eight centuries ago, the ancestors of the Mongols - the legendary Huns - led by their king Attila, nicknamed the Scourge of God, made the whole of Europe tremble.
The most informed (due to circumstances) of the European monarchs was, of course, the Hungarian king Bela IV. In his letters, Batu Khan repeatedly demanded from him an expression of humility, tithes in everything and the expulsion of the Polovtsy, otherwise threatening a military invasion. That is why Bela sent numerous Franciscan and Dominican monks to the east, to the Volga, in order to obtain the necessary information "first hand". One of the monks, Julian, managed to collect extensive and fairly reliable information about the Mongols, which, unfortunately, was not properly evaluated. All the attention of the careless and arrogant Bela was riveted to strengthening the alliance with the Polovtsy and the fight against the separatism of the feudal lords, who were secretly and openly supported by the Austrian Duke Friedrich Babenberg.
At the beginning of the alarming year 1241, news of the Mongols reached not only Eastern, but also Central Europe. The Thuringian Landgrave Heinrich Raspe wrote to the Duke of Brabant, warning of the Mongol danger, which was becoming more and more clear-cut.
Europe in the thirteenth century. there was no centralized monarchy: the states were divided into kingdoms and duchies, which were only at enmity with each other. The largest state in Europe
- The Holy Roman Empire of the German nation - was a set of small kingdoms, electors and duchies.
On the eve of the Mongol invasion, Europe was divided into two warring camps: the Guelphs, supporters of the Pope, and the Ghibellines, adherents of the German Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen. “Therefore, the Mongols tried to use the conflict between these two forces for their political purposes. In particular, Batu Khan wrote in his letter to Frederick II: “I am going to take your place.” Friedrich wrote in response: “I know falconry well and am ready to become your falconer.”
But the Mongols, open and direct Mongols, untrained in ambiguous words, took the emperor's answer literally. In fact, Frederick, not being able to cross arms with the Mongols on the battlefield, decided to mock Batu Khan in order to somehow cheer himself up.
By the time of the Mongol invasion, the centuries-old conflict between the papal tiara and the imperial crown had reached its climax. Every emperor, like every pope, aspired to become the master of all of Europe. This desire did not bypass both Friedrich and Gregory. The representative of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, who was considered one of the most educated people of that time, in his book “Three scammers: Moses, Christ and Mohammed” not only criticized the founders of the faith, but also directly wrote that only a fool is able to believe that a virgin can give birth to a child . For this essay, the pope once again, for the third time, put the curse of the Catholic Church on the blasphemer.
The invasion of the Mongol hordes made Pope Gregory IX look around him differently. Putting personal ambitions aside, he suggested that Frederick, as a secular sovereign, lead the crusader army and move against the Mongols. Along with this, Gregory promised to take under his direct patronage all those who go on a crusade and forgive their sins. But dad did not go further than appeals.
Yes, and Friedrich, completely forgetting the warlike traditions of his ancestors, decided to seek happiness not in battle, but in flight. Having taken refuge in Sicily, he wrote to the English king:
"Thus fear and trembling arose among us, prompted by the fury of these swift invaders."
Gregory followed the most august example. Leaving the palace, where the vicars of Christ had lived for more than a thousand years, the pope fled to Lyon. It is difficult to describe the horror that gripped Europe. Kings and dukes, at the approach of the Mongols, were ready to abandon their subjects to the mercy of fate and flee somewhere far away.
There is a trend that interprets the Mongol invasion of Europe as Batu Khan's desire to punish the Hungarian king Bela and punish the Polovtsians. However, we have no right to disregard the testament of Genghis Khan, according to which the Mongols "should subjugate the whole earth and should not have peace with any people, if they were not first subdued."
Yes, and the monk Julian warned his king Bela:
The Tatars are conferring day and night on how to pass and capture the kingdom of the Christian Hungarians. For they, they say, have the intention to go to the conquest of Rome and beyond.
The victorious Mongol army of Batu Khan entered Europe in several directions. The nine-tailed black banner of Genghis Khan, Sulde, fluttered in the wind. The Mongols believed that the spirit of the Holy Warrior lives in the banner, which brings victory, therefore they sacredly honored and cherished it.
The essence of Subedei Baathur's plan, as always, was simple: he intended to defeat the European kingdoms one by one, preventing them from uniting forces. Two tumens of troops under the command of Genghisid Baydar Khan had the goal of invading Poland and Silesia and defeating the army of King Henry. Another chiigisid - Hadan - was supposed to capture Hungary from the south, cutting it off from the southern kingdoms and going to connect with the main forces. Batu the Magnificent himself, at the head of the main forces, headed straight for the heart of Hungary - Buda and Pest. The most important goal of Batu Khan was the elimination of Bela and the entire Kingdom of Hungary, which not only gave shelter to the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan and his 40 thousand tents, but also treacherously destroyed the Mongol embassies.
“Now I would like to emphasize the following: after the murder of the Mongol ambassadors and merchants by the Khorezmians, because of which the war began in Central Asia, the Mongols could generally stop sending parliamentarians to the enemy. Even a modern person would not condemn them for this. But the Mongols with enviable persistence continue to send ambassadors to every fortress, although the latter were killed in the cities of Balkh and Kozelsk, before the battle on the river. Kalka, etc. This time the Mongol ambassadors were killed by the Hungarians. What does it say? Great Mongols of the 13th century. persistently sought to establish new civilized rules for the conduct of international affairs in the wild world of that time. After all, it was only thanks to these rules that the arrivals of ambassadors P. Carpini, G. Rubruk and the traveler M. Polo with their brothers, who comfortably moved along the safe communications of the Mongol Empire, became possible.
Yes, no doubt, the grandson of Genghis Khan acted as the punisher. But he intended to begin the conquest of all of Europe as soon as he created a convenient foothold in its eastern part.
Poland was the first of the European kingdoms to experience the power of the Mongol weapons. Now the Europeans have the opportunity to get to know the steppes better: what are these notorious Mongols?
The Polish monarch Bolesław III, who had died before the Mongol invasion, divided his kingdom among four heirs. However, since then, strife has torn apart the once glorious and strong Poland, which has lost centralized power. King Bolesław IV, who inherited his father's throne, but did not have real power, ruled in Lesser Poland with the capital in Krakow and the largest city of Sandomierz. His uncle Konrad Mazovsky was the sovereign of modern Warsaw and its environs. Henry II got Greater Poland (the cities of Gosh, Poznan and Kalisz and nearby territories) and Silesia with its capital in Wroclaw. His brother Mieczysław, or Mieszko, ruled over two counties - Lower Silesia, or Oppole, and Ratibar.
Unable to unite to repulse the enemy, the Poles, nevertheless, killed the Mongol ambassadors who came to them, demanding, as usual, expressions of obedience. In January 1241, the corps of Baydar and Kaidu invaded Poland, crossed the Vistula and captured Lublin and Zavikhost , and one of the flying detachments with a fight reached Racibórz. A month later, the Mongols directed their attack on Sandomierz, which was taken and plundered, and on February 13, near Tursk, the Lesser Poland knights were defeated. But these raids were only reconnaissance.
In the early spring of 1241, the invasion of the entire Mongol army into Europe began. On March 12, at the head of the main forces, Batu Khan crossed the border of the Kingdom of Hungary. Thus, the Mongolian tumens invaded the territory of Hungary, Poland and Silesia (Shlensk), creating a threat to Dalmatia, Moravia, Croatia and even Germany and Italy.

While some are trying to prove that there was no conquest of Genghis Khan, and Batu is Alexander Nevsky in disguise, others are writing studies about this based on historical sources.

Here, for example, is a text describing Batu's campaign in Hungary.
The invasion of Batu's armies into Hungary began in March 1241. The Tatars easily overcame the so-called Russian Gates - the Veretsky Pass in the Carpathians, which separated Hungary and Russia. “They had forty thousand warriors armed with axes, who went ahead of the troops, felling the forest, laying roads and removing all obstacles from the path,” says Archdeacon Thomas of Split. - Therefore, they overcame the blockages, built by order of the king, with such ease, as if they were erected not from a pile of powerful fir trees and oaks, but composed of thin straws; in a short time they were scattered and burned, so that it was not difficult to pass them. When they met with the first inhabitants of the country, at first they did not show all their ferocious cruelty and, driving around the villages and taking booty, did not arrange big beatings.

But that was only the beginning. Tatar troops advanced on Hungary from several directions. Ogedei's son Kadan (who made a special appearance during this campaign) and the grandson of Chagadai Buri moved from Galicia, south of Batu's main forces. After passing through the forests “between Russia and Cumania” for three days, they captured the royal residence of Rodna, inhabited mainly by German miners who mined silver here, and 600 Germans, led by Count Aristald, “more skilled than other warriors”, joined their army (subsequently they will be resettled by Buri in the city of Talas [See the amendment in the comments on the name of the city], now Dzhambul, in Kazakhstan). Moving further through gorges and rapids, the Tatars unexpectedly approached the large episcopal city of Varada (now Oradea, in Romania). The deacon here was the Italian Rogerius, later Bishop of Split and Thessaloniki, the author of the “Lamentation Song” about the devastation of the Hungarian land - one of our main sources on the history of the Hungarian war. “Tatars ... quickly taking possession of the city and burning most of it, in the end they left nothing outside the walls of the fortress and, having captured the booty, killed young and old men and women in the squares, in houses and in the fields,” wrote Rogerius (he himself then hid from the Tatars in the forest, but later still captured by them). - ... Having done all this, the Tatars suddenly retreated, taking with them all the booty. Another Mongol commander, Bahatu, crossed the Seret River further south, in Moldavia; "having defeated the people who had gathered for battle, the Tatars began to completely occupy this land." As for Batu himself, he, as already mentioned, acted in the central direction. “The chief master of Batu, after he crossed the gate (Veretsky pass. - A.K.), began to burn villages, and his sword did not spare either sex or age.”

As always, detachments from previously conquered lands acted as part of the Tatar armies. Contemporaries, describing what was happening with horror, named first of all Cumans - Polovtsians, as well as other neighboring peoples. The Tatars, "united with the bloodthirsty people of the Komans, ravaged the country with terrible cruelty," the author of the Cologne Chronicle reported; “Most of this vile people, with an army consisting of all those who joined them, devastate Hungary with unheard-of cruelty,” Count Heinrich of Thuringia wrote to his father-in-law, the Duke of Brabant. The detachments of the Mordovians who acted (as in Poland) in the vanguard of the Mongol troops were especially ferocious. “Ahead of them are certain tribes called Mordans, and they destroy all people indiscriminately,” a certain Hungarian bishop reported to the Parisian bishop Wilhelm (Guillaume) III. “Not one of them dares to put on shoes on his feet until he kills a man ... Without hesitation, they devastated all the lands and destroyed everything that came across ...” “... Their number is increasing day by day,” a certain Franciscan brother reported about the Tatars from Cologne, - ... peaceful people who are defeated and subjugated as allies, namely a great many pagans, heretics and false Christians, [they] turn into their warriors. By "heretics" and "false Christians" the Latin authors-monks could also have in mind Christians of the Greek rite, that is, Orthodox Christians, first of all, probably, Alans and Russians. However, we can speak quite definitely about the participation of Russian detachments in the war in Hungary. Actually, the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle unequivocally makes it clear that the campaign in this country did not take place without the participation of Russian governors (recall the Kyiv thousand Dmitr). The “Rutenov” (Russians) are also mentioned as part of the Mongol army by the Croatian chronicler Foma Splitsky, a contemporary and eyewitness of the Tatar invasion: one of these “rutens” defected to the Hungarians on the eve of the decisive battle.

Already in early April, the Mongols' forces were ready to unite. Their forward detachments, as happened in all campaigns, acted against the main enemy forces concentrated at that time near the city of Pest (part of today's Budapest, the capital of Hungary). The Tatars “sent forward a cavalry detachment, which, approaching the Hungarian camp and teasing them with frequent sorties, incited them to fight, wanting to test whether the Hungarians had the courage to fight them,” wrote Foma Splitsky. King Bela, believing that his troops outnumbered the enemy, gave the order to move forward. As expected, the Tatars immediately retreated; the Hungarians began the pursuit and soon reached the Shaio (or Solo; Russian chroniclers called it the Solona River), the right tributary of the Tisza, where they met with the main forces of the Tatars. They were located on the opposite bank of the river, but in such a way that "they were not completely visible to the Hungarians, but only in part." The Hungarians were still very afraid of them. “Seeing that the enemy detachments had gone across the river,” Thomas continues, “[they] camped in front of the river ... The king ordered to set up tents not far from each other, but as close as possible. Having thus arranged the wagons and shields in a circle like camp fortifications, they all settled down as if in a very tight corral, as if covering themselves from all sides with wagons and shields. And the tents turned out to be heaped up, and their ropes were so intertwined and twisted that they completely entangled them all the way, so that it became impossible to move around the camp, and they all seemed to be tied. The Hungarians believed that they were in a fortified place, but it was the main reason for their defeat.

Here, on the banks of the Chaillot, near the town of Mohi, a battle took place that decided the fate of Hungary. It took place on April 11, 1241 - just two days after the equally fateful battle of Legnica, in which the forces of the Polish prince Henry were defeated. The coordination of actions of individual Mongolian detachments is amazing! In just three days, they defeated the armies of the strongest rulers of Central Europe and conquered two powerful and previously prosperous states!

The battle of Shio was extremely fierce, and success did not immediately come to the side of the Mongols. All the main leaders of the Mongol army, who were then in Hungary, took part in the battle - Batu himself, his first commanders Subedei and Buraldai, princes Kadan, Shiban and others. For us, the battle of Chaillot is of particular interest, since it was then that it was the only time during the entire Western campaign! - The sources reflected both the personal participation of Batu in hostilities, and his role in achieving victory. Researchers restoring the course of the battle were generally lucky. A detailed story about him has been preserved in various and completely unrelated sources - both Western, Latin, and Eastern - Persian and Chinese. These stories complement each other well, allowing you to see the key moments of the battle through the eyes of both the Hungarians themselves and their Tatar opponents. (This is also the only case of its kind in the history of the Western campaign.) Moreover, in describing many details, the sources are unanimous: they all agree that initially the preponderance of forces was on the side of King Bela; that the key moment of the battle was the battle for the bridge over the river; that, finally, personal intervention in the events of Batu significantly influenced their course. However, the overall picture of what was happening is restored with difficulty - and only thanks to a scrupulous comparison of sources, their "overlay" on each other. The actions of Batu are especially difficult to interpret. Let's talk about them in more detail, especially since the opportunity to look at it directly in a combat situation is given to us for the first and last time.

According to the testimony of Archdeacon Thomas of Split, on the eve of the battle, Batu, "the senior leader of the Tatar army", "climbing the hill, carefully examined the location of the Hungarian army." This reconnaissance predetermined the outcome of the battle. Returning to the army, Batu made an inspired speech, and in it he touched on the numerical superiority of the Hungarians, which obviously embarrassed his soldiers.

My friends, - this is how Batu's speech is conveyed by the Split chronicler, - we should not lose courage: even though there are a great many of these people, they will not be able to escape from our hands, because they are ruled carelessly and stupidly. After all, I saw that they, like a flock without a shepherd, were locked up as if in a tight pen.

Having said this, Batu "ordered all his detachments, built in their usual order, that same night to attack the bridge that connected the banks of the river and was not far from the camp of the Hungarians."

How reliable is this evidence? Answering this question, it should be taken into account that the theme of "carelessness" and "stupidity" of the rulers of the Hungarian land is the key one in the work of Archdeacon Thomas, who does not get tired of denouncing the inactivity and disunity of the Hungarian barons and King Bela himself. And therefore, the speech put into the mouth of the leader of the Tatar army, obviously, belongs to the Split chronicler himself; in any case, its content is fully consistent with his view of what is happening. However, Batu's speech before the battle (or even during the battle) is also reported by another contemporary of the events - the Franciscan monk Giovanni del Plano Carpini. The latter believed that if the Hungarians had not faltered at the decisive moment and "courageously resisted" the Tatars, they "would have gone beyond their limits, since the Tatars had such fear that everyone tried to escape." They were stopped by Batu, who, "drawing his sword before their face, resisted them." Batu's speech Plano Carpini conveys in such very lofty and not entirely clear terms:

Do not run, because if you run, then no one will escape, and if we must die, then it is better that we all die, since what Genghis Khan predicted will come true, that we should be killed; and if now the time has come for it, let us better endure it.

"And thus they were inspired, remained, and ruined Hungary."

Plano Carpini does not provide other details of the battle. But his companion, a member of the same embassy, ​​Benedict Polyak, on the contrary, reports a lot of interesting things about the battle of Chaillot, and one that finds a match in the sources coming from the camp of the Tatars themselves. Referring to their stories, Benedict also writes that Batu, after the Tatars fled from the Hungarians, "drawn his sword and forced them to return to battle." True, there is not a word about any speech by Batu.

Plano Carpini's version is even more bewildering than Thomas of Split's story. The words attributed by him to Batu seem completely unthinkable. In fact, the Europeans could talk about the inevitable death of the Mongols (and strongly hope for it!) But not the leader of the Mongol army. The mentioned imaginary prediction of Genghis Khan, the essence of which Plano Carpini reveals a little higher (“... they (the Mongols. - A. K.) must subjugate the whole earth ... until the time comes for their slaughter: namely, they fought for forty-two years and must first reign eighteen years After that, they are said to be defeated by another people, which, however, they do not know how they were foretold"), based on calculations of the supposed time of the reign of Antichrist and those apocalyptic peoples whose invasion should herald his appearance; these calculations were extracted by Christian writers from the works of the Fathers of the Church - both authentic and apocryphal, written on their behalf later. It is clear that the mythical predictions of the death of the Mongol kingdom based on such calculations could not have arisen among the Mongols themselves. And in general, this whole scene, written out in the traditions of the knightly saga, with fiery speeches (the domestic reader probably remembered the famous: “The dead have no shame ...” of the Russian prince Svyatoslav), does not at all fit with the customs of the Mongols, for whom retreat is a military technique, deserving of praise, and by no means of censure. A complete misunderstanding of the enemy, the logic of his actions forced European chroniclers to often describe what did not actually exist. So it is here: Batu's actions received an interpretation that did not correspond to reality at all. But something still stood behind his "speeches" addressed to the soldiers? And in fact, at some point, the outcome of the battle might seem unclear and the Mongols had the idea of ​​​​retreating or even fleeing?

The picture is partly clarified by Persian authors who were in the service of the Mongols, in particular Juvaini and Rashid ad-Din. They report the following. Intending to exterminate the "Kelars and Bashgirds", that is, the Christian Hungarians, Batu gathered a significant army. But the enemy army was also extremely large (Juvaini, and after him other authors give absolutely fantastic figures of 400 or even 450 thousand horsemen). At the forefront of his army, “for reconnaissance and patrol,” Batu sent his younger brother Shiban (according to Juvaini, with a 10,000-strong detachment). A week later, Shiban returned and informed his brother that there were twice as many enemies as the Mongols, "and all the people are brave and warlike." It was then, probably, that the scene occurred, described, but not understood by European chroniclers. After “the troops came close to each other,” continues Juvaini, Batu “climbed the hill and for a whole day did not speak a word to anyone, but prayed fervently and cried loudly. To Muslims (let me remind you that this is written by a Muslim author. - A.K.), he also ordered everyone to gather and pray. The next day they prepared for battle. There was a large river between them ... "Rashid ad-Din, who repeated the story of Juvaini, adds that Batu did so "according to the custom of Genghis Khan." A younger contemporary, Rashid al-Din Wassaf, somewhat colors the picture, but he does not report anything new in essence; moreover, in his presentation, the pagan Batu looks almost like a faithful Muslim: “having ascended to the top of the hill,” he “humbly and weakly prayed to the Almighty, the only giver of blessings, stayed awake all night with a heart that burned like a lamp, and with a soul that blew like the coolness of the morning, he passed the night until the day came.

So, it was not a matter of developing a plan for the upcoming battle, and not even of banal cheering on their warriors on the eve or during the fight. Batu's actions had a distinctly ritual character. But the Muslim authors did not quite correctly interpret them. Evidently, while performing rites on the top of the hill, Batu sought to achieve the favor of the heavenly powers - that very "Eternal Sky", by whose power and blessing the Mongols explained all their victories. At the same time, it should be taken into account that Batu offered up his prayers on one of the especially dark nights, almost on the new moon (that month it fell on the next night, April 12), and this time was especially noted by the Mongols. Important things “they begin at the beginning of the moon or at the full moon,” wrote Plano Carpini, and therefore they “call [the moon] the great emperor, kneel before her and pray.”

As you know, Genghis Khan and his descendants in the male line descended directly from Heaven itself (for one of the ancestors of Genghis Khan, Bodonchar, was born to a mother, Alan-Goa, when she was unmarried, - in her own words, from some heavenly light, penetrated into her bosom; this story was canonized by the Mongols and included in their sacred chronicle - "The Secret Tale") (2). Like the rulers of other nomadic communities, the Genghisids perceived themselves as intermediaries between the divine Heaven and their own subjects, believed in their ability to provide heavenly protection and prosperity to the people (modern researchers translate the medieval Mongolian term "suu jali", which denoted such a supernatural ability, with the word "charisma" ). Batu obviously demonstrated these qualities on the night before the battle, inspiring the soldiers to win. At the same time, he followed the custom of his grandfather Genghis Khan, who often did the same on the eve of important battles - the testimony of Rashid ad-Din on this score seems to be key to understanding the essence of what is happening. It is pertinent to note that the Chaillot episode seems to be the only description of such a ritual in the history of the Mongol conquests. And the fact that he is connected specifically with Batu is probably not accidental. The leader of the Western campaign managed to prove himself not just as a commander, but as a bearer of sacred properties, the very charisma of power that was able to ensure victory for his army. And this quality, in the eyes of the Mongols themselves, was much more significant than the simple ability to correctly lead the troops, especially since Batu did not lack talented and energetic commanders. Modern researchers even believe that the possession of such sacred qualities, such charisma initially contributed to the promotion of Batu from among other princes, and in particular to his superiority among the Jochids.

It is curious that another contemporary, the Western European writer of the mid-13th century, the Dominican monk Vincent of Bove, the author of the Historical Mirror, also reported on some prayer actions of Batu during his invasion of Hungary, but naturally interpreted them in a completely different way. , eschatological key. Batu, according to him, “sacrificed to the demons, asking them if he had the courage to walk on this earth. And the demon living inside the idol gave the following answer: “Go carelessly, for I am sending three spirits ahead of your deeds, thanks to the actions of which your opponents will not be able to resist you,” which happened. These spirits are: the spirit of discord, the spirit of distrust and the spirit of fear - these are the three unclean spirits, like frogs, about which it is said in the Apocalypse. (Compare in the description of the “end times” in the Revelation of John the Theologian: “And I saw three unclean spirits, like frogs, coming out of the mouth of the dragon and out of the mouth of the beast and out of the mouth of the false prophet: these are demonic spirits that work signs; they go out to the kings of the earth the whole world, to gather them for battle on that great day of God Almighty”; Rev. 16:13-14.)

But this is only one side of the matter. The role of Batu cannot be reduced only to ritual actions on the eve of the battle. Judging by the evidence of sources, he directly led (or at least tried to lead) his troops - and this, I repeat once again, is the only case of this kind in his entire biography, as it is presented in the written sources that have come down to us. But the actions of Batu as a commander received a far from unambiguous assessment in the sources. As it turns out, it is in them that the reasons for those failures that almost led to the defeat of the Mongols in the battle of Shio lie.

According to Foma Splitsky, a certain defector from the Russians warned the Hungarians about the plans of the Tatars. Upon learning of the impending attack, the brother of King Bela Koloman and Bishop Hugrin of Kaloch with their detachments approached the bridge over the Shio. It turned out that part of the Tatars had already begun crossing the river; a fight ensued. The Hungarians overturned the enemy with a swift blow, "put down a lot of them, and others, breaking through back to the bridge, were thrown into the river." An important detail is reported by the Franciscan monk Benedict Pole: Koloman "in the very first fight, he personally threw the main leader of the Tartars from the bridge over this river, along with a horse and weapons, into the abyss of death." This fact is confirmed by eastern sources, from which we learn the name of the deceased Mongol leader - he was the governor Batu Bahatu, who led one of the columns of the Mongol army during the invasion of Hungary (more on the circumstances of his death will be discussed later). Coloman "withstood their second and third onslaught," continues Benedict, "and fought until the Tartars fled."

Success at the first stage of the battle remained with the Hungarians - this is confirmed by all sources. But what happened next? Foma Splitsky gives such a version of events. After the detachment of Koloman and Hugrin moved away from the bridge, the Tatars pulled up seven siege weapons here and, throwing huge stones and shooting arrows, drove away the guards left by the Hungarians. So they managed to cross the river without hindrance, after which they rushed to the camp of the Hungarians, who did not expect an attack and for the most part behaved very carelessly (this, I recall, is a favorite topic of the Split chronicler). The Pole Benedict states the matter differently: according to his information, the outcome of the battle was decided by a roundabout maneuver that Batu undertook. The leader of the Mongols “sent an army across the river in its upper reaches at a distance of one or two days of travel, so that they unexpectedly attacked the opponents fighting on the bridge from the rear ... As a result, the outcome of the case took an unexpected turn. And after the Hungarians ignored the warning of King Koloman, the Tartars crossed the bridge. Sources of eastern origin also report on the roundabout maneuver of the Mongol troops; however, it is not entirely clear whether it took place downstream or upstream of the river.

In the future, the battle unfolded at the very camp of the Hungarians. This had fatal consequences for them. “A large Tatar horde, as if in a round dance, surrounded the entire camp of the Hungarians,” says Foma Splitsky. - Some, pulling their bows, began to shoot arrows from all sides, others hurried to set fire to the camp in a circle. And the Hungarians, seeing that they were surrounded by enemy detachments from everywhere, lost their mind and prudence and no longer understood at all how to deploy their orders, or how to raise everyone to battle, but, stunned by such a great misfortune, rushed around in a circle, like sheep in a pen, seeking salvation from wolf teeth." Terrified, they rushed to escape - but then they came across “another evil, arranged by them and well known to them. Since the approaches to the camp, due to tangled ropes and piled up tents, turned out to be very risky blocked, then during a hasty flight, some pressed on others, and the losses from the stampede, arranged by their own hands, seemed to be no less than those that were committed by the enemies with their arrows " . In this situation, the Tatars resorted to another trick that they often used: they “as if they opened a certain passage for them and allowed them to leave. But they did not attack them, but followed them from both sides, not allowing them to turn either there or there. And when the Tatars saw that the Hungarians retreating in disarray “are already exhausted by the difficult road, their hands cannot hold weapons, and their weakened legs are not able to run further, then they began to hit them with spears from all sides, cut them with swords, sparing no one, but brutally destroying everyone ... ”The miserable remnants of the Hungarian army were pressed against some kind of swamp, and those who escaped the sword of the Tatars drowned in the quagmire. Bishops Khugrin Kalochsky, Matvey Esztergomsky, Gregory Dyorsky, many other magnates and without the number of ordinary soldiers perished in this terrible battle. The brave brother of the king Koloman, seriously wounded at the beginning of the battle, fled to Pest, and then went across the Drava River to Croatia (after a short time he died from his wounds). As for King Bela IV, he, having barely escaped death or captivity, found refuge in the possessions of the Austrian Duke Frederick II Babenberg, but he simply robbed him, luring the amount of 10 thousand marks, and then, as a pledge of this amount, taking from his area in the west of Hungary. From the Austrian possessions, the king moved to Zagreb, where he remained throughout the summer and autumn, and by winter, fearing the Tatars, he fled with his family to the coast of Dalmatia and took refuge on one of the islands of the Adriatic Sea.

A look at what is happening from the other side is presented by Juvaini and Rashid ad-Din. According to their version, the decisive role in the victory of the Mongols was played, firstly, by the perseverance and determination of the detachments of Shiban and Buraldai operating in the vanguard, and secondly, by the same roundabout maneuver of Batu, which we have already spoken about.

That same night, Batu “sent one part of the army around,” says Juvaini, “and the army of Batu himself crossed the river from this side. Shibakan, Batu's brother, personally moved into the middle of the battle and made several attacks in a row. The enemy troops, being strong, did not budge, but that army (sent around) went around them from behind. Then Shibakan with all his army hit them at once, rushed to the fences of the royal tents, and they cut the ropes of the tents with swords (a detail known to us from the story of Thomas of Split. - A.K.) (3). When they overturned the fences of the royal tents, the army of the Kelars (Hungarians. - A.K.) was confused and fled; no one escaped from this army ... It was one of the many great deeds and terrible battles. Rashid ad-Din adds that Batu, together with Emir Buraldai (whose name Juvaini does not mention), crossed the river himself at night; Buraldai, on the other hand, undertook an "attack with all the troops at once." The Mongols “rushed to the tent of the Kelar (king. - A.K.), who was their king, and cut the ropes with swords. As a result of the fall of the tent, their army (Hungarians. - A.K.) lost heart and turned to flight. Like a brave lion that rushes at its prey, the Mongols chased them, attacked and killed them, so that they destroyed most of that army. (Subsequently, the richly decorated tent of the Hungarian king served Batu himself.) Another detail, though hardly reliable, is contained in the “Book of Victories” by the 15th-century Persian writer Sheref ad-Din Ali Yazdi. The latter reports that Batu "personally entered the battle itself and made several attacks in a row." However, it is unlikely that Yazdi had any unique sources on the history of the Hungarian war, from where he could extract this information. He used the writings of authors known to us (primarily the "Collection of Chronicles" by Rashid al-Din), and the news of Batu's personal participation in the battle was most likely contrived by him.

Well, the picture is impressive and, at first glance, quite objective. We could limit ourselves to it - if we did not have at our disposal another source that sheds light on the circumstances of the defeat of the Hungarians hidden from prying eyes. It turns out that there was some dispute between the main commanders of the Mongols, even a conflict, and Batu's actions almost led to disaster. Fortunately for the Mongols and unfortunately for their opponents, along with Batu, a commander who had an exceptional understanding of the situation and a genuine military genius participated in the battle.

What remained outside the knowledge of Latin chroniclers and Persian historians is described in the "Biography of Subedei", which is read in the Chinese chronicle "Yuan-shih". According to this source, Subedei was at the forefront of the army that fought in Hungary, “together with the Chuvans (here: members of the Golden Family. - A.K.) Batu, Hulagu (whose name is not mentioned in other sources in connection with the Western campaign - A. K.), Shiban and Kadan. All these commanders advanced "on separate five roads." The clash with the main forces of King Bela really caused confusion among the leaders of the Mongols. "The army of the king is full of strength, we will not be able to move easily," they said. Then Subedei “put forward an excellent plan”, the essence of which was to lure the Hungarian army to the river (its name is given in a Chinese source as Ho-nin, but in terms of meaning, we are undoubtedly talking about the Shaio River). It was Subedei, and not Batu, who owned the idea of ​​a detour; he commanded the troops that were moved behind enemy lines. “The troops of all the princes were in the upper reaches, where shallow water and horses could wade, in addition, there was a bridge in the middle,” the author of his biography in Yuan-shi explains Subedei's intention. - In the lower reaches, the water is deep. Subedei wanted to tie rafts for a secretive, underwater (? - A.K.) crossing, leading to the enemy's grasp from behind. An indispensable condition for success, as always with the Mongols, was to be the synchronism of the actions of individual Mongolian detachments - both the one that attacked the Hungarian units defending the bridge in the forehead, and the one that came in from behind and had to cross the river downstream, where it least expected by the Hungarians. However, this time there was no concerted action. Batu hastened - perhaps overestimating his own strength, or perhaps not wanting to share the laurels of the winner with his elderly, but still undefeated mentor. The Chinese source directly blames the “zhuvan” Batu for hasty and ill-considered actions that led to excessive losses among the attackers, and not only among the “subjugated peoples”, but also among the Mongols themselves: “Without waiting for the crossing, the zhuvan was the first to ford the river for battle. Batu's army began to fight for the bridge, but instead of using it, every thirtieth of the soldiers drowned; along with them, his subordinate commander Bahatu died. Immediately after the crossing, the Zhuwang, in view of the increasing army of the enemy, wanted to demand the return of Subedei, belatedly counting on him. Subedei said this: “Van wants to return - let him return. Until I reach the city of Pest on the Danube (both names are given in transcription corresponding to the Hungarian original. - A.K.) - I will not return!” and ran towards the city. (Here the Chinese source is somewhat ahead of the events: the city of Pest was taken by the Mongols after the defeat of the Hungarian forces at Shaio. - A.K.) All the princes also went to the city, as a result of which they attacked together, captured it and returned back. When the victory was finally won and the detachments united, Batu made claims to Subedei:

During the battle near the Ho-nin River, Subedei was late to help, my Bahatu was killed.

But Subedey dismissed the accusations against him, essentially convicting Batu of not understanding the elementary truths of the military tactics of the Mongols:

Although Zhuwang knew that the upper reaches were shallow, he still took possession of the bridge to cross and fight, not knowing that I had not yet completed tying the rafts in the lower reaches. And today, you know, he says to himself - I was late, and he thinks that this is the reason.

We must pay tribute to Batu: he managed to admit his own wrong. (“Then Batu also figured out how it was,” the source says.) Later, at the traditional gathering of princes and emirs, when everyone “drank mare’s milk and grape wine,” Batu confirmed this: “Speaking about the events during the campaign against the king , Batu said this: “Everything that was captured at that time is the merit of Subedei!”

It is worth noting that subsequently Batu always paid tribute to both Subedei himself and his son Uryankhatai, and, in turn, could count on their support, including in delicate matters that were very important for him and concerned his relationship with relatives. If he was distinguished by vindictiveness, then to the same extent he possessed the ability to appreciate people for true merits. This character trait - inherent only to truly outstanding politicians - invariably brought him dividends.

Notes

1. The article is an abridged fragment from the book: Karpov A. Yu. Baty. M., 2011 (ZhZL series). References and references can also be found there.

2. This story, from the words of the Tatars themselves, was known in other countries; see the stories of Rashid ad-Din and the Armenian historian, contemporary of the events of Kirakos Gandzaketsi.

3. In all likelihood, it was this battle that was preserved in the Khiva legends, recorded in the 17th century by the Khiva khan and historian Abu-l-Gazi, a descendant of Shiban. These legends also told about how brother Batu chopped iron chains and wooden carts that surrounded the enemy camp; True, the capital of Russia, Moscow, is named as the place of the battle (an obvious anachronism). The Persian author of the early 14th century, Vassaf, following mainly Juvaini, names instead of Shiban - obviously by mistake - the son of Batu Sartak: the latter “with one fog rushed towards the enemy; this party went down the side of the mountain just like a mountain stream. Like a predetermined disaster falling on people, which no one is able to repel, they rushed to the enemy’s camp and cut the ropes of the tent fences with swords ... ".

abstract

Topic: Mongol invasion of Europe and its consequences for Russia

Introduction

The XIII century for Russia (Rus) is the struggle of the Russian people for their independence against the Mongolian, German, Swedish, Danish, Hungarian and Polish feudal lords who took up arms; in the end, the significance of these events is difficult to overestimate. One has only to think about the consequences of the Mongol victory: the ruin of prosperous countries with ancient culture, (China, Persia), the destruction of the magnificent kingdom of Khorezm into a plain, the destruction of the best Russian cities with their developing civilization, massacre and plunder of property, was a stunning blow that deafened Russian people and disrupted the normal continuation of economic and political life for many years.

Expansion was one of the important and fateful moments in the history of mankind. In terms of the extent of its destruction and influence on further events, it may be equal to the barbarian attacks of the 5th century, which overturned the Roman Empire, putting an end to the ancient world.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion, the campaigns of 1237-1238 and 1240-1242, without any doubt can be considered a huge disaster for Russia

The consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the campaigns of 1237-1238 and 1240-1242 are difficult to consider from a positive side. But, nevertheless, Russia has never become the same, for 200 years, together with the people, the principles of life of which did not fit into the framework of the consciousness of the Russian people, were sharply polar. Regardless of the assessment of the past centuries, it must be said that its consequences were enormous and determined the future path of the Russian state in many areas of its development.

In the abstract, I will consider: the beginning, development and final results of the Tatar-Mongol invasion of Russia and European countries.

MAIN PART

1. The formation of the Mongolian state

In the XII century. Mongolian tribes occupied the steppe territory in the valleys of the rivers Onon and Kerulen. The Mongols were hunters and cattle breeders, raising sheep and horses. As the number of livestock increased between individual Mongol clans, clashes began over pastures, which escalated into bloody wars. During these clashes, a native of the Noyon clan Temuchin advanced. Having united his father's old friends around him, Temujin completely slaughtered the Tatars, and then dealt with his comrades-in-arms, who stood in the way of sole power. In 1206, a congress of the Mongol nobility (kurultai) proclaimed Temuchin the great kagan of all Mongols - Chizgis Khan. The term Mongol-Tatars, common in historical literature, is a combination of the self-name of the people with the term that this people was designated by its neighbors.

From 1206 to 1211 Genghis Khan waged wars of conquest in North Asia. He subjugated the Buryats, Yakuts, Kirghiz, Tanguts, Uighurs, conquered Primorye.

In 1211-1218. Mongols conquered Northern China (Jin Empire), Korea. At that time, the Mongols did not go to the populous and waterlogged South China (Song Empire). In China, the Mongols mastered military equipment (siege engines). In the course of the conquest of China, the principles of building the Mongol army, fixed in the law of Genghis Khan - Yasa, were finally formed. Warriors united in tens-hundreds-thousands-tumens. A dozen were warriors from one aul (clan). There was a strict discipline: for cowardice in battle, one was executed by the entire dozen. A coward was not taken to the warriors, he became an outcast. Each warrior had two horses, leather armor, two bows with arrows, a saber, a battle ax, a light spear, and in heavy cavalry, a heavy spear and sword.

In 1219, the Mongols invaded the largest Central Asian state - Khorezm. Khorezm Shah did not enjoy the support of the clergy and local khans. He did not dare to open battle, but preferred the defense of fortresses. The Mongols, numerically inferior to the Khorezmians, defeated them in parts. Many cities voluntarily opened the gates, believing the promises of the Mongols to spare the inhabitants. Everywhere, the Mongols drove artisans and young women into slavery, and killed the rest.

The Mongol conquest led the flourishing Central Asia to a long decline. The irrigation system was destroyed, desertification of the area occurred. Farming was supplanted by nomadic pastoralism.

Pursuing the Khorezm Shah, the advanced troops of the Mongols (tumen Subudai-Bagatur and Jebe-Noyon) bypassed the Caspian Sea from the south and invaded Transcaucasia. Through the Derbent Gorge, they went to the North Caucasus, where they met with the Polovtsians and Alans (ancestors of the Ossetians). Having assured the Polovtsy that they were fighting only against the Alans, the Mongols first defeated the Alans, and then the Polovtsy. After that, they invaded the Black Sea region, captured Sudak (Surozh) in the Crimea.

Opinion: According to the above history of the formation of the Mongol tribes and further conquest, we can see that in the leader of the tribes, Genghis Khan from the Temujin clan, there was no quality of mercy - he “cut out” entire nations. Behind him was strength and confidence. The goal is conquest, but the conquered territories were destroyed, desertified, people were forced to do not what they know how to do better, but what seemed right to their conquerors.

2. Battle on Kalka

The Polovtsy, pressed by the Mongols, turned to the Russians for help. The Russian princes decided to help the Polovtsy and meet an unknown enemy outside their own land. They marched towards the Mongols. With a false retreat, they lured the Russians and Polovtsians to the banks of the river. Kalki. In June 1223 there was a battle on the Kalka. The troops of the Russian princes acted separately. They were carried away by the pursuit of the retreating light cavalry of the Mongols and came under attack from their main forces. The troops of Mstislav Udaly, Daniil of Galicia and Mstislav of Chernigov were defeated. The Kyiv regiments of Mstislav the Old did not take part in the battle, but were surrounded and forced to surrender. The Mongols laid boards on the captive princes and strangled them, feasting on them. However, the Mongols did not go to Russia then, because they did not have sufficient forces.

In 1227 Genghis Khan died. Before his death, he divided his empire into uluses. The western ulus went to his grandson Batu Khan (Batu). According to the will of Genghis Khan, the Mongols were to conquer the whole world up to the "Sea of ​​Franks" in the west.

Opinion: The battle on the Kalka once again proved the strength of the Tatar-Mongol. The fragmentation and lack of a unified plan of action, the Russians and the Polovtsy suffered a crushing defeat. Kalka is the first battle between the Russians and the Mongols, but unfortunately it did not serve as a lesson to the Russian princes and did not prepare Russia for a meeting with a formidable enemy.

3. The invasion of Batu in North-Eastern Russia

In 1235, the new kagan Ogedei and kurultai decided on a new campaign in Europe. The forces of other uluses were sent to help Batu Khan. In 1236, the Mongols ravaged the Volga Bulgaria and finally defeated the Polovtsy.

In December 1237, the Mongols invaded the border Ryazan principality. After 6 days of siege, Ryazan fell. The city was severely destroyed. Only a part of the Ryazans retreated to the Oka and united with the Suzdal troops. In the battle of Kolomna, the Russians were defeated.

The Mongols took and burned Kolomna, Moscow, besieged Vladimir. Grand Duke Yuri, leaving his family in Vladimir, retreated to the City River (north-west of Yaroslavl), where he tried to gather all the forces of North-Eastern Russia and give the Mongols a decisive battle. After a four-day siege, the Mongols broke through the oak walls of Vladimir and took the city by storm. The inhabitants and the family of the Grand Duke, who tried to hide in the Assumption Cathedral, were killed. After that, part of the Mongols moved to the Sit, and part - besieged Torzhok on the way to Novgorod.

On March 4, 1238, the Russians suffered a severe defeat in the City, the Grand Duke died. Torzhok, besieged by part of the Mongol army, fell after a heroic two-week resistance. The Mongols moved towards Novgorod, but did not reach it for about 100 versts and turned around. Apparently, the refusal to take Novgorod was due to the fear of mudslides and the fact that the Mongols had already secured their campaign in Europe from a Russian blow to the rear. In addition, the wooded area of ​​northern Russia was not suitable for a nomadic economy. The Mongols were not going to live here, and they had already secured the receipt of tribute.

On the way back, the Mongols moved in a wide chain of battles, ruining the cities. Unexpectedly, stubborn resistance (7 weeks!) was put up by the small town of Kozelsk ("evil city"). The Mongols managed to take it only after receiving reinforcements and siege engines.

Opinion: Batu planned his march on North-Eastern Russia in winter, which ensured the maneuverability of his troops and the surprise of striking, since the princes were not ready for a major invasion in winter. It should be noted that the morale of the Mongol army played a decisive role in the victories, people were confident in their abilities and believed in their superiority, while Russia was in a state of fragmentation and decline. The clash of these two factors produced disastrous results.

4. The invasion of Batu in South Russia

It began in the spring of 1239. Pereyaslavl fell in March, and Chernigov fell in October. In the autumn of 1240, the Mongols besieged Kyiv, which at that time belonged to Daniil of Galicia. Destroying the walls, the Mongols broke into the city and the battle unfolded on its streets. The last defenders gathered in the Church of the Tithes, but it collapsed (according to the chronicle - under the weight of people gathered on its roof, and more likely - under the blows of wall-beating machines). Kyiv fell.

Opinion: Northeastern Russia lies in ruins, but the princes of Southern Russia show carelessness and do nothing to protect their cities.

The result - fearing new invasions and destruction, the Russian princes accepted vassal dependence on the Horde. The invasion of Batu became the largest catastrophe in the history of Russia, led to the defeat of the East Slavic world. This invasion deprived Russia of further favorable historical prospects.

5. Campaign of Batu to Europe

After the defeat of Russia, the Mongol hordes moved to Europe. Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and the Balkan countries were devastated. The Mongols reached the borders of the German Empire, reached the Adriatic Sea. However, at the end of 1242 they suffered a series of setbacks in Bohemia and Hungary. From distant Karakorum came the news of the death of the great Khan Ogedei - the son of Genghis Khan. It was a convenient excuse to stop the difficult campaign. Batu turned his troops back to the east.

A decisive world-historical role in the salvation of European civilization from the Mongol hordes was played by the heroic struggle against them by the Russian and other peoples of our country, who took the first blow from the invaders. In fierce battles in Russia, the best part of the Mongol army perished. The Mongols lost their offensive power. They could not but reckon with the liberation struggle unfolding in the rear of their troops.

Neva battle. The offensive of the knights especially intensified due to the weakening of Russia, which bled in the fight against the Mongol conquerors.

In July 1240, the Swedish feudal lords tried to take advantage of the plight of Russia. The Swedish fleet with an army on board entered the mouth of the Neva. Having risen along the Neva to the confluence of the Izhora River, the knightly cavalry landed on the shore. The Swedes wanted to capture the city of Staraya Ladoga, and then Novgorod.

Prince Alexander Yaroslavich, who was 20 years old at that time, with his retinue quickly rushed to the landing site. "We are few," he addressed his soldiers, "but God is not in power, but in truth." Covertly approaching the Swedes' camp, Alexander and his warriors hit them, and a small militia led by Misha from Novgorod cut off the Swedes' path along which they could flee to their ships.

Alexander Yaroslavich was nicknamed Nevsky by the Russian people for the victory on the Neva. The significance of this victory is that it stopped the Swedish aggression to the east for a long time, retained Russia's access to the Baltic coast. (Peter I, emphasizing the right of Russia to the Baltic coast, founded the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in the new capital on the site of the battle.)

Battle on the Ice. In the summer of the same 1240, the Livonian Order, as well as Danish and German knights, attacked Russia and captured the city of Izborsk. Soon, due to the betrayal of the posadnik Tverdila and part of the boyars, Pskov was taken (1241). Strife and strife led to the fact that Novgorod did not help its neighbors. And the struggle between the boyars and the prince in Novgorod itself ended with the expulsion of Alexander Nevsky from the city. Under these conditions, individual detachments of the crusaders found themselves 30 km from the walls of Novgorod. At the request of the veche, Alexander Nevsky returned to the city.

Together with his retinue, Alexander liberated Pskov, Izborsk and other captured cities with a sudden blow. Having received the news that the main forces of the Order were coming at him, Alexander Nevsky blocked the way for the knights, placing his troops on the ice of Lake Peipus. The Russian prince showed himself as an outstanding commander. The chronicler wrote about him:

"Winning everywhere, but we won't win at all." Alexander deployed troops under the cover of a steep bank on the ice of the lake, eliminating the possibility of enemy reconnaissance of his forces and depriving the enemy of freedom of maneuver. Considering the formation of the knights as a “pig” (in the form of a trapezoid with a sharp wedge in front, which was heavily armed cavalry), Alexander Nevsky arranged his regiments in the form of a triangle, with a point resting on the shore. Before the battle, part of the Russian soldiers were equipped with special hooks to pull the knights off their horses.

On April 5, 1242, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi, which was called the Battle of the Ice. The knight's wedge broke through the center of the Russian position and hit the shore. The flank attacks of the Russian regiments decided the outcome of the battle: like flares, they crushed the knightly "pig". The knights, unable to withstand the blow, fled in panic. The Novgorodians drove them for seven versts across the ice, which by the spring had become weak in many places and collapsed under heavily armed soldiers. The Russians pursued the enemy, "flashed, rushing after him, as if through air," the chronicler wrote. According to the Novgorod chronicle, "400 Germans died in the battle, and 50 were taken prisoner" (German chronicles estimate the death toll at 25 knights). The captured knights were led in disgrace through the streets of the Lord Veliky Novgorod.

The significance of this victory lies in the fact that the military power of the Livonian Order was weakened. The response to the Battle of the Ice was the growth of the liberation struggle in the Baltic states. However, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, the knights at the end of the thirteenth century. captured a significant part of the Baltic lands.

Russian lands under the rule of the Golden Horde. In the middle of the XIII century. one of the grandsons of Genghis Khan, Khubulai moved his headquarters to Beijing, founding the Yuan dynasty. The rest of the Mongol state was nominally subordinate to the great khan in Karakorum. One of the sons of Genghis Khan - Chagatai (Jagatai) received the lands of most of Central Asia, and the grandson of Genghis Khan Zulagu owned the territory of Iran, part of Western and Central Asia and Transcaucasia. This ulus, singled out in 1265, is called the Hulaguid state after the name of the dynasty. Another grandson of Genghis Khan from his eldest son Jochi Batu founded the state of the Golden Horde.

Russian lands and the Golden Horde. The Russian lands devastated by the Mongols were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. The unceasing struggle waged by the Russian people against the invaders forced the Mongol-Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative authorities in Russia. Russia retained its statehood. This was facilitated by the presence in Russia of its own administration and church organization. In addition, the lands of Russia were unsuitable for nomadic cattle breeding, in contrast, for example, to Central Asia, the Caspian Sea, and the Black Sea region.

In 1243, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (12381246), the brother of the Grand Duke of Vladimir, who was killed on the Sit River, was called to the Khan's headquarters. Yaroslav recognized vassal dependence on the Golden Horde and received a label (letter) for the great reign of Vladimir and a golden plaque ("paydzu"), a kind of pass through the Horde territory. Following him, other princes reached out to the Horde.

To control the Russian lands, the institution of Baskak governors was created, the leaders of the Mongol Tatar military detachments, who monitored the activities of the Russian princes. The denunciation of the Baskaks to the Horde inevitably ended either with the summoning of the prince to Sarai (often he lost his label, and even his life), or with a punitive campaign in the unruly land. Suffice it to say that only in the last quarter of the 13th century. 14 similar campaigns were organized in Russian lands.

Some Russian princes, in an effort to get rid of your greasy dependence on the Horde as soon as possible, took the path of open armed resistance. However, the forces to overthrow the power of the invaders were still not enough. So, for example, in 1252 the regiments of the Vladimir and Galician-Volyn princes were defeated. This was well understood by Alexander Nevsky, from 1252 to 1263 the Grand Duke of Vladimir. He set a course for the restoration and recovery of the economy of the Russian lands. The policy of Alexander Nevsky was also supported by the Russian Church, which saw a great danger in Catholic expansion, and not in the tolerant rulers of the Golden Horde.

In 1257, the Mongolotatars undertook a census of the population "recording in number." Besermen (Muslim merchants) were sent to the cities, who were given the collection of tribute. The size of the tribute ("exit") was very large, only the "royal tribute", i.e. tribute in favor of the khan, which was first collected in kind, and then in money, amounted to 1300 kg of silver per YEAR. The permanent tribute was supplemented by "requests" for one-time requisitions in favor of the khan. In addition, deductions from trade duties, taxes for "feeding" the khan's officials, etc. went to the khan's treasury. In total there were 14 types of tributes in favor of the Tatars.

Census of the population in the 50-60s of the XIII century. marked by numerous uprisings of Russian people against the Baskaks, Khan's ambassadors, tribute collectors, scribes. In 1262, the inhabitants of Rostov, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Suzdal, and Ustyug dealt with the tribute collectors, the Besermen. This led to the fact that the collection of tribute from the end of the XIII century. was handed over to the Russian princes.

Opinion: The incessant struggle of the Russians against the Mongol invaders played a historical role; this did not allow the occupying army to gain power and strike at Europe A.S. Pushkin rightly wrote: "A great destiny was determined for Russia: its boundless plains absorbed the power of the Mongols and stopped their invasion on the very edge of Europe ... the emerging enlightenment was saved by torn to pieces by Russia." The struggle that the Russian people waged against the tormentors prompted the Tatars to refuse to create their own administrative authorities on the territory of Russia, thereby we retained our statehood.

In the second half of the XIV century, the expansion of the Moscow principality continued. The Golden Horde, on the contrary, was weakening, exhausted by the civil strife of the khans. From 1360 to 1380, 14 rulers of the Horde were replaced. In the Russian lands, popular resistance to the Tatar-Mongol yoke intensified. In 1374, an uprising broke out in Nizhny Novgorod. The inhabitants of the city killed the ambassadors of the Horde Khan and their entire detachment.

From 1359 to 1389 the grandson of Ivan Kalita Dmitry Ivanovich reigned in Moscow. He was a talented military leader and a courageous patriot. If Ivan Kalita obtained peace from the Horde for the Russian people with gold, then his grandson led the people's struggle against the Mongol conquerors. In 1378, the Tatar governor Begich attacked the Ryazan principality with a large army. Dmitry Ivanovich came to the aid of Ryazan. On the banks of the Vozha River, a tributary of the Oka, his soldiers surrounded and almost completely destroyed the Tatar troops.

The Golden Horde Khan Mamai decided to deal with recalcitrant Moscow. He decided to repeat Batu's invasion. Mamai gathered hundreds of thousands of soldiers, entered into a military alliance with the Lithuanian prince Jagiello, and in August 1380 set out on a campaign against Moscow. Prince Dmitry, having learned about the movement of the Tatar troops, called on the Russian princes to unite to fight for liberation from the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

Dmitri's call to Moscow was attended by princely squads and militias of peasants and artisans from Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Kostroma, Murom and other principalities. About 150 thousand horse and foot soldiers gathered.

Scouts sent by Prince Dmitry found that Mamai was standing near Voronezh, waiting for the approach of Jagiello's troops. Dmitry decided to prevent the connection of enemy forces. On the night of September 8, 1380, Russian troops crossed the Don and settled on the plain, which was called the Kulikovo field. (Fig. 1) The left flank of the Russian army, on which the main blow of the Tatars was supposed to fall, passed into the swampy banks of the Smolka. The right flank was also protected by the swampy banks of the Nepryadva River, as well as heavily armed Pskov and Polotsk cavalry squads. In the center of the big army, all the city regiments were brought together. The advanced regiment was still part of a large regiment, while the task of the sentry regiment was to start a battle and return to duty. Both regiments were supposed to weaken the force of the enemy strike on the main forces. Behind the large regiment was a private reserve (cavalry). In addition, a strong ambush regiment was created from the elite cavalry under the command of experienced military leaders - governor Dmitry Bobrok-Volynsky and Serpukhov prince Vladimir Andreevich. This regiment performed the task of a general reserve and was secretly located in the forest behind the left flank of the main forces.

The sun came up and dispersed the fog. Hordes of Mamai appeared in the distance. As usual, the battle began with a duel. The Russian warrior Peresvet and the Tatar Chelubey, having met on fast horses, pierced each other with spears and both fell dead. The Tatars fell like a continuous avalanche on the front regiment. The Russians accepted the battle without flinching. Soon the front regiment was destroyed. A mass of Tatars on foot and on horseback crashed into a large regiment led by Prince Dmitry. The Tatar cavalry hit the left flank of the Russian troops. The regiment of the left hand began to retreat. The Tatars broke through to the rear of a large regiment. At this time, an ambush cavalry regiment under the command of Prince Vladimir of Serpukhov and Volyn governor Dmitry Bobrok flew into the enemy like a whirlwind. Horror gripped the Tatars. It seemed to them that they were attacked by a huge fresh force. Mamai's cavalry took to flight and crushed their infantry. Mamai watched the battle from a high hill. Seeing the defeat of his troops, he threw a rich tent and rode away. The Russians pursued the enemy to the Beautiful Mecha River.

Moscow greeted the winners with the ringing of bells and general rejoicing. For the glorious victory, the people nicknamed Prince Dmitry - Dmitry Donskoy. The Battle of Kulikovo was of great importance. The Russian people realized that by united forces it was possible to achieve victory over foreign invaders. The prestige of Moscow as the center of the liberation movement rose even higher. The process of unification of Russian lands around Moscow accelerated.

Opinion: The Battle of Kulikovo and its victory gave a morale to the Russian people who had already lost faith in their strength and, in my opinion, set them up for further victories.

After the annexation of the Novgorod land, the Moscow principality turned into a large and strong state. By this time, the Golden Horde had collapsed. The Kazan, Astrakhan, Crimean and Siberian khanates separated from it, living in constant enmity among themselves. Having concluded an alliance with the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray, Ivan III began to prepare for a break with the Horde. In 1478, Ivan III, in the presence of the Moscow boyars and Horde ambassadors, broke and trampled on the agreement with the Horde, declaring that he would no longer obey the khan and pay tribute. Khan's ambassadors were expelled from Moscow.

Khan Akhmat of the Golden Horde decided to fight against recalcitrant Moscow. In the summer of 1480, with a large army, he approached the Ugra River, which flowed into the Oka near Kaluga. The Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir IV, dissatisfied with the fact that he had not been able to capture Novgorod, promised to help Akhmat and also began to prepare for a campaign against Moscow.

Ivan III set up his regiments on the opposite bank of the Ugra, blocking the way for the Tatars to Moscow. Many times the Tatar horsemen tried to cross the river, but the Russians met them with a rain of arrows and cannon fire. The battle on the Ugra continued for four days. Having lost a fair number of his soldiers, Akhmat abandoned the crossing.

Weeks, months passed, and Akhmat was still waiting for help from the Poles. But Casimir IV was not up to him. The Crimean Khan Girey, an ally of Ivan III, attacked the southern lands of the Polish-Lithuanian state. Akhmat received news that Russian detachments, sent on ships along the Volga by Ivan III, attacked the territory of the Golden Horde. November has come. Frosts have begun. The Tatars, dressed in summer, began to suffer greatly from the cold. Akhmat went with his army to the Volga. Soon he was killed by his rivals. Thus, the unification of Russian lands into a single centralized state led to the liberation of Russia from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. The Russian state became independent. His international contacts have expanded significantly. Ambassadors from many countries of Western Europe came to Moscow. Ivan III began to be called the sovereign of all Russia, and the Russian state - Russia. Ivan III was married to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Paleolog. His marriage was used to strengthen the authority of Moscow. Moscow was declared the successor of Byzantium, the center of Orthodoxy. The Byzantine coat of arms - a double-headed eagle - was made the coat of arms of Russia.

A period of independent development began in the history of the Russian people. “Our great Russian land,” the chronicler wrote, “freed itself from the yoke and began to renew itself, as if it had passed from winter to a quiet spring.”

Opinion: The Battle of Kulikovo marked the beginning of the liberation of the Russian people from the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the absence of a strong leader among the Mongols (such as Batu), the unification of the Russian lands and the unification against a common enemy ultimately led to the liberation of Russia.

8. Consequence of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia

The problem of Mongol influence on Russia is complex and varied, of course. Here, a complex of important problems is considered. The main effect of the Mongol invasion: the present is the complete destruction of cities and populations; then the consequences of the conscious policy of the Mongol rulers for various aspects of Russian life.

Despite the huge number of opposing opinions about the degree of integration of the Russian and Mongolian societies, one can conclude that the transformation of Russia into the ulus of the Golden Horde led to the fact that its civilizational orbit shifted to the eastern side. The influence of Eastern civilization affected all aspects of life and intensified the civilizational split of Russia, which retains its European features.

Direct impact of Mongol domination

1) on the Russian national economy

Cities suffered the most in the catastrophe of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Such old centers of Russian civilization as Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereslavl, Ryazan, Suzdal and the somewhat younger Vladimir-Suzdal, as well as some other cities, were completely destroyed, and the first Novgorod, Pskov, Galich escaped ruin at this time. Mongolian policy to take the most skillful and skilled artisans into the service of the khan The dispersal of Russian craftsmen in the Mongolian world greatly depleted the source of experience directly in Russia for a while and could not but interrupt the development of production traditions. With the closure of enamel workshops in Kyiv in 1240 or the capture of their masters, the Russian art of cloisonné enamel, which had reached such a high level in Kievan Rus, also disappeared.

The drawing technique also fell into disuse after the Mongol invasion and only became popular again in the 16th century.

Another major loss due to the Mongol conquest was the art of stone carving.

The Mongol invasion and the policy of the Mongols towards artisans also greatly undermined Russian industrial production as a whole.

2) on the government and administration

It was during the period of the Mongol yoke and, perhaps, under the influence of Mongol judicial principles, that torture was included in the criminal procedure of Muscovite Russia.

With regard to the taxation system, the tribute remained the main source of income, and the plow - the main unit in taxation. Court fees were another important source of grand ducal income. In legal proceedings, only the most important cases were considered personally by the Grand Duke. Most of the crimes and cases were under the jurisdiction of his governors in every significant city and volostels in every rural area, who in turn were assisted by tiuns (judges) and closers (speakers). Since the grand ducal treasury did not have sufficient funds to pay salaries to all of the above officials, the grand duke had no choice but to allow them to "feed" from the area in which they were assigned. The roots of feeding go back to the Kyiv period, but it only acquired a universal character during the period of the Mongol yoke - over the decades of direct Mongol control, the people were accustomed to obey the authorities and fulfill their duty to the state.

The consequences of the Mongol conquest and the Golden Horde yoke for Russia. The Mongol invasion and the Golden Horde yoke became one of the reasons for the Russian lands lagging behind the developed countries of Western Europe. Huge damage was done to the economic, political and cultural development of Russia. Tens of thousands of people died in battle or were driven into slavery. A significant part of the income in the form of tribute went to the Horde.

The old agricultural centers and not once developed territories were abandoned and fell into decay. The border of agriculture moved to the north, the southern fertile soils received the name "Wild Field". Russian cities were subjected to mass ruin and destruction. Many handicrafts were simplified and sometimes disappeared, which hampered the creation of small-scale production and ultimately delayed economic development.

The Mongol conquest preserved political fragmentation. It weakened the ties between the various parts of the state. Traditional political and trade ties with other countries were disrupted. The vector of Russian foreign policy, passing along the line "south - north" (the fight against the nomadic danger, stable ties with Byzantium and through the Baltic with Europe) radically changed its direction to the "west-east". The pace of cultural development of the Russian lands slowed down.

The Russians inevitably had to introduce some Mongolian orders into their army. For example, the usual division of the armed forces of Muscovite Russia at the end of the fifteenth and in the sixteenth centuries into five large divisions definitely followed the Mongol structure. These units in Russian were called regiments. They were as follows: a large regiment (central unit); regiment of the right hand; regiment of the left hand; advanced regiment (vanguard) and guard regiment (rearguard). The phrases "right hand" and "left hand" correlate with Mongolian; like the Mongols, the division of the right hand in the Russian army was considered more important than the left.

3) to the social sphere

While military service became the main duty of the nobility and the nobility, as well as the basis of their attachment to the state, the townspeople and peasants bore the tax. Their main duties were to pay taxes and serve labor duties when required by the state. The consolidation of the draft social classes (which quantitatively made up the bulk of the nation) was completed during the 17th century. A long process, however, began in the Mongol period. The main factor at the initial stage of the process was the system of universal taxation and conscription, introduced in Russia by the Mongols.

In the period preceding the Mongol-Tatar yoke, residents of large cities did not pay taxes, they formed their own militia, in which they served as free citizens, and not called up soldiers. The conscription and taxation introduced by the Mongols, together with the restriction of the veche, radically changed the status of the urban class in Eastern Russia, and after liberation from the Mongols were used by the Grand Duke in the interests of his own government.

As you know, the church and its possessions were exempted by the government of the Golden Horde from taxes and other duties. Therefore, the peasants on the monastic lands bore only monastic duties, but not the state tax. On the contrary, peasants in other lands both paid tribute and were subject to military service. Paradoxical as it may sound, the privileges of the church were sharply reduced after the collapse of the Golden Horde and the strengthening of the power of the Grand Duke of Moscow. The church now had to turn to the Grand Duke for confirmation of its privileges. Several grand-ducal charters granted administrative immunity to the church, but taxed the peasants of church estates. As a result, by 1500 the status of monastic peasants approached that of other categories of peasants.

Muscovites' familiarity with the Mongolian way of conducting diplomacy helped them a lot in their relations with the Eastern powers, especially with the states that became the successors of the Golden Horde.

Conclusion

I agree with historians who believe that the Tatar-Mongol yoke threw back the development of our state 200 years ago, the state of “slaves” for two centuries could not go unnoticed. Because of this, there was a lag in the advancement of the country to the European level, the state "thrown" the Russian principalities back in its development and became the main root cause of Russia's lagging behind the West. I believe that the countries of Europe suffered less due to the fact that the main blow and forces were directed at Russian lands.

Subsequently, the yoke turned out to be a difficult factor for the growth of the productive forces of Russia, which were in a more progressive position compared to the productive forces of the Mongol-Tatars, the yoke for a long time stopped the process of land consolidation, the natural nature of agriculture, and ultimately led to increased feudal exploitation of the Russian people, who found himself under double oppression: his own and the Mongol-Tatar feudal lords.

Researchers - historians noted that during the yoke there was a decline in stone construction, the disappearance of crafts that were the pride of the Russian people: cloisonne enamel, niello, granulation, the production of glass decorations, polychrome glazed ceramics. At a time when Russia was actively developing, the industry of the West was only just moving on to primitive accumulation. For this reason, handicraft culture had to go through the same historical path that had been done before the invasion.

However, even Karamzin noted that the Tatar-Mongol yoke played an important role in the evolution of Russian statehood. In addition, he also pointed to the Horde as the obvious reason for the rise of the Moscow principality. Following him, Klyuchevsky also believed that the Horde had prevented exhausting internecine wars in Russia, and Gumilyov also noted that the process of consolidating Russian lands began already during the Yoke. In his opinion, the Tatars were not the cause of the crisis (cultural, political, moral) that struck the Russian principalities in the 13th century.

1. The crisis began before Batu's invasion.

2. he struck all the Russian principalities, regardless of whether they were invaded or not, whether they paid tribute or not, and if they paid, then for how long. The crisis was in all principalities and practically in all Orthodox states. Gumilyov believed that the crisis of Ancient Russia and the rise of Muscovy are associated with the patterns of ethnogenesis (You can also note the positive aspects of the yoke: such as improving the diplomatic side of the Russian state, lower taxes for Monasteries.

The time of the crisis coincided with the aggression of the Catholic West against the Orthodox peoples, which began during the 4th Crusade, which ended with the capture of Constantinople. Gumilyov also believed that steppephobia in general and Mongolianophobia in particular are a product of the ideology of Eurocentrism, which is characterized by a disrespectful attitude towards non-European peoples.

Summarizing the above, we can conclude that the Mongol-Tatar yoke turned out to be a "braking factor" for the development of Russia and its further advancement in the political arena.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Vernadsky G.V. Mongols and Russia. M., 2001; Inscription of Russian history, M., 2003

2. Barabanov V. V. Manual for applicants to universities Russian State Pedagogical University. Herzen, St. Petersburg, 2003

3. Complete collection of Russian chronicles. - 2002. - ISBN 5-94457-011-3

EXTERNAL SOURCES, SOURCES FROM THE INTERNET

1. http://www.gumfak.ru/his_html/orlov/orl06.shtml

2. http://www.5ka.ru/21/38004/1.html

Material from the site FROM ANCIENT RUSSIA TO THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

Russian history. Textbook. Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A.

Rybakov B. A., "Craft of Ancient Russia", 1948, p.525-533,780-781 ).

Under the name of the Western campaign of the Mongols in world history, the campaign of the troops of the Mongol Empire through the territories of Central and Eastern Europe, which took place from 1236 to 1242, is known. Khan Baty led them, and Subedei was the direct commander. In this article, we will talk about the background, main events and results of this important historical event.

Prerequisites

For the first time, Genghis Khan thought about the Western campaign of the Mongols, who in 1221 set the task for Subedei to conquer the Polovtsy and reach Kyiv. However, after the success in the battle on the Kalka River, the Mongols refused to go further, and on the way back they were also defeated by the Volga Bulgars.

Batu received from his grandfather a covenant to fight for the expansion of land. According to most modern historians, from 120 to 140 thousand soldiers took part in the Western campaign of the Mongols.

Start of hostilities

Batu began to show aggression in 1236 on the lower and middle Volga. There are not enough reliable sources, so the first years of the Western campaign of the Mongols can only be reconstructed approximately. As a result of an unexpected attack, the aggressors managed to defeat the Polovtsians. Some of them went west to ask for help from the Hungarians, while the rest joined Batu's army. The Mongols managed to negotiate with the Mordovians and Bashkirs.

As a result, Bulgaria was left without allies and could not offer worthy resistance to the enemy. Realizing this, the ruling circles began to try to conclude an agreement with the conquerors, who at first made concessions to them, but then nevertheless burned several large cities. By the summer of 1237, the defeat and conquest of Bulgaria could be considered complete.

Attack on North-Eastern Russia

The conquest campaign of the Mongols continued in the direction of Russia. 3/4 troops were initially prepared for it. In December 1237, the troops of the Ryazan principality were defeated, the city was surrendered to the invaders. At the beginning of 1238, Kolomna fell. After that, Yevpaty Kolovrat, who promptly returned from Chernigov, hit the rearguard.

The most stubborn resistance to the invader in the Western campaign of the Mongols was offered by Moscow. But still, on January 20, she was also taken. This was followed by the turn of Vladimir, Tver, Torzhok, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Kozelsk. In March 1238, taking advantage of the surprise factor, the Mongol corps led by Burundai destroyed the united Russian army, which was in the parking lot, was killed

After the capture of Torzhok, the Mongols opened the way to the largest city in the northern part of the Volga trade route - Veliky Novgorod. But they didn't go for it. Instead, we went to Chernigov and Smolensk. In the spring of 1238 they withdrew to the southern Russian steppes to regroup.

Third phase

The Tatar-Mongol campaign resumed in the summer of 1238. The Crimea was taken, several Polovtsian commanders were captured. In autumn they attacked the Circassians. In the winter of 1238-1239, the so-called campaign in the Volga-Oka region was organized. His goal was the lands of the Erzi, who refused to submit to the invaders two years ago. In addition, they plundered the neighboring Russian lands, in particular Nizhny Novgorod, Gorodets, Gorokhovets and Murom. In March 1239, as a result of a successful assault, Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny was captured.

Fourth phase

The fourth phase of the first campaign of the Mongols, after another respite, began at the end of 1239. It began with an attack on the city of Minkas. It was captured in a few days, and then completely destroyed, about 270 thousand inhabitants were killed. In the same period, the Mongols struck at the Chernigov principality. After the siege, the city surrendered on 18 October.

Travel to Central Europe

From the southern regions of Russia, the crusade of the Mongols moved to Central Europe. On this path in the spring of 1240, the Russian lands on the right bank of the Dnieper became the target of the invaders. At that time, they were divided between the sons - Vasilka and Daniel. Daniel, realizing that he could not give the Mongols a proper rebuff, went to Hungary, trying to persuade King Bela IV to help, but to no avail. As a result, together with his brother, he ended up in Poland.

The next point on the path of Batu was Kyiv. The conquest of these lands by the Mongols began with the capture of Porose - a territory dependent on the Kyiv princes, and then laid siege to the city itself. Various sources contradict the duration and timing of the siege of Kyiv. Presumably it lasted about two and a half months. As a result, Kyiv fell, after which a real panic began in the ruling circles of Volhynia and Galich. Many princes fled to Poland, while others, as rulers of the Bolokhov land, submitted to the conquerors. Taking a short rest, the Mongols decided to hit Hungary.

Attack on Poland and Moravia

The Western campaign of the Mongols against Europe continued with an attempt to conquer Poland. This part of the army was led by the Horde and Baidar. They entered the territory of Poland through the Beresteisky lands. At the beginning of 1241, Zavikhost and Lublin were captured, soon after that Sandomierz fell. The Mongols managed to defeat the powerful Polish militia near Tursk.

The Polish governors failed to close the road to Krakow. On March 22, this city was also occupied. A crushing defeat in the battle of Legnica was suffered by the combined Polish-German army, led by Henry the Pious. After that, Batu's order was delivered to Baydar to move south as quickly as possible in order to join the main forces in Hungary. As a result, the Mongols turned around at the borders of the German Empire, going to Moravia, defeating cities in the Czech Republic and Slovakia along the way.

Invasion of Hungary

In 1241 the Mongols invaded Hungary. Batu had plans to conquer this country from the very beginning. Back in 1236, he offered Bela IV to submit, but he ignored all proposals. Subedey proposed to attack from several directions in order to force the enemy to be divided as much as possible and then to break the Hungarian army in parts. The main forces of the Mongols defeated the Polovtsians near the Siret River, and then entered Hungary through the eastern Carpathians.

Bela IV's conflict with the barons prevented him from promptly gathering a united army. As a result, the existing army was defeated by Batu. By March 15, the advanced Mongol detachments were near Pest. Having set up camp 20 kilometers from the remnants of the royal army, Batu kept the Hungarians on their toes, waiting for reinforcements for a decisive blow.

Disagreements arose among the Hungarians. The king spoke in favor of waiting tactics, while others, led by Bishop Hugrin, called for active action. As a result, the decisive role was played by the numerical advantage (there were twice as many Hungarians) and the presence in the Batu corps of the Russian contingent, unreliable for the Mongols. Bela IV agreed to advance without waiting for the reunification of the Mongol army.

Batu for the first time in this campaign evaded the battle and left Pest. Only by uniting with the detachments of Subedei, the invaders felt the strength in themselves to accept the general battle. It took place on April 11 near the Shaio River, ending in a crushing defeat for the Hungarians. Under the rule of the invaders was the transdanubian part of the kingdom, Bela IV himself fled under the protection of Frederick II. In the new territories, the Mongols began to form temporary administrations, dividing the lands into districts.

The Germans were going to oppose the Mongols, but at first they postponed the date, and then completely abandoned active operations. The balance was maintained until the end of 1241. In the second half of January 1242, the Mongols headed for Croatia, seeking to neutralize the Hungarian king. At that time, Zagreb was destroyed. From there they moved to Bulgaria and Serbia.

Campaign results

Summing up the Western campaign of the Mongols briefly, it can be noted that in March 1242 it actually ended. The movement of the Mongols began in the opposite direction through Serbia, Bosnia and Bulgaria. The latter state, without entering into an open conflict, agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols. Why this campaign ended is not known for certain, the researchers have four main versions.

According to one of them, Khan Ogedei died in December 1241, so some researchers believe that Batu had to return to the east in order to participate in the election of a new khan. According to another version, they initially did not want to go beyond the steppe region, which always provided them with food for horses.

There is also an opinion that the Mongol troops, as a result, were actually bled dry by a protracted campaign, they felt that further advance to the west would end in fatal consequences. Finally, there is another version, according to which the Mongols were given the task of carrying out a reconnaissance campaign, and they intended to decide on the final conquest much later.

... sent Ogotur and Munket to help Chormakhan, who continued military operations against Khalibo-Soltan, which had not yet been completed under his parent, Genghis Khan. In the same way, he sent Batu, Buri, Munk and many other princes on a campaign to help Subetai, since Subetai-Baatur met strong resistance from those peoples and cities, the conquest of which he had been entrusted with under Genghis Khan, namely, the peoples of Kanlin , Kibchaut, Bachzhigit, Orusut, Asut, Sesut, Machzhar, Keshimir, Sergesut, Bular, Kelet (the Chinese "History of the Mongols" adds non-mi-sy) as well as cities beyond the high-water rivers Adil and Zhayakh, such as: Meketmen, Kermen -keibe and others. With regard to all those sent on this campaign, it was ordered: “The eldest son must be sent to war, both those great princes-princes who manage the destinies, and those who do not have such in their jurisdiction. Noyons - temniks, thousanders, centurions and foremen, as well as people of all conditions, are obliged to send the eldest of their sons to war in the same way. In the same way, the eldest sons will be sent to war and the princesses and sons-in-law ... By sending the eldest sons to the campaign, a fair army will turn out. When the army is numerous, they will all rise up and walk with their heads held high. There are many enemy countries there, and the people there are fierce. These are the people who, in rage, take death by throwing themselves on their own swords. Their swords, they say, are sharp.

However, in 1231-1234 the Mongols waged a second war with the Jin, and the westward movement of the combined forces of all uluses begins immediately after the decision of the kurultai of 1235, held in the vicinity of modern Nerchinsk, on the banks of the Onon.

In modern historical literature, the estimate of the total number of the Mongol army in the western campaign is dominant: 120-140 thousand soldiers, 150 thousand soldiers, but according to some estimates (L. N. Gumilyov, N. I. Veselovsky) initially amounted to 30-40 thousand .warriors, since part of the troops was busy suppressing the Muslims in Persia.

The size of the Mongol army in the western campaign is also estimated at approximately 60 thousand people at the start of the campaign, 40 thousand people after the departure of Mengu and Guyuk to Mongolia (taking into account the losses of the Mongols in battles with the Russian principalities, Kipchak-Polovtsy, Bulgars, Bashkirs, Ases, Mordovians and etc. + the withdrawal of troops from their uluses by Mengu and Guyuk after the end of the campaign against Russia) and about 30 thousand during the campaign against Hungary.

Left without allies, Bulgaria could not effectively resist a new attack. Realizing this, at first its ruling circles also tried to come to an agreement with the conquerors. As Rashid ad-Din writes, the Mongols:

The cities of Bulgar, Bilyar, Kernek, Zhukotin, Suvar were burned. Later, the Bulgar refugees were received by Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky and settled in the cities of the Volga.

At the same time, part of the Mongol troops, led by Munke and Buchek, brought the Polovtsians and Alans into submission in the lower reaches of the Volga. Rashid ad-Din writes about the leader of the Polovtsian resistance captured in the summer of 1237 (in the summer of 1238, according to R.P. Khrapachevsky), captured on one of the Volga islands: “Bachman begged that Mengu-kaan [himself] with his blessed hand brought his work to an end; he [Mengu-kaan] instructed his brother Buchek to cut Bachman in two.”

Campaign in North-Eastern Russia (1237-1238)

The Hungarian missionary brother Julian reports that in the autumn of 1236 the entire Mongol army was divided into four parts, three of which were preparing for the invasion of Russia:

Now, being on the borders of Russia, we have closely learned the real truth that the entire army going to the countries of the West is divided into four parts. One part near the river Etil (Volga) on the borders of Russia from the eastern edge approached Suzdal. The other part in the south was already attacking the borders of Ryazan, another Russian principality. The third part stopped against the Don River, near the castle Oveheruch, also Russian principalities. They, as the Russians themselves verbally conveyed to us, the Hungarians and Bulgarians who fled before them, are waiting for the earth, rivers and swamps to freeze with the onset of the coming winter, after which it will be easy for the whole multitude of Tatars to plunder the whole of Russia, the whole country of the Russians.

when the Tatars came, the Comans, who all fled to the seashore, entered this land in such huge numbers that they devoured each other mutually, living dead, as a certain merchant who saw this told me; the living devoured and tore with their teeth the raw meat of the dead, like dogs - corpses

In the summer of the same 1238, Batu's brother Berke, who acted independently, captured three Polovtsian commanders.

In the winter of 1238/39, according to the Tver Chronicle, the dating of which is confirmed by L.V. Cherepnin, a new campaign took place in the Volga-Oka region. It is also reported in the Laurentian Chronicle:

For the winter. taking Tatars Mordovian land. and Moore burned. and according to Klѧzma voєvasha. and grad̑ st҃'ıӕ Bts҃a. Gorokhovets burned. and themselves idosha in the stanı svoӕ

It is not entirely clear whether the chronicle refers to the same campaign that was already mentioned by Rashid ad-Din under 1237, or whether it was a new offensive of the Mongols. If the second assumption is correct, then the goal at this stage was probably the lands of the Erzi, whose prince refused to submit to the Mongols as early as 1236. In any case, the Tver Chronicle indicates that this campaign was made separate (“inii Tatarovi Batyevi”) from the main forces Batu Corps: "In the summer of 6747 ... Ambassador Batu Tatarov and taking the city of Pereyaslavl Ruskiy ... And the monks of the Tatars Batyevi took Mordva, and Murom, and Gorodets Radilov on the Volza, and the city of the Holy Mother of God of Vladimir". That is, in addition to the Mordovian lands, the Mongols also plundered the neighboring Russian lands, which, apparently, did not suffer during the winter campaign of 1237-1238: Murom, Gorodets, Nizhny Novgorod and Gorokhovets.

seeing hail. marvel at its beauty. and sent his messengers to his majesty to Mikhailov and to the citizens. hotѧ e. seduce.

Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, who controlled the city at that time, then refused the peace proposals of the Mongols. A new attempt to capture Kyiv was made by the Mongols almost a year later.

Hike to Central Europe through Southern Russia (1240-1242)

The corps led by Bukdai in the spring of 1240 was sent through Derbent to the south to help the Mongol troops operating in Transcaucasia. Around the same time, Batu decided to send home Munke, Guyuk and Buri, with whom he did not have a relationship. According to the Secret Legend of the Mongols in the summer of 1240, they were already in Mongolia. The remaining troops regrouped, replenished for the second time at the expense of the Polovtsy and the Volga peoples.

Campaign against Daniel of Galicia (1240)

The next goal of the Mongols was the Russian lands on the right bank of the Dnieper. By 1240, most of them (Galicia, Volyn, Kiev, and also, presumably, the Turov-Pinsk principalities) were united under the rule of the sons of the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich: Daniil and Vasilko.

Not considering himself able to resist the Mongols on his own, on the eve of the invasion (that is, approximately in the autumn of 1240), Daniel went to Hungary, probably trying to persuade King Bela IV to help him. Having not achieved his goal, he, according to the Ipatiev Chronicle:

... returned from the king, and came to Sinevolodskoye, to the monastery of the Holy Mother of God ... and returned back to the Ugrians, for he could not go to the Russian land, since there were few squads with him.

Later he moved to Poland: first to Sandomierz (where he met his family), and then to Mazovia, to his ally Konrad. Daniil Vasilko's brother was also there. The princes remained in Mazovia until they learned about the departure of the Mongols from their lands.

take his strong voevodı. Ourdu. and Baidar. Biryui Kaidan. Bechak. and Mengou. and Kuyuk (…) is not his kind. but be the governor of his feathers. Sebѣdѧi rich. and Bouroundai bogatyr and others from the Bulgarian land. and Souzhdalskou. inѣkh beschisla governor.

The Mongols began their offensive with the conquest of Porose - the region dependent on the Kyiv princes Cherny Klobuk. After Poros'ye, the Mongol forces laid siege to Kyiv. The defense of Kyiv was led by the thousand Dmytro.

Regarding the timing and duration of the siege of Kyiv, there is a contradiction in the sources. The main source for the events of the siege - the Ipatiev Chronicle - does not contain any dates. The Laurentian chronicle under 1240 reports that Kyiv was taken by the Mongols " to Rzhs̑tva Gs̑nѧ. on Nikolin days”- that is, December 6th. At the same time, according to the relatively late (XV century) Annals of Abraham, the siege of Kyiv lasted 74 days from September 5 to November 19: “ Tatarov came to Kiev, September 5, and stood 10 weeks and 4 days, and barely took him, November 19, on Monday».

According to modern researcher R. Marshall:

For the winter, Batu settled down near Przemysl - at his springboard to Europe. The question arose: where and when to carry out the next attack? From the point of view of common sense, it was necessary to choose the best weather for the campaign and wait for spring. The obvious target was Poland, which was now in close proximity to the Mongol army. But Batu and Subedei had a much more complex campaign plan in mind.

It was decided to strike the main blow of the new campaign in Hungary.

One way or another, but the remaining troops were divided into several corps and in 1241 continued their march to the west.

Campaign in Poland and Moravia (1241)

The Mongol troops allocated for the march to Poland (according to R. Khrapachevsky there were 3 tumens) led Baydar and the Horde: skirting the Carpathians from the north, they proceeded to Poland through the southern part of the Beresteyskaya land. There is information about the destruction of Berestye by the Mongols. In January 1241 they captured Lublin and Zawichost. On February 13, 1241, Sandomierz fell. On the same day, they defeated the Lesser Poland militia near Tursk. The Krakow troops of the voivode Vladislav Klemens and the Sandomierz troops - the voivodes Pakoslav and the castellan Yakub Ratiborovich tried to close the path to Krakow, but were defeated respectively near Khmilnik (Shydlovce) on March 18 and near Torchk on March 19. On March 22, the Mongols occupied Krakow, and then Bytom. Prince Bolesław V of Krakow fled to Hungary with his mother, and then hid for some time in a Cistercian monastery in Moravia.

In early April, the Mongols broke through Racibórz and Opole to Wroclaw, whose inhabitants fled, after which the settlement was burned by the soldiers of the Silesian prince. On April 9, in the battle near Legnica, the Polish-German army of Henry the Pious suffered a terrible defeat. Taking advantage of Henry's death, Konrad Mazowiecki occupied Krakow. The Czech troops, led by King Wenceslas I, were 1 day late near Legnica and were sent to Lusatia across the way from the alleged path of the Mongols.

Military operations in Hungary and Croatia (1241-1242)

The Middle Danubian lowland occupying the territory of Hungary is an organic continuation of the southern Russian steppes and, long before the Mongols, attracted the attention of various nomadic peoples (Huns, Avars, Hungarians) who wanted to settle in close proximity to European states with a settled population. It was in this region (bypassing the Carpathians through Wallachia or forcing them through various mountain passes) that the main blow of the Mongol troops was directed.

It is noteworthy in the light of Daniel’s relationship with Belaya IV that the advice of the Kyiv thousand Dmitri Batu taken prisoner by the Mongols looks like:

According to its results, the king fled under the protection of the Austrian Duke Friedrich II, and the entire transdanubian part of the Hungarian kingdom was under the rule of the Mongols. Having finished the persecution of the Hungarians in Pest, the Mongols began to organize a temporary administration in the conquered territory: all the lands were divided into districts, headed by officials, in their functions close to the French bails.

The plight of Hungary prompted Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II Hohenstaufen (back in 1239, excommunicated by the Pope