Russia was one of the largest powers in Europe. During the 18th century, its territory increased by one third, and its population increased two and a half times, and by the beginning of the 19th century. reached 36 million people. At the beginning of the 19th century. in Russia continued... ... The World History. Encyclopedia

Bulletin of Europe (early 19th century)- Bulletin of Europe is a bi-weekly magazine published in Moscow in 1802-1830. IN different years circulation ranged from 580 to 1200 copies. The idea of ​​creating the magazine belongs to the tenant of the printing house of Moscow University, I. Popov. He suggested... ... Wikipedia

Bulletin of Europe (late 19th century)- “Vestnik Evropy”, cover of the magazine “Vestnik Evropy” (Vestnik Evropy) monthly magazine, founded in 1802 by N. M. Karamzin, published for two years in St. Petersburg, later revived and published from 1866 to 1918. From 1866 to 1868 the magazine... ... Wikipedia

MONTHLY MENU IN THE MID 90S OF THE 19th CENTURY (to be repeated every month)- Fast table No. 1 1. Rassolnik with Smolensk grain 2. Sauce of veal legs with fresh cucumbers 3. Fried blackbirds 4. Pies with jam No. 2 1. Pasta soup with... ... Great encyclopedia culinary arts

History of Russian Freemasonry of the 19th century (book)- History of Russian Freemasonry of the 19th century Genre: history of Freemasonry

RUSSIAN LITERATURE. Literature of the 1st half of the 19th century- Literary life early XIX V. was determined by increasingly obvious signs of the crisis of the autocratic serf system, the national upsurge Patriotic War 1812, the maturation of the ideas of noble revolution. The process of gradual... Literary encyclopedic dictionary

Solar eclipses of the 19th century- The first photograph of a total solar eclipse, taken at the Königsberg Observatory on July 28, 1851 by daguerreotypist Berkovsky Main article: Solar eclipse This is a list of solar... Wikipedia

History of Iberia from antiquity to the 19th century- Iberian Peninsula The original history of Iberia, called Iberia by the Greeks, is unknown to us. The first colonies in this country, originally inhabited by Iberians, Celts and Celtiberians, belonged to the Phoenicians; around 1100 they settled on... ... Wikipedia

Repertoire of the Moscow Maly Theater of the 19th century- Main article: Repertoire of the Moscow Maly Theater Here is a list of productions of the Moscow Academic Maly Theater of Russia for the 19th century... Wikipedia

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Books

• Political and cultural relations between Russia and Serbia in the 30-50s of the 19th century. Documents of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Collection dedicated to Russian-Serbian political relations during the formation of Serbian statehood. Previously unpublished documents from the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian... Category: Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries. Publisher: Nauka, Buy for 2074 rub.
• Forties of the 19th century, This collection, dedicated to the 40s of the 19th century, contains memories of contemporaries, excerpts from works of art and some documents telling about how the Russian lived... Category:

· After the massacre of the Decembrists, the entire public life of Russia was placed under the strictest supervision by the state. This was the reason for the decline of the social movement.

· A few circles tried to continue the work of the Decembrists.

· IN 1827. at Moscow University, the brothers P., V. and M. Kritsky organized a secret circle, the goals of which were the destruction royal family and constitutional reforms in Russia.

· IN 1831 The circle of N.P. Sungurov, whose members were preparing an armed uprising in Moscow, was discovered and destroyed.

· IN 1832 At Moscow University there was a “Literary Society of Number 11”, of which V.G. Belinsky was a member.

· In 1834 The circle of A.I. Herzen has been opened.

· After the suppression of the Decembrist uprising, the reaction intensified in the country. In the fight against new ideas, the government used not only repression, but also weapons of an ideological nature. This was S.S. Uvarov’s theory of “official nationality”. Its main slogans were: Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.

· However, the Uvarov triad did not receive widespread support in Russian society. Despite official opposition, the social movement developed.

· In the 40s, the main directions were formed social thought who proceeded from the need for reforms in Russia: Slavophiles, Westerners and revolutionaries.

· Westerners- This is the first bourgeois-liberal movement in Russia. Its prominent representatives were Kavelin, Granovsky, Botkin, Panaev, Annenkov, Katkov and others. They believed that Russia and the West are following the same path – the bourgeois one., and the only salvation for Russia from revolutionary upheavals was seen in borrowing through gradual reforms of bourgeois democracy. Westerners believed in the indivisibility of human civilization and argued that the West leads this civilization, showing examples of the implementation of the principles of freedom and progress, which attracts the attention of the rest of humanity. Therefore, Russia’s task is to join the European West as soon as possible and thus enter a single universal civilization. As liberals, the ideas of revolution and socialism were alien to them. Until the mid-40s, Belinsky and Herzen spoke together with the Westerners, constituting the left wing of this movement.

· The opponents of the Westerners became Slavophiles, who were hostile to the West and idealized pre-Petrine Rus', who relied on identity of the Russian people who believed in a special path of its development. Prominent Slavophiles were Khomyakov, Samarin, the Aksakov brothers, the Kireevsky brothers, Koshelev and others. Slavophiles argued that there is no and cannot be a single human civilization. Each nation lives by its own “identity”, the basis of which is an ideological principle that permeates all aspects of people’s life. For Russia, such a beginning was the Orthodox faith, and its embodiment was the community, as a union of mutual help and support. In the Russian village one can do without class struggle; this will save Russia from revolution and bourgeois “deviations.” Being convinced monarchists, they nevertheless advocated freedom of opinion and the revival of Zemsky Sobors. They are also characterized by rejection of revolution and socialism. Neither the principles nor the organizational forms of life of the West were acceptable to Russia.

· Ideological differences between Westerners and Slavophiles, however, did not prevent their rapprochement in practical issues of Russian life: both movements rejected serfdom; both performed against existing government controlled ; both demanded freedom of speech and press.

· In the 40s, having broken away from the Westerners, the third current of social thought took shape - revolutionary democratic. It was represented by Belinsky, Herzen, the Petrashevites, and the then young Chernyshevsky and Shevchenko.

· Belinsky and Herzen did not agree with the Westerners regarding revolution and socialism. But, unlike Western socialists, they not only did not exclude the revolutionary path to socialism, but also relied on it. The revolutionaries also believed that Russia would follow the Western path, but unlike the Slavophiles and Westerners, they believed that revolutionary upheavals were inevitable.

· Given the embryonic state in which the Russian proletariat was, they did not understand its revolutionary future and hoped for a peasant revolution.

Bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century.

1855-1881

· The first steps towards the abolition of serfdom in Russia were taken by Emperor Alexander I in 1803 publication Decree on free cultivators, which spells out the legal status of released peasants.

· During the reign of Nicholas I, about a dozen different commissions were created to resolve the issue of abolishing serfdom, but all of them were ineffective due to the opposition of the nobility.

· Upon reaching adulthood, Alexander II /was killed by terrorists/ replaces his father Nicholas I on the throne. He entered Russian history as a conductor of large-scale reforms. Awarded a special epithet in Russian pre-revolutionary historiography - Liberator (in connection with the abolition of serfdom according to the manifesto of February 19, 1861)

· February 19, 1861 Alexander II signed the "Regulations" and the "Manifesto" on the abolition of serfdom. The main result of the reform was personal liberation of the peasant, the landowners lost the right to dispose of it. According to the Manifesto a legal document that formulated the conditions for the peasants to leave serfdom was becoming charter. The peasants found rights of a legal entity And status of free rural inhabitants endowed with land. They got the opportunity own property, engage in commercial and industrial activities, move to other classes, litigate.

· Some historians believe that the reason is that serfdom became an insurmountable obstacle to the further development of the country; others consider it impossible for Russia to no longer claim the role of a leading European power and at the same time remain a serfdom.

· A natural continuation of the abolition of serfdom in Russia were zemstvo, city, judicial, military and other reforms. Their main goal is to bring the state system and administration in accordance with the new social structure (the multimillion-dollar peasantry received freedom). This is a continuation of modernization. countries.

Judicial reform 1864.“New judicial statutes” were introduced in Russia on a principled basis new system legal proceedings.

· The court became classless (formal equality of all classes)

· Transparency and competitiveness of legal proceedings (prosecutor - lawyer)

· The Senate became the highest court

· The Bar was established

· An institute of jurors was created to consider complex criminal cases

· Election of some judicial bodies (magistrates)

· The judicial system has been simplified

· The preliminary investigation was carried out forensic investigator, not the police

· BUT! Peasants were subject to their own class court

Zemstvo reform of 1864.

· In the provinces and districts, zemstvo institutions were created - zemstvos (elected bodies from all classes).

Zemstvos are deprived of political functions

· It was allowed to deal exclusively with economic issues of local importance (communication routes, schools, hospitals, trade, industry)

· Zemstvos controlled central and local authorities, which had the right to suspend any decision of the zemstvo assembly

Results: played a special role in the development of education, education, and healthcare.

Military reform 1861-1874.

· Law 1874 on all-class military service for men over 20 years of age.

· The period of active service was established - up to 6 years in ground forces, in the navy - 7.

· Persons who have higher education, served for six months.

· Rearmament of the army

· Introduction of new military regulations

· A system of military districts for military administration was established

· Educational institutions were created to train military personnel

· The size of the army was reduced in Peaceful time and her combat effectiveness increased

Reforms in education and the press 1863-1864.

· In fact, accessible all-class education was introduced

· Private zemstvo, parochial, and Sunday schools emerged

· 1863. The new charter returned autonomy to universities

· 1865. “Temporary Rules” for printing were introduced. Pre-censorship abolished

Financial reform

· The right to dispose of all financial resources of the country was given to the Minister of Finance, whose activities were subject to accounting from the outside State control.

· Was established National Bank, which began lending to commercial and industrial enterprises.

SIGNIFICANCE OF REFORM:

All transformations were progressive in nature. The foundation is being laid for the evolutionary development of the country along the path of the European socio-political model. The first step has been taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country.

Reforms were inconsistent and incomplete. The process of modernization in Russia had a specific character - the weakness of the Russian bourgeoisie, the actions of radicals, the strengthening of conservative forces - all this slowed down the reform aspirations of the government.

"The day before."

(Julian calendar - February 19) On the 6th anniversary of his accession to the throne Alexander II signs the Manifesto About the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of free rural inhabitants and about the structure of their life. This was followed by a series of legislative acts, the most important of which was Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom. (See also On the ransom of peasants emerging from serfdom...) Suppression of a peasant revolt by troops. Abyss of Kazan province ( see Apraksin's report), demanding “full freedom” and immediate provision of land. In the following months, frustration with the inconsistency of the reform grows: articles appear A. Herzen And N. Ogareva V "Bell" , N. Chernyshevsky V "Contemporary". There is a rapid spread of revolutionary (“nihilistic”) sentiments among young people. Articles contribute to this D. Pisareva And N. Dobrolyubova, as well as calls for rebellion in proclamations N. Shelgunova And M. Mikhailova(“To the younger generation”) and P. Zaichnevsky("Young Russia"). (according to the Julian calendar - January 10) The beginning of the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. - simultaneous attack on all Russian garrisons, creation of a Provisional National Government, declaration of national independence Poland, flight of the Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich from Warsaw. The uprising spreads to Lithuania, part of Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine, but the forces of the rebels are clearly insufficient, weakened by disagreements between the “Reds” and “Whites” and deprived of the support of the peasants. The uprising was received with sharp hostility by Russian public opinion - A. Herzen and M. Bakunin, who welcomed it, themselves were subjected to public ostracism. (according to the Julian calendar - January 1) Zemstvo reform in Russia - Regulations on provincial and district land institutions. Bodies of local self-government - county zemstvo assemblies are elected for 3 years by three curiae of voters (county landowners, city voters and elected from rural societies) and elect the provincial zemstvo assembly from among themselves. The competence of zemstvos includes the management (under the tutelage of the administration) of healthcare, public education, local communications and assistance economic development. Zemstvos were introduced only in 34 provinces. (according to the Julian calendar - April 4) The first (of eight) attempt on life Alexandra II walking through the Summer Garden. Revolutionary terrorist D.V. Karakozov, included in secret society"Hell" led by N. Ishutin, adjacent to “Land and Freedom”, shot at the emperor near the Summer Garden, but missed. The intervention of the peasant O. Komissarov saved the tsar's life. Thanksgiving prayers throughout the country, a patriotic demonstration on Palace Square in St. Petersburg, arrests of all those involved in the assassination attempt. Closing of the magazines "Sovremennik" and " Russian word". The beginning of a departure from the policy of reforms: important government posts were replaced by conservatives, Count D. Tolstoy was appointed Minister of Public Education, and from 1865 - Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod. The assassin was immediately arrested and placed in the Alekseevsky Ravelin. Student unrest in St. Petersburg. Arrest of most members of the illegal group S. Nechaeva And P. Tkacheva. S. Nechaev’s flight abroad, meeting in Geneva with the anarchist ideologist M. Bakunin. Upon returning to Russia, S. Nechaev creates a secret society "People's Retribution" in Moscow and kills one of its members, student I. Ivanov, on suspicion of treason (the "Nechaev case" that shocked Russia and served as the plot basis for the novel F.M. Dostoevsky"Demons", 1871-1872). After the murder he flees abroad again. Issued by the Swiss government of Russia. He died in 1882 in the Peter and Paul Fortress.

Notes

* To compare events that took place in Russia and Western Europe, in all chronological tables, starting from 1582 (the year of the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in eight European countries) and ending with 1918 (the year of transition Soviet Russia from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar), the DATE column indicates date only according to the Gregorian calendar , and the Julian date is indicated in parentheses along with a description of the event. In chronological tables describing the periods before the introduction of the new style by Pope Gregory XIII (in the DATES column) Dates are based on the Julian calendar only. . At the same time, no translation is made to the Gregorian calendar, because it did not exist.

Culture of post-reform Russia (60s - 90s years XIX century).

Russian culture second half of the 19th century century developed in conditions when new, capitalist relations were established in the country and various reforms were carried out. But at the same time, remnants of the serfdom system remained, and labor movement, the general social protest against the autocracy was expanding, serious changes were taking place in social structure. All this had an impact on the cultural development of Russia.

After the abolition of serfdom, society and the state realized the need for widespread education of the people. The development of industry and technology required competent workers. Real schools were opened for children of all classes. In the 1980s, the number of parochial schools increased. The first Sunday schools appeared. More than 10 thousand zemstvo (primary) schools were opened. Main type high school There were gymnasiums in which the main subjects were literature, languages, and history. There were also men's real schools; in the 90s, 300 women's clinics were opened educational institutions. The growth of higher education institutions continued. In the 60s there were 7 universities, after the reform 2 more were opened (in Odessa and Tomsk). The number of technical universities has increased. A foundation was laid for higher women's education: Higher Women's Courses were opened in St. Petersburg and Moscow. However, in general, the level of literacy of the population in Russia still remained one of the lowest in Europe (Balakina T.I. History of domestic culture. Part 2. - M., 1995, pp. 72-76).

Russian science achieved major successes in the second half of the 19th century. Russian physiologist I.N. Sechenov published the work “Reflexes of the Brain” in 1863; his research in the field of physiology and higher nervous activity continued I.P. Pavlov, having created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes. Biologist I.I. Mechnikov created a theory of the development of multicellular organisms and discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis.

Mathematicians P.L. Chebyshev, Sofya Kovalevskaya; physicist A.G. Stoletov contributed to the development mathematical science and physics.

The great chemist D.I. Mendeleev created periodic table elements, founded agrochemistry.

A.N. Lodygin invented the incandescent electric light bulb. P.N. Yablochkov created a transformer and an electric arc lamp.

The works of ethnographer N.N. became very famous. Miklouho-Maclay, who studied the nature and peoples of Oceania and New Guinea. The humanities have received widespread development. Professor-historian S.M. Soloviev in 1851 published the first volume of “History of Russia since Ancient Times” (a total of 29 volumes were published), bringing the presentation up to 1775. Historian V.O. Klyuchevsky created the five-volume “Course of Russian History”.

In the literature of this period they found a reflection social problems post-reform Russia, socio-political trends, people's life. The leading trend in literature was critical realism, the principle of which was the depiction real life, turn to life common man. A striking example Accusatory literature is the work of satirist M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“The History of a City”, “The Golovlevs”). A huge place in the literature of this period is occupied by the work of F.M. Dostoevsky (“Poor People”, “Crime and Punishment”, “The Brothers Karamazov”). The second half of the 19th century saw the heyday of L.N. Tolstoy (novels “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Sunday”). Continues in the 60s - 70s literary activity I.S. Turgenev - masters of the classic Russian novel (“On the Eve”, “Fathers and Sons”, “Smoke”).

The leader of the mixed youth was the poet N.A. Nekrasov (“ Railway", "Russian women", "Living well in Rus'"). At the end of the 70s, A.P.’s literary activity began. Chekhov (stories " Boring story", "Lady with a Dog", "Duel", "Ward No. 6", "Man in a Case"; plays “The Seagull”, “The Cherry Orchard”, “Three Sisters”). During these years, M. Gorky, I.A. entered the literature. Bunin, V.V. Veresaev, V.G. Korolenko (Essays on the history of Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century./Ed. N.M. Volynkin. - M., 1976, pp. 148-169).

In the second half of the 19th century, the main type of printed publications remained magazines: Sovremennik (Saltykov-Shchedrin), Otechestvennye zapiski (Nekrasov), Russian Vestnik. Book publisher D.I. made a great contribution to the development of national culture. Sytin. He published textbooks, popular science books, cheap editions, collected works of classics of Russian literature, dictionaries, and encyclopedias. In the subsequent years of the 19th century, volumes began to be published in Russian. Encyclopedic Dictionary"Brockhaus and Efron. The publication of 12 main and 4 additional volumes was completed in 1907.

IN fine arts In the second half of the 19th century, the dominant movement was critical realism. The ideologist and organizer of artists of this movement was I.P. Kramskoy. In 1870, the Association of Art Traveling Exhibitions was created, which included members of the Artel, as well as almost all the major realist artists of that time. One of the most prominent representatives of critical realism in Russian painting was the artist V.G. Perov (pictures “Rural Peasant Procession at Easter”, “Troika”, “Hunters at a Rest”). Landscape artists I.I. glorified Russian nature in their paintings. Shishkin, A.K. Savrasov, V.D. Polenov, A.I. Kuindzhi, I.I. Levitan. The pinnacle of realism in Russian painting is considered to be the work of I.E. Repin (“Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “They Didn’t Expect”, “Refusal of Confession”; historical paintings “Princess Sophia”, “Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan”) and V.I. Surikov (“Morning of the Streletskaya Execution”, “Boyaryna Morozova”). V. Vasnetsov turned to the genre of folklore; he took fairy-tale scenes as the basis for his paintings: “Alyonushka”, “Bogatyrs”, “The Knight at the Crossroads”. Many paintings by artists of the second half of the 19th century were included in the collection of the Tretyakov Gallery. In 1898, the Russian Museum was opened in St. Petersburg.

The architecture and sculpture of this period is characterized by a mixture of styles: modern and antique stylization. Outstanding sculptor M.M. Antokolsky created a series of sculptural portraits: “Peter I”, “Yaroslav the Wise”, “Ermak”. In 1880, a monument to A.S. was unveiled in Moscow. Pushkin (on Tverskaya), its author is sculptor A.I. Opekushin. Under the leadership of M.O. Mikeshin, dozens of sculptors created the “Millennium of Russia” monument in Novgorod.

Classicism has finally become obsolete in architecture. Now, in accordance with the demands of life, industrial and administrative buildings, train stations, banks, bridges, theaters, and shops were built. The “neo-Russian” style - antique stylization - is becoming widespread. The Historical Museum (architect V.O. Sherwood), the City Duma building (architect D.I. Chichagov), and the Upper Trading Rows - now GUM (architect A.I. Pomerantsev) were built in this style in Moscow. Multi-storey and apartment buildings were built. Construction of shopping arcades has begun in Russia. Theater buildings were built in Rybinsk, Irkutsk, Nizhny Novgorod. The Polytechnic Museum (architect Shokhin) was opened in Moscow.

The second half of the 19th century is the heyday of Russian musical art. The composers of The Mighty Handful created a number of great works: operas by Mussorgsky (Boris Godunov, Khovanshchina), Rimsky-Korsakov (The Pskov Woman), Borodin (Prince Igor, the Bogatyrskaya symphony). During this period, the greatest Russian composer P.I. worked. Chaikovsky. He created 6 symphonies, symphonic poems “Romeo and Juliet”, “Manfred”, ballets “Swan Lake”, “Nutcracker”, “Sleeping Beauty”, operas “Eugene Onegin”, “Mazeppa”, “Iolanta” and others, 100 romances . At the end of the century, young composers entered musical life - S.I. Taneev, A.K. Lyadov, S. Rachmaninov, A.N. Scriabin. Composer, conductor, pianist A. Rubinstein creates the “Russian Musical Society” in St. Petersburg.

Theater plays a special role in the life of post-reform Russia. Theaters operated in 100 cities of Russia. The main centers of theatrical culture were the Maly Theater in Moscow and the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. The glory of the Maly Theater is associated with the names of brilliant Russian actors: Maria Ermolova, Prov Sadovsky, Ivan Samarin, Alexander Lensky. In the 60s - 70s, private theaters and theater groups began to emerge in Moscow and other cities of Russia (Balakina T.I. History of Russian Culture. Part 2, - M., 1995, pp. 90-96).

The growth of capitalist production in post-reform Russia raised serious practical and theoretical problems before science and technology, education. The level of literacy of the population increased significantly, there was an unprecedented rise in scientific creativity and an increase in interest in science in society, and the expansion of book publishing and magazine business. This period saw the revival of social thought, literature and art, and the establishment of democratic principles in them.