Russian students of the second half of the 19th century. The history of higher education at the end of the 19th century in Russia. Wirtshafter E.K. Social Structures: Raznochintsy in the Russian Empire…

A hundred years ago, MSU students did not have mobile phones, the Internet, computers, and even typewriters were very rare. But they studied, spending the last money on education, rented tiny rooms in the attics and did not want to part with their books. Walking through the corridors and classrooms of the modern Faculty of Journalism (one of the old buildings of Moscow State University), it is interesting to mentally travel a little more than a hundred years ago, to the end of the 19th century, and imagine the then students ...

... It was possible to get to the university on foot or, if funds allowed, to hire a cab. I had to get up in different ways: for some, classes began with the first couple at 9 in the morning. Someone later. Classes were on time. The last lecture ended at 4 pm, but rarely did anyone have to sit at the university with all seven couples.

Education students sought to give deep. True, the teachers themselves admitted that the course of lectures often turned out to be “torn” (in official documents this was called “fragmentation of teaching”). For example, classes in comparative linguistics could stretch for two or four years, when the course was taught with breaks of several months, although all the disciplines related to it could be read in just a year. In the 90s, it was decided that if the course of lectures had to be “broken up”, at least one large section of the course had to fit into one semester in order to form a correct idea of ​​the subject among students.

Faculties were not clearly separated from each other. Therefore, at the historical and philological general lectures, both philologists and historians listened, and then they were divided into two large streams - "A" and "B" - and already studied special disciplines. The stream was divided into groups of 25 people - so the teachers had time to control the students' classes. Studied almost the same as today. Philologists were obliged to know the history of Russian and foreign literature, wrote works on it (an analogue of current abstracts), studied ancient and new languages, and interpreted works of ancient authors at seminars. Of the new languages, English, French, German and Italian were popular. You could learn Lithuanian or Serbian. Of the ancients (in addition to Greek and Latin) - Gothic and Sanskrit. Interestingly, everyone passed the exam in geography.

Education cost money (they were expelled for non-payment of fees), but theology was a compulsory and free subject for everyone (note that a similar subject is now being introduced in many universities, sometimes it is called the “New Testament”). In addition, they studied the logic of science, philosophy, the doctrine of character (now - psychology) and rather narrow subjects, for example, "The Persecution of Christianity."

There was a period when only lectures were included in the literature hours, but over time, a “special consultation hour was appointed for conversation” - this is almost a modern seminar, but designed not so much to ask students for homework, but so that students asked questions to the teacher and better understood the subject.

In addition to the compulsory disciplines, it was possible to attend additional classes - something like the current special courses - and write papers on them. Such a special course, for example, was offered by Alexei Nikolaevich Veselovsky, who read the history of French literature.

With such a busy schedule, they studied six days a week, from Monday to Saturday. There was only one day off, and even that had to be spent on preparing homework or working part-time: there was always not enough money. Education was paid, books were expensive. You had to pay for housing. The offspring of rich and influential families could easily gnaw at the granite of science. Those who are poorer - those who come from families of ruined nobles and completely poor students - had to take care not only of grades, but also of subsistence.

A common type of earnings were private lessons. It’s not very easy to work with other people’s children or complete tasks for lazy but wealthy fellow students when you yourself have to write term papers and do translations, and besides, this in a good way required special permission and a certificate stating that the young tutor has enough for teaching pedagogy education. Those who, for various (often financial) reasons, could not graduate from the university had the opportunity to pass the exam and officially obtain a license and become teachers.

For those who had very little money, university scholarships were a great support. There were a huge number of them at each faculty. There were scholarships for everyone - any student could apply for them. To become a scholarship holder, one had to submit a petition with an explanation. For example, like this: "... I am a needy person, as proof of which I have a certificate of poverty." There were also special ones, for example, a scholarship named after the poet V. A. Zhukovsky, intended exclusively for the nobles of the Tula province. Students received payments of about 25 rubles a month, and this was a sufficient amount. The amount of money available for scholarships was limited. The number of scholarship holders was vigilantly monitored not only by accounting specialists, but also by students. When they found out that they stopped paying a scholarship to someone (for example, a person graduated from his studies), they tried to be the first to write a petition: “Such a scholarship no longer receives, as a result of which I ask you to assign a scholarship to me.” The students were well aware that for many scholarships are the only means of life, so those whose financial situation improved wrote petitions for the rejection of scholarships, explaining such a decision simply and briefly: “I do not consider myself entitled now to use the said scholarship.” In need of students generally tried to help. Someone was rescued by books, someone - by housing. They organized an orchestra and a choir, and the money from concerts was given to poor students.

Housing was a major problem. Nonresidents were provided with a hostel, but it could be abandoned. Then, as compensation, the student was given a scholarship with the expectation that the money would be spent on renting a room. In 1899, this scholarship was 400 rubles.

The students were treated very carefully. A case is known when one capable student, a certain Azbukov, began to suffer from persecution mania. He was sent to the hospital for treatment, then he returned to the university, but soon the disease resumed. The student was poor, could not study further due to illness, the Student Residence Committee took care of the young man, knowing that his family was too poor to support the former student.

There were still many scholarships, which were appointed "with a scientific purpose." With this money, the student could live while he was doing scientific work or preparing to receive an academic title. The Lomonosov scholarship was 298 rubles a year, the Potemkin scholarship was 366, and the government scholarship was 300 rubles.

Large rewards could be obtained by writing a good scientific work and becoming the winner of some competition. A prize of 1,500 rubles, for example, could be received by a student who wrote the best work on the history of the formation of the literary languages ​​of Italy, Greece and the Slavic countries at a competition organized by the St. Petersburg Slavic Charitable Society in the 90s of the 19th century.

Scientific work required not only knowledge and strength, but also specialized literature. Books (as, indeed, today) were given to students at home, some were allowed to be read only in the reading room. In order to work with educational literature during the holidays ("vacation time"), it was necessary to write a special request. Failure to return library books was severely punished. Lists of debtors were submitted to the rector. Those who brought the book at the wrong time paid a fine. Those who refused to return the literature were visited by the police and the books were confiscated by force. Literature was valued so highly that the governor-general himself "took care" of the debtors. Accidentally or not, but most often students did not return foreign books (perhaps they contained especially valuable material or they could be sold at a higher price).

Students were engaged, of course, not only in studies. They participated in revolutionary speeches (for which many were expelled without the right to recovery), had fun and fell in love. Marriage required special permission. But in general, it was believed that "the right family environment can serve as a more reliable guarantee of physical and moral health" and, consequently, a stable study. It was possible to marry from the age of 21 with the consent of the parents, and “with a police certificate of the bride’s trustworthiness”. A guarantee of the material security of the marriage was obligatory. Either it was help from parents, or a contribution to the University Treasury of the amount to provide for the family while the husband was taking the course at the rate of payments in the amount of 25 rubles per month.

It is curious that the students were named not by courses, but by semesters: student of the third semester Semyon Ivanov. The autumn half-year lasted from August 20 to December 20, the spring half-year - from January 15 to May 30. After passing the exams, the student moved to the next course or received a diploma of higher education. Then he could go to work or, which many aspired to, stay at the university, get a scientific title and, in a few years, begin to teach young students himself.

Commentary by Academic Supervisor Marina Fadeeva, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Dean of the HSE Faculty of History Alexander Kamensky

In the mass consciousness, a Russian student of the late 19th and early 20th centuries usually appears as an eternally hungry consumptive youth with a feverish gleam in his eyes and with a soul filled with the most benevolent revolutionary impulses. However, one has only to seriously think about how, even without resorting to specialized literature, it becomes clear that, like many other stilted images that make up mass ideas about the past, this one also does not withstand criticism. After all, if all Russian students of that era were dying of consumption and were preoccupied not with their studies, but only with plans to fight the autocracy, in Russia at the beginning of the last century there would not have been brilliant scientists, engineers, lawyers, doctors and people of all other professions who were trained Russian universities. And during the period of revolutionary upheavals and the Civil War, for some reason, Russian students turned out to be by no means on the side of the Bolsheviks.

The organization of higher education in tsarist Russia, the university as a scientific corporation and many other topics related to this issue, of course, it is no coincidence that they have recently become one of the most prominent areas of historical research. What today is often called the crisis of domestic education and science has deep and by no means only economic roots. Researchers are concerned about the organization of the scientific community, its structure, the system of internal relations, and the norms of scientific ethics. In this context, Marina Fadeeva's appeal to the history of Russian students seems quite logical and natural. However, as her supervisor, I dare say that she came to her completely independently. Having become a history student at the Higher School of Economics herself, she, apparently, and perhaps even without realizing it herself, experienced curiosity about the phenomenon of students, which, ultimately, led her to this topic. Curiosity, as is well known, is the main driving force of science. Having once begun to study Russian students a hundred years ago, Marina, of course, discovered many far-from-resolved issues in this topic and became seriously carried away by it.

The history of Russian pre-revolutionary students is provided, though not too voluminous, but quite representative historiography. In particular, in recent decades, a significant contribution to it has been made by several monographs by A.E. Ivanov, who is rightly considered the best expert on this topic. The work of Marina Fadeeva, however, once again proves that in science there are no “closed” topics once and for all, and each new generation of historians asks the past new questions and receives new answers to them.

Marina Fadeeva, as a researcher who is just starting her career in science and belongs to the youngest generation of Russian historians, is distinguished at the same time by respect for her predecessors, whose works she actively uses, and a healthy distrust of everything she finds in them, the desire to double-check every "historical fact, to document it. Her term paper presented here bears little resemblance to an ordinary student term paper, significantly surpassing it not only in volume (more than 120 pages!), but also in the variety of subjects covered in it and the methods used. Not to mention the fact that in the coursework written in the second year you will not often find references to archival sources! Another distinguishing feature of the presented work is its consistency.

The author began with an attempt to understand what students are as a social group, what place they occupied in Russian society, what distinctive characteristics were provided by his contemporaries and subsequent historiography, then moving on to its formal characteristics (number, social origin), and from them - to recreate the reality of everyday life, which she rightly and in full accordance with the ideas of modern science considers as the basis for the formation of a worldview. To the reader, who is not too versed in the peculiarities of modern historical knowledge and expects to find, first of all, information about the number of students inspired by the works of Lavrov, Bakunin, Mikhailovsky and Marx, this approach may seem strange, and the abundance of tables and other digital material and completely avert from careful reading. But as soon as you get a grasp of it, you discover with pleasure how the next historical stereotypes begin to crumble. In addition, let us remember: we are only an intermediate stage on the way to big science, although not without certain stylistic and compositional shortcomings, but representing a very serious and thorough application.

Formation of the worldview of the Moscow students of the end XIX - start XX century

1. The concepts of "raznochintsy", "intelligentsia»

The concept of "students", like any definition, cannot be unambiguous. The related concepts are just as diverse. The raznochintsy component of students in the understanding of contemporaries and the minds of researchers often overshadows other parts of the student body, many students are defined as young intelligentsia, and therefore, in our opinion, on the eve of discussions about students, we should define what “raznochintsy” and “intelligentsia” are.

Pre-revolutionary historiography already understood the raznochinets in different ways: if B. Frommet defines the raznochintsy as “people without a family, without a tribe, sometimes connected with the lower ranks of the people, always cut off from all classes of society, with high hopes and without a penny in their pocket, with dreams of a marshal rod and without any social status ", then S. Svatikov, on the contrary, calls the main qualities of a raznochinets" a high understanding of the individual and a sharply expressed sense of self-worth ".

The definition of B. Frommett is similar to the ideas about raznochintsy that prevail in culture. As E. Wirtshafter writes, non-nobles and educated commoners were called raznochintsy - initially to belittle or condemn demeanor. For example, raznochintsy at A.N. Ostrovsky - these are half-educated students, non-nobles.

In Soviet historiography, the concept of "raznochintsy" is closely intertwined with the criterion of education. According to V.R. Leykina-Svirskaya, by the 19th century, “those who received a rank or title by the right of education began to be called raznochintsy”.

Modern researchers emphasize the fact that categories of the population that often fall under the criteria of raznochintsy did not use this term for self-determination. E. Wirtshafter also writes about the 19th century as a turning point in the definition of raznochintsy: initially being a transitional category of ignorant strangers, they become part of the educated elite.

If by the period of interest to us, raznochintsy are often defined through the presence of higher education, then it will be interesting to look at how they correlate with the intelligentsia in the research literature.

Modern historiography pays attention to this issue. Researchers such as S.G. Stafeev, V.V. Bocharov, E.I. Shcherbakova and L.G. Sukhotin either distinguish "raznochintsy" as part of the intelligentsia, or identify these concepts. For example, L.G. Sukhotina writes about the intelligentsia as "raznochinny in terms of social composition."

There are many definitions of the intelligentsia in historiography, each of the authors strives to give his own, the most complete and accurate, but no one has succeeded in this endeavor. K.B. Sokolov, considering the established definitions of the intelligentsia, identifies three main criteria by which one or another part of society is singled out into a single group called "intelligentsia": an intellectual as a person with an appropriate level of education, or as a "good person", a valiant knight, "conscience people", educator, defender, or as a dissident.

Most of the definitions of the intelligentsia in the historiography we have examined can be divided into these three groups: V.V. Bocharov, B.I. Kolonitsky and V. Zhivov. The image of a “good person” was mostly liked by Soviet researchers (in their works, N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubov formed intellectuals as people of the highest spiritual qualities), V.R. Leikina-Svirskaya, M.N. Tikhomirov and A.N. Maslinny. Both pre-revolutionary and modern authors believe in the "dissidence" of the intelligentsia. This is P.B. Struve, I.A. Ilyin , P.I Novgorodtsev , E.I. Shcherbakova , E. Wirtschafter , S.M. Usmanov and L.G. Sukhotin.

K.B. himself Sokolov criticizes all three common approaches. In his opinion, “there is no doubt that the intelligentsia is not just a category or not only a professional one. These are not just people of “intellectual labor”, but also, for example, representatives of the village intelligentsia, and therefore the first criterion is not suitable. The author proposes to represent the concepts of "intelligentsia" and "educated class" in the form of two concentric circles, then the intelligentsia is an internal initiative, creative circle.

Also, the intelligentsia is only in a fit of narcissism, according to K.B. Sokolova, could position herself as the "conscience of the people." In addition, the defined group itself never identified itself with the revolutionaries, and the revolution did not position its intelligence.

Thus, the selected criteria, according to K.B. Sokolov, are not true. However, he himself despairs of the possibility of ever once and for all ending the dispute about the intelligentsia and, it seems, comes to a certain agreement with the philologist V.S. Elistratov, who argues that anything can be found in the meaning of this word, but any definition will imply the best part of Russia.

What are the distinguishing features of the intelligentsia? Researchers of different generations and views single out in it detachment (V.M. Zhivov, P.B. Struve, E.I. Shcherbakova, P.I. Novgorodtsev), isolation, alienation (P.B. Struve, I.A. Ilyin , E. Wirtshafter, L.G. Sukhotina), radicalism (E.I. Shcherbakova, S.M. Usmanov), skepticism, criticality, nihilism (I.A. Ilyin, L.G. Sukhotina, E.I. Shcherbakova ).

“Beggars, unarmed people throw kings off the throne out of love for their neighbor. Out of love for the motherland, the soldiers trample on death with their feet, and she runs without looking back. Wise men ascend to heaven and dive into hell itself - out of love for the truth. The earth is being rebuilt out of love for beauty." The intelligentsia seemed to be just as versatile, and, perhaps, it was just as diverse in reality, not representing a homogeneous mass. We agree with K.B. Sokolov and, recognizing that “in general, it is already obvious that none of the known definitions of the intelligentsia is able to cover and explain the entire phenomenon as a whole” and we are talking about a concept that “does not have a clear detonation and includes an element of interpretation already when it is used ”, let us turn to the definition of students and highlighting the characteristic features of its Russian part.

2. Definition of students, its characteristics in Russian realities

Student - a student of a higher educational institution, university or academy.
V. Dahl. Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language

Students are considered as a special society that was formed around this educational institution and makes an independent contribution to public life.
Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half XVIII - first quarter XIX in.

As epigraphs for this part, we took two definitions of students: given in the Explanatory Dictionary of a contemporary of the period we are considering - V.I. Dahl and formulated in the work of a contemporary researcher. According to these statements, it can be seen that over two centuries, ideas about the subject of interest to us have not undergone significant changes.

The research literature tends to oppose the student body and its characteristic features depending on the geography of study: they do not see much similarity in Russian and foreign students, except for the fact of receiving higher education. An exception is the position of B. Frommet, who, as early as the beginning of the 20th century, disputed the widespread contemporary statements to him, “as if only in Russia alone, studying youth dare to claim active participation in the political life of the country, [which] without any doubt is wrong, or at least , greatly exaggerated."

Most researchers who have addressed this issue tend to oppose Russian students to foreign students. This tradition begins with pre-revolutionary authors. For example, G.B. Sliozberg sees the answer to the question of whether revolutionism is a specific feature of Russian students in the “difference in the composition of students”: in Europe, higher education was the lot of the elite, and therefore the material issue that played such a big role in the life of students in Russia did not stand there at all.

Our contemporaries V.V. Ponomarev and L.B. Khoroshilov, the explanation for such a significant difference is found in the very culture of universities. The Russian path “was a path opposite to the Western European one, where the experience, traditions, culture accumulated in society completely determined the lifestyle of educational institutions, but in our country it is in many respects the opposite - educational institutions created according to someone else's model themselves, sometimes by touch, created traditions, and culture, shaped the experience that decades later will form the basis of the traditions of the next generations of educational institutions.

Let us turn to questions closer to our topic and, on the basis of the censuses of Moscow (1882 and 1902), we will look at the share of students in the total mass of the Moscow population and at the quantitative changes taking place with this group. First, we present data that allow us to judge the percentage of the male population of the age we need (from 18 to 30 years old - the most common student age) to the entire mass of the population of Moscow, and then we correlate these men with the number of students.

Let's make a reservation in advance that we are interested in the age from 18 to 30 years and only students from the variety of all students, so in the tables we will provide only data on these ages and categories.

Table 1. Age distribution of the male population (1882) .

Age Husband. Total
15–20 7,00% 12,00%
20–25 8,00% 12,00%
25–30 7,00% 11,00%
Total 57,00% 100,00%

The table shows that out of the entire population of Moscow in 1882, we will be interested in 22% of men. We correlate them with the number of students.

Table 2. Distribution according to the degree of education of the male population (1882)

windows. Not OK. Total
Universities 2785 703 3488

So, in total, in 1882, 432,447 males lived in Moscow, of which 22% were men aged 18 to 30 years, i.e. 95,138 people. Of these, 3488 people were listed as students at the university. This means that 0.8% of men in Moscow were students in 1882.

Let us now look at the changes that had taken place by 1902.

Table 3. Age distribution of the male population (1902)

Age (years of age) born
In Moscow Outside Moscow Total
18 3148 15 374 18 522
19 2722 14 637 17 359
20 2524 16 025 18 549
21 2288 15 829 18 117
22 2180 17 723 19 903
23 2045 16 506 18 551
24 1937 15 037 16 974
25 2038 16 730 18 768
26 1992 14 754 16 746
27 2022 16 275 18 297
28 2079 16 332 18 411
29 1765 12 346 14 111
30 2080 16 725 18 805

According to these data, out of the entire population of Moscow in 1882, we will be interested in 38% of men. We correlate them with the number of students.

Table 4. Distribution according to the degree of education of the male population (1902)

Age (years of age) Total number [students in higher education] Universities
18 1742 173
19 1488 474
20 1430 800
21 1389 962
22 1146 902
23 969 776
24 719 602
25 536 418
26 324 250
27 197 145
28 101 59
29 58 35
30 or more 158 76
Total 43981 5690

In 1882, 613,303 males lived in Moscow, of which 38% were men aged 18 to 30, i.e. 233,113 people. Of these, 5690 people are listed as students at the university, which means that in 1902, 0.92% of men in Moscow were students.

Thus, over the 20 years from 1882 to 1902, the number of university students increased: from 3488 to 5690 people and grew from only 0.8% to 0.92%.

“What is the appearance of a Russian student? There is no doubt that the Russian students were a group of young people, imbued in the vast majority with the desire to develop principles for future activities - a group that had its own common features and was imbued with a special mood, ”wrote G.B. Sliozberg.

Based on the studied historiography, memoirs of students and professors, as well as information from official reports, we will try to determine these common features and highlight the distinctive features of Russian students.

There are no less disputes regarding the definition of students than in the case of the intelligentsia. So, according to S. Kassov, the students were distinguished by a "clear sense of corporate identity", as well as a "sense of a student family". According to A.M. Annenkov, “as a distinctive feature in the student environment of the first third of the 19th century. freedom of opinion and speech can be singled out, and G.B. Sliozberg - "the presence among students of heterogeneous, alien in upbringing and habits to elements" . V.R. Leikina-Svirskaya insists that "Russian students had a democratic character." “The expectations of beneficial changes in Russian society, typical for the students of that time [the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century,” notes A.E. Ivanov. V.E. Baghdasaryan is sure that "the departure of students to the revolution was a manifestation of the crisis of youthful socialization." “Professors, as well as a significant part of the so-called educated society [in fact, the intelligentsia], are educating the younger generation, in short, a revolutionary spirit,” Professor N.P. states with indignation. Bogolepov. “The growth of the student movement gave rise to a powerful impulse for self-knowledge among the students of universities,” writes Yu.D. Margolis, “as far as society is concerned, in this era the student’s blue band was a patent for trust,” emphasizes S. Svatikov.

From this variety of striking characteristics, it becomes clear only that the main features of the student body were its diversity and heterogeneity. What are the inalienable qualities of a Russian student of the late 19th - early 20th century?

We have formulated the following ten distinctive features: community and solidarity; the desire to develop ideals and norms of behavior; transition and heterogeneity; democracy; search for yourself; corporatism; own ideas about the future; state of political views; commitment to certain ideas and, finally, interaction with society.

The selected features of the students are understood differently by historiography and the authors of the sources: some are noted only by the authors of a certain era, others are accepted by the majority, many turn out to be controversial. Let's consider them sequentially.

Let us first turn to the features of the student body, understood in a similar way. All authors note, firstly, the desire of students for community and solidarity (data from the “Report of the Moscow University Commission of 1901 on the causes of student unrest”, works by S. Melgunov, S. Svatikov, S. Kassov, P.V. Grishunin, A .M. Feofanov and E. Vishlenkova, R. Galiullina, K. Ilyina). Secondly, their desire to develop ideals and norms of behavior that proclaimed freedom, morality, and ideological life as ideals is noted (information provided by S. Melgunov, “Report of the Judicial Commission for 1893/1894”, S. Svatikov, A.E. Ivanov, G.I. Shchetinina, S. Kassov and A.M. Annenkov). Thirdly, the transition and heterogeneity of the students, who came out of different social strata and at the university transformed into something, on the one hand, completely new, and on the other hand, retaining traces of the original estate and class affiliation (data from G.B. Sliozberg, V R. Leikina-Svirskaya, A. E. Ivanov, N. G. Georgieva, S. Kassova, V. N. Simonov and A. M. Feofanov). Fourthly, it is the democratic nature of students in various spheres of life (representations by S. Svatikov, V.R. Leikina-Svirskaya, A.E. Ivanov and N.G. Georgieva). And, fifthly, students' search for themselves (beliefs of S. Melgunov, B. Frommet, S. Kassov, Yu.D. Margolis and N.G. Zavadsky).

Other five features are controversial in the interpretation of researchers. This is, firstly, the corporatism of students, which most people call one of the main features of the student body (R. Vydrin, A.E. Ivanov, S. Kassov, O.A. Vakhterova, P.V. Grishunin, I.V. Zimin and E. Vishlenkova, R. Galiullina, K. Ilyin), while others, on the contrary, write about the destruction of corporatism by the charter of 1884 (information from the “Report of the Moscow University Commission of 1901 on the causes of student unrest” and S.I. Mitskevich). Secondly, their ideas about the future: uncertain (in the interpretation of G.B. Sliozberg and S. Kassov) and confidence in change (A.E. Ivanov). Thirdly, the state of political views is assessed by researchers in different ways. They were almost equally divided in their opinions: some speak of the uncertainty and heterogeneity of student ideas (R. Vydrin, A. Saltykov, V.B. Elyashevich, M.V. Sabashnikov, S. Kassov, V.N. Simonov and A.M. Annenkov), others write about political differentiation and activity (G.B. Sliozberg, V. Lind, G.A. Veselaya, A.E. Ivanov, S.I. Radtsig, N.G. Zavadsky, V.E. Baghdasaryan). Fourthly, the commitment of Russian students to certain ideas: we learn either about the inclination of students to liberal ideas (A. Saltykov and Yu.K. Rachkovskaya), or about their revolutionary worldview (N.I. Khudyakov, G.I. Shchetinina, S D. Speshkov and N. G. Zavadsky). And, finally, fifthly, the interaction of students and society is also regarded ambiguously: if the majority tends to their mutual trust (Commission of the Moscow University of 1901 on the causes of student unrest, S.D. Speshkov, B. Frommet, V. Kurbsky, S. Svatikov, G.B. Sliozberg and A.S. Izgoev), then the rest write about students outside of society (S. Melgunov) or about society's distrust of students (in the submissions of the Judicial Commission [student]).

This is how the image of Russian students of the late 19th - early 20th century appears in the sources and works of researchers.

3. Correlation of the concepts of students, intelligentsia and raznochintsy

Above, we talked about the intelligentsia, its definitions and characteristics, as well as the definition of the Russian student body and its inherent features. Now consider how these concepts are combined from the point of view of researchers from different eras.

Regardless of the time of creation of their works, various authors are unanimous in their assessments. S. Svatikov, G.B. Sliozberg , A. Saltykov , N.G. Georgiev, G.I. Shchetinina, N.G. Zavadsky and B.I. Kolonitsky.

Some researchers separately emphasize that the students were "the quintessence of the Russian intelligentsia." We find such statements, in particular, in the works of R. Vydrin, A.E. Ivanov and K.B. Sokolova.

Thus, we have shown how historiography evaluates raznochintsy, intelligentsia and students, what characteristic features stand out in each case, and how these concepts are combined with each other. To understand the relationship between these three concepts and to understand the essence of the student body, we expressed this relationship with a diagram.

Scheme 1

Let us briefly explain the structure of the circuit. Let us first explain the inclusion of the intelligentsia in the educated population only as a part. This is explained by our agreement with the ideas of S.G. Stafeev, who defines the intelligentsia in such a way in Russian realities. He is convinced that “unlike Western intellectuals, for whom the main criterion for attributing them to this stratum was professional mental work, in Russia people began to be called intelligentsia, differing primarily in two characteristic features: the desire to selflessly serve the people, to express and protect its interests and irreconcilable opposition to political power. Thus, in Russian realities, along with the level of education, one of the main criteria for the intelligentsia is its opposition. Further, according to E.K. Wirtshafter, raznochintsy are fully included in the intelligentsia, tk. were its most radical part. As for the students, it seemed important to us to emphasize their heterogeneity not only in social terms, but also in terms of beliefs. After all, even the pre-revolutionary researcher S. Svatikov emphasized that "the hegemony of the intelligent commoner was so strong in the students that his appearance overshadowed other types of youth." Therefore, on the diagram, students are represented, on the one hand, as part of the intelligentsia and, accordingly, part of the raznochintsy, and on the other hand, as part of the educated population, i.e. holders of higher education loyal to the government.

4. The origins of the student body (XVIII- StartXIXcentury)

The chosen chronological framework of this work is the middle of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century (1860-1904), therefore, the time preceding this period can be spoken of as the origins of students. On the basis of historiography, we will show how students were understood in the era of its inception, and look at the evolution within this process, so that later, when analyzing students of the period we have chosen, it would be possible to trace the causes and evolution of certain ideas of students and its perception by society, the authorities and the students themselves of the Moscow university.

Let us first follow the quantitative changes in the number of students.

Table 5. Changes in the number of students in Russia (1808–1894)

Year Number of students, pers.
1808 150
1830 1996
1850 3368
1860 5453
1865 5453
1872 7251
1894 8193

Table 6. Changes in the number of students at Moscow and St. Petersburg Universities (1850–1894)

Year/University 1850 1880 1885 1890 1894
Moscow 821 1881 3179 3492 3761
Petersburg 387 1675 2340 1815 2676

What are the changes in the number of students in Russia? From 1808 to 1894, the number of students increased from 150 to 8193 people, i.e. 55 times. The number of students also increased at Moscow University: from 1850 to 1894, the number of students increased 4.5 times (from 821 to 3761 people).

Let us divide the time of the origins into two periods - the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century - and consider them sequentially.

The 18th century is presented in historiography as follows. One of the pre-revolutionary researchers of the student movement emphasizes at this time the fact that “university education, accessible only to one nobility, did not open up especially tempting prospects for students, because. the conditions of the serf regime hindered any cultural undertaking.

Modern authors narrate in detail about the time of the birth of Russian universities. In the book “Higher Education in Russia. Outline of history until 1917" it is reported that "all types and types of higher educational institutions were created at the initiative of the state and at the expense of the state" , and therefore "the state hampered any manifestation of public goals if they did not pursue pragmatic tasks" . V.A. Zmeev notes that “universities began to really influence changes in the social class composition of the population of St. clothes."

With regard to the beginning of the 19th century, the collection "Higher Education in Russia ..." characterizes changes in government policy in the field of education as follows. “Autonomy and authoritarianism were changing; Recognition of intrinsic value for higher education was given with difficulty both in the sphere of government and in a slowly evolving society.

A.M. Annenkov dwells in detail on the characteristics of the students of this period. He writes that “at the beginning of the 19th century. young people who entered the university saw it as the main means for realizing their abilities and desires ", noting that" most of the students studied willingly and seriously "," however, with all the "thirst for knowledge", the general educational level of students remained low due to the rather low qualifications of the teaching staff and imperfect forms of education” . Speaking about the life of pupils of Moscow University, he reports that students read willingly and a lot, and "books and magazines banned by official censorship were especially popular", the theater was also a form of leisure. “As a distinctive feature in the student environment of the first third of the 19th century. freedom of opinion and speech can be singled out,” the researcher concludes. The theme of student life is continued by N.V. Makarov, emphasizing that "students of Moscow University were distinguished by frequent visits to taverns, of which Moscow had enough" . In addition to the theater, in her opinion, “a characteristic feature of student life in the first half of the 19th century was student “gatherings”. Young people gathered informally, discussed university life, professors, and various issues of Russian life. At these "gatherings" there were occasional drinking bouts. In general, “students of the first universities were not distinguished by good manners,” the researcher concludes. E. Vishlenkov, R. Galiullina and K. Ilyin complete the characterization of the students of the early 19th century. They emphasize the fact that "in the 1830s, the Russian student acquired clear identification marks", became more educated and older.

Notes

1. Frommet b. Essay on the history of students in Russia. SPb., 1912. S. 27.
2. Svatikov S. Students before and now // Way of students. Sat. articles. Private collection of proceeds to the fund of the Moscow student house. M., 1916. S. 1–19 (hereinafter: Svatikov S. Students before and now...).
3. Wirtshafter E.K. Social structures: raznochintsy in the Russian Empire. Per. from English. T.P. Party. Ed. A.B. Kamensky. M.: Logos, 2002 (hereinafter: Wirtshafter E.K. ).
4. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Moscow. 1971. S. 25 (further: Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century ...).

5. Stafeev S.G. Russian intelligentsia and its role in the social movement (second half of the 19th century) // Man, culture, society: interuniversity. Sat. scientific tr. / Editorial staff: N.V. Dulin (responsible editor) and others / VolgGTU. Volgograd, 2005. Issue. 2. P. 67–76. (Further: Stafeev S.G. The Russian intelligentsia and its role in the social movement (second half of the 19th century) ...).

6. Bocharov V.V. Intelligentsia and violence: socio-anthropological aspect // Anthropology of violence. RAN. Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology. Miklouho-Maclay. Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography. Peter the Great (Kunstkamera). St. Petersburg State University. Rep. Ed. V.V. Bocharov, V.A. Tishkov. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2001, pp. 39–85 (hereinafter: Bocharov V.V. Intelligentsia and Violence: A Socio-Anthropological Aspect…).

7. Shcherbakova E.I. Raznochinnaya intelligentsia of the 60s of the XIX century as a potential opponent of political detectives // Historical readings on the Lubyanka. Russian special services at the turn of the era: the end of the 19th century - 1922. Moscow, Veliky Novgorod, 1999, pp. 48–55 (hereinafter: Shcherbakova E.I. Raznochinskaya intelligentsia of the 60s of the 19th century as a potential opponent of political investigation bodies ...).

8. Sukhotina L.G. Russian intelligentsia and social thought. Publishing House of Tomsk University, 2008 (hereinafter: Sukhotina L.G. ).
9. Ibid. S. 14.
10. Sokolov K.B. Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life. SPb., 2007 (hereinafter: Sokolov K.B. ).
11. Bocharov V.V. Intelligentsia and Violence: A Socio-Anthropological Aspect…

12. Kolonitsky B.I. Intelligentsia in the late 19th - early 20th century: contemporaries' self-awareness and research approaches // From the history of the Russian intelligentsia. Collection of materials and articles dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of V.R. Leikina-Svirskaya. SPb., 2003. S. 181–201 (hereinafter: Kolonitsky B.I. Intelligentsia in the late 19th - early 20th century: contemporaries' self-awareness and research approaches...).

13. Zhivov V. Marginal culture in Russia and the birth of the intelligentsia. // New literary review. 1999. No. 37 (hereinafter: Zhivov V. Marginal Culture in Russia and the Birth of the Intelligentsia…).
14. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. The intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century ...
15. History of Moscow University. Volume I. Rep. ed. M.N. Tikhomirov. M., 1955.
16. Maslin A.N. Materialism and revolutionary-democratic ideology in Russia in the 60s of the XIX century. M., 1960.
17. Struve P.B. Intelligentsia and revolution (1909) // Russian sources of modern social philosophy. Intelligentsia. Power. People. M., 1993. S. 190–204 (hereinafter: Struve P.B. Intelligentsia and revolution ...).
18. Ilyin I.A. On the Russian intelligentsia (1927) // Russian sources of modern social philosophy. Intelligentsia. Power. People. M., 1993. S. 275–281 (hereinafter: Ilyin I.A. About the Russian intelligentsia ...).
19. Novgorodtsev P.I. On the Ways and Tasks of the Russian Intelligentsia (1918) // Russian Sources of Modern Social Philosophy. Intelligentsia. Power. People. M., 1993. S. 225–241 (hereinafter: Novgorodtsev P.I. About the ways and tasks of the Russian intelligentsia ...).
20. Shcherbakova E.I. Ethics of revolutionary action (60s of the 19th century). Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. M., 1996 (hereinafter: Shcherbakova E.I. Ethics of revolutionary action (60s of the XIX century) ...).
21. Wirtshafter E.K. Social Structures: Raznochintsy in the Russian Empire…
22. Usmanov S.M. Hopeless dreams. Russian intelligentsia between East and West in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. Ivanovo, 1998 (further: Usmanov S.M. Hopeless dreams. Russian intelligentsia between East and West in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries ...).
23. Sukhotina L.G. Russian intelligentsia and social thought ...
24. Sokolov K.B. Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life ...
25. Zhivov V. Marginal culture in Russia and the birth of the intelligentsia ... S. 39.
26. Struve P.B.
27. Shcherbakova E.I.
28. Novgorodtsev P.I. About the ways and tasks of the Russian intelligentsia ... S. 237.
29. Struve P.B. Intelligentsia and revolution ... S. 192.
30. Ilyin I.A. About the Russian intelligentsia ... S. 277.
31. Wirtshafter E.K. Social Structures: Raznochintsy in the Russian Empire…
32. Sukhotina L.G. Russian intelligentsia and social thought ... S. 14.
33. Shcherbakova E.I. Ethics of revolutionary action (60s of the XIX century) ... S. 53.
34. Usmanov S.M. Hopeless dreams. Russian intelligentsia between East and West in the second half of the 19th - early 20th century ... S. 5.
35. Ilyin I.A. About the Russian intelligentsia...
36. Sukhotina L.G. Russian intelligentsia and social thought ...
37. Shcherbakova E.I. Ethics of revolutionary action (60s of the XIX century) ... S. 53.
38. Schwartz E.L. Ordinary miracle: plays, fairy tales. Moscow: Eksmo. 2011, pp. 559–560.
39. Sokolov K.B. Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life ... S. 38.
40. Ibid. S. 39.
41. Dahl W. Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language. M., 1956. T. IV. Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by Vladimir Dahl. Second edition, corrected and greatly enlarged from the author's manuscript. Volume four. SPb., M., 1882. S. 347.
42. Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th century. Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. M., 2006 (hereinafter: Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th centuries ...).
43. Frommet b. Essay on the history of students in Russia ... S. 1.
44. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students // In memory of Russian students. Paris, 1934, pp. 82–95 (further: Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ...).
45. Ponomareva V.V., Khoroshilova L.B. University Noble boarding house. 1779–1830 Moscow: New Chronograph, 2006, p. 63.
46. ​​Census of Moscow in 1882. Issue. II. Population and Occupations. M .: City Printing House, 1885 (hereinafter: Census of Moscow in 1882. Issue II. Population and Occupations ...).
47. Ibid. S. 77.
48. Ibid. S. 77.

49. Census of Moscow in 1902. Part I. Population. Issue. 1. Population by sex, age, field, length of stay in Moscow, marital status, estates, literacy and degree of education. Publication of the Statistical Department of the Moscow City Council. M., 1904 (hereinafter: Census of Moscow in 1902. Part I. Population. Issue 1. Population by sex, age, field, length of stay in Moscow, marital status, estates, literacy and degree of education ...).

50. Ibid. S. 38.
51. Ibid. S. 106.
52. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... S. 82.
53. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia. L.: University of California Press, 1989. P. 54 (hereinafter: Kassow S.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia…).
54. Ibid. pp. 48–49.
55. Annenkov A.M. Russian students in the first third of the 19th century in the memoirs of contemporaries // Culture of historical memory. Proceedings of the scientific conference (September 19–22, 2011). Petrozavodsk, 2002, pp. 106–113. S. 112 (further: Annenkov A.M. Russian students in the first third of the 19th century in the memoirs of contemporaries...).
56. Sliozberg G.B.
57. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R.
58. Ivanov A.E. Student corporation of Russia in the late 19th - early 20th century: experience of cultural and political self-organization. M., 2004. S. 288 (hereinafter: Ivanov A.E. Student corporation of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century: the experience of cultural and political self-organization ...).

59. Bagdasaryan V.E. Motives for deviant behavior of students in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. // Russian students: conditions of life and life (XVIII-XXI centuries). All-Russian scientific conference. Collections of scientific articles. M., 2004. S. 83 (hereinafter: Bagdasaryan V.E. Motives for deviant behavior of students in the late 19th - early 20th century. // Russian students: conditions of life and life (XVIII-XXI centuries) ...).

60. From the notes of Professor N.P. Bogolepov. A page from the life of Moscow University. M., 1911. P. 55 (further: From the notes of Professor N.P. Bogolepov. A page from the life of Moscow University ...).
61. Margolis Yu.D. Student censuses in Russia 1872–1912 // Medieval and new Russia. Collection of scientific articles. To the 60th anniversary of prof. AND I. Froyanova. SPb., 1996. S. 658 (hereinafter: Margolis Yu.D. Student censuses in Russia 1872–1912…).
62. Svatikov S.
63. Materials on the university issue. Issue. 2. Report of the commission of the Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest. Stuttgart, 1904. P. 59 (hereinafter: Materials on the university issue. Issue 2. Report of the commission of Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest ...).
64. Melgunov C. Student organizations in the 80s–90s at Moscow University (according to archival data). M., 1908. S. 3 (hereinafter: Melgunov C. Student organizations in the 80s–90s at Moscow University (according to archival data) ...).
65. Svatikov S.
66. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia… P. 22.
67. Grishunin P.V. Students of metropolitan universities: structures of everyday life. 1820s–1880s Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. SPb., 2005. S. 18 (hereinafter: Grishunin P.V. Students of metropolitan universities: structures of everyday life. 1820–1880s...).
68. Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th centuries ... P. 25–26.
69. Russian professors. University corporatism or professional solidarity. M.: NLO, 2012. S. 59 (hereinafter: Vishlenkova E., Galiullina R., Ilyina K. Russian professors. University corporatism or professional solidarity…).
70. Melgunov C. From the history of student societies in Russian universities. M., 1904. S. 1 (hereinafter: Melgunov C. From the history of student societies in Russian universities...).
71. Report of the judicial commission for 1893/1894 // From the notes of Professor N.P. Bogolepov. A page from the life of Moscow University. M., 1911. S. 109.
72. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... S. 10.

73. Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political appearance // Revolutionary movement of the democratic intelligentsia of Russia in the period of imperialism. Collection of scientific papers. M., 1984. S. 123 (further: Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political appearance ...).

74. Shchetinina G.I. Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. Last quarter of the 19th century Abstract for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences. M., 1988. S. 42 (hereinafter: Shchetinina G.I. Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. Last quarter of the 19th century...).
75. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia… P. 52.
76. Annenkov A.M.
77. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... S. 94.
78. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. The intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century ... S. 27.
79. Ivanov A.E. University policy of autocracy on the eve of the first Russian revolution of 1899–1904. Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. M., 1975. S. 14 (hereinafter: Ivanov A.E. University policy of autocracy on the eve of the first Russian revolution of 1899–1904…).
80. Georgieva N.G. IN AND. Lenin on the place of students in the bourgeois-democratic revolution // Intelligentsia and revolution. XX century. Rep. ed. d.h.s. K.V. Gusev. M., 1985. S. 90 (hereinafter: Georgieva N.G. IN AND. Lenin on the place of students in the bourgeois-democratic revolution ...).
81. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia. P. 401.
82. Simonov V.N. Pupils of Moscow University are active participants in the political movement in the late 19th - present. 20th century Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. M., 1995. S. 13 (hereinafter: Simonov V.N. Pupils of Moscow University are active participants in the political movement in the late 19th - present. XX century ...).
83. Feofanov A.M. Students of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th centuries ... P. 25.
84. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... S. 15.
85. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. The intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century ... S. 27.
86. Ivanov A.E. University policy of autocracy on the eve of the first Russian revolution of 1899–1904… P. 13; Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political appearance ... S. 113.
87. Georgieva N.G. IN AND. Lenin on the place of students in the bourgeois-democratic revolution ... S. 91.
88. Melgunov C. Student organizations in the 80s–90s at Moscow University (according to archival data) ... S. 103.
89. Frommet b. Essay on the history of students in Russia ... S. 58.
90. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia… P. 399.
91. Margolis Yu.D. Student censuses in Russia 1872-1912 ... S. 658.
92. Zavadsky N.G. Student body and political parties in 1901–1914 SPb., 1998. S. 31 (hereinafter: Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901-1914...).
93. Vydrin R. Highlights of the student movement in Russia. M., 1908. S. 28 (further: Vydrin R. The main points of the student movement in Russia ...).
94. Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political appearance ... S. 123; Ivanov A.E. Student Corporation of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century: the experience of cultural and political self-organization ... S. 389.
95. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia… P. 54.
96. Vakhterova O.A. Students and authorities in Russia in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries // Power and Society. Interuniversity collection of scientific papers. SPb., 2000. S. 60.
97. Grishunin P.V. Students of metropolitan universities: structures of everyday life. 1820–1880s… S. 17.
98. Zimin I.V. Student uniform and badges in Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries // Facts and Versions. Historical and cultural almanac. Book. IV. Methodology. Symbolism. Semantics. SPb., 2005. P. 112 (hereinafter: Zimin I.V. Student uniform and badges in Russia in the 19th - early 20th century...).
99. Materials on the university issue. Issue. 2. Report of the commission of the Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest ... S. 13.
100. Mitskevich S.I. Notes of a public doctor. 1888–1918 M.-L., 1941. S. 7.
101. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... S. 83.
102. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia… P. 403.
103. Ivanov A.E. Student Corporation of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century: the experience of cultural and political self-organization ... S. 288.
104. Vydrin R. The main points of the student movement in Russia ... S. 14.
105. Saltykov A. Moscow University in 1890–1895 // In memory of Russian students. Paris, 1934, p. 96 (further: Saltykov A. Moscow University in 1890-1895...).
106. Elyashevich V.B. From the memoirs of an old Moscow student (1892–1896) // In memory of Russian students. Paris, 1934, p. 107 (further: Elyashevich V.B. From the memoirs of an old Moscow student (1892-1896) ...).
107. Sabashnikov M.V. Memoirs // Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries (1755-1917). M., 1989. S. 580 (hereinafter: Sabashnikov M.V. Memories…).
108. KassowS.D. Students, Professors and State in the Tsarist Russia… P. 196.
109. Simonov V.N. Pupils of Moscow University are active participants in the political movement in the late 19th - present. XX century ... S. 22.
110. Annenkov A.M. Russian students in the first third of the 19th century in the memoirs of contemporaries ... S. 112.
111. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... S. 84.
112. Lind W. Memories of my life. Moscow University ... S. 250.
113. Veselaya G.A. Mass public performances of Moscow students in the late XIX - early XX century. (1896–1904). Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. M., 1974. S. 11.
114. Ivanov A.E. Russian university students on the eve of the first Russian revolution. Socio-political appearance ... S. 121.
115. Radtsig S.I. Pages from memories ... S. 597.
116. Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901–1914… S. 37.
117. Bagdasaryan V.E. Motives for deviant behavior of students in the late XIX - early XX century ... S. 83.
118. Saltykov A.
119. Rachkovskaya Yu.K. Students of St. Petersburg and Moscow in the light of the authors of the liberal trend (the end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century). Abstract for the degree of candidate of historical sciences. SPb., 1999. S. 17.
120. Khudyakov N.I. Notes of Karakozov. Moscow University (1859–1860) ... S. 438.
121. Shchetinina G.I. Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. The last quarter of the 19th century ... S. 35.
122. Speshkov S.D. A note compiled on behalf of the Minister of Public Education by a member of the Council, Privy Councilor Speshkov, about various organizations among students and students in various educational institutions ... P. 19.
123. Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901-1914 ... S. 37
124. Materials on the university question. Issue. 2. Report of the commission of the Moscow University in 1901 on the causes of student unrest ... S. 23
125. Speshkov S.D. A note drawn up on behalf of the Minister of Public Education by a member of the Council, Privy Councilor Speshkov, about various organizations among students and students in various educational institutions ... P. 17.
126. Frommet b. Essay on the history of students in Russia ... S. 29.
127. Kurbsky V. Essays on student life (from the diary of a former student) ... S. 53.
128. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... S. 15.
129. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... S. 94.
130. S. 205 [According to: Izgoev A.S. About intelligent youth (Notes about her way of life and moods) // Milestones. From the depth. M., 1991, S. 112].
131. Melgunov C. Student organizations in the 80s–90s at Moscow University (according to archival data) ... S. 88.
132. Report of the judicial commission for 1893/1894 ... S. 131.
133. Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901-1914 ... S. 161.
134. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... S. 15.
135. Sliozberg G.B. Pre-revolutionary Russian students ... S. 94.
136. Saltykov A. Moscow University in 1890–1895… S. 96.
137. Georgieva N.G. IN AND. Lenin on the place of students in the bourgeois-democratic revolution ... S. 90.
138. Shchetinina G.I. Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. The last quarter of the 19th century ... S. 41.
139. Zavadsky N.G. Students and political parties in 1901–1914… P. 9.
140. Kolonitsky B.I. Intelligentsia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries: contemporaries' self-awareness and research approaches ... S. 188.
141. Sokolov K.B. The Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life ... [According to: Izgoev A.S. About intelligent youth (Notes about her way of life and moods) // Milestones. From the depth. M., 1991.].
142. Vydrin R. Highlights of the student movement in Russia ... S. 42.
143. Ivanov A.E. Student Corporation of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century: the experience of cultural and political self-organization ... S. 286.
144. Sokolov K.B. Russian intelligentsia of the 18th - early 20th centuries: a picture of the world and everyday life ...
145. Stafeev S.G. The Russian intelligentsia and its role in the social movement (the second half of the 19th century) ... S. 67 [For: History of Russia in questions and answers. Rostov-on-Don, 1999, p. 303].
146. Svatikov S. Students before and now ... S. 15.

147. Chinenny A., Stoyan T. Students of Russian universities (XIX century) // Higher education in Russia. Scientific and pedagogical journal of the Ministry of General and Vocational Education of the Russian Federation. 1999. No. 5. P. 141 [According to: Brockhaus F.A., Efron I.A. Encyclopedic Dictionary T. XXXIV. SPb., 1899. S. 754] (hereinafter: Chinenny A., Stoyan T. Students of Russian Universities (XIX century)…).

148. Ibid. P. 142 [S. 142 - By: Higher education in Russia. Essay on history until 1917. NII VO. M., 1995. S. 117].
149. Vydrin R. The main points of the student movement in Russia ... S. 11.
150. Higher education in Russia. Outline of history until 1917. Ed. prof. V.G. Kinelev. M., 1995. S. 260 (hereinafter: Higher education in Russia. Outline of history until 1917. Edited by Prof. V. G. Kinelev ...).
151. Ibid. S. 260.
152. Zmeev V.A. Russian students of the XVIII century // Russian students at the turn of the century. Materials of the All-Russian Student Forum. Ed. Yu.V. Kovrizhinykh, G.V. Kupriyanova. Scientific editor T.E. Petrov. M., 2001. S. 5.
153. Ibid. S. 16.
154. Higher education in Russia. Outline of history until 1917. Ed. prof. V.G. Kinelev ... S. 261.
155. Annenkov A.M. Russian students in the first third of the 19th century in the memoirs of contemporaries ... S. 107.
156. Ibid. S. 108.
157. Ibid. S. 109.
158. Ibid. S. 111.
159. Ibid. S. 112.
160. Makarova N.V. Students in the 19th century: life and customs // Russian students: conditions of life and life (XVIII–XXI centuries). All-Russian scientific conference. Collections of scientific articles. M., 2004. S. 61 (hereinafter: Makarova N.V. Students in the 19th century: life and customs ...).

When starting to study the topic, students should remember that in the second half of the 19th century, important changes took place in Russian culture. This was largely due to the major historical events that took place in Russia. The most important factor that had a huge impact on the development of all aspects of society was the abolition of serfdom and the bourgeois reforms that followed it. Thanks to these transformations, capitalism developed rapidly in Russia, which changed the entire old economic system of the country, led to a change in the social and spiritual image of the population, its way of life, mores, and to an increase in cultural needs.

The development of education should be considered on the example of the transformative policy of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovnin. The rise of science and technology was also associated with educational reforms. It is necessary to consider the scientific activities of the Russian Academy of Sciences, university professors, numerous scientific and scientific and technical societies that arose in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

The education reforms also resulted in a noticeable growth of libraries and museums, periodicals and book publishing.

The development of Russian literature in the second half of the XIX century. was caused by the crisis of relations between the authorities and society after the Crimean War, therefore, the ideas of public service, citizenship, and exposing the existing reality were put forward in a central place in it. Considering in general terms the work of N. A. Nekrasov, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy and others, students should try to formulate the main line of development of Russian literature in the period under consideration and the degree of its influence on the spiritual development of society.

The issue of the development of Russian art must be considered, paying attention to the new social processes that took place in the country. In particular, the appearance of a diverse intelligentsia, thanks to which the attitude of cultural figures to their place and role in society has changed.

In the second half of the 19th century, a national art school was finally formed in Russia, the achievements of which embraced not individual types of art, but precisely artistic culture as a whole, embracing various types of art, and the entire system of their interaction, and the relationship of art with society.

Considering the question of the development of architecture, it should be noted that as a result of the rapid development of capitalist relations after the abolition of serfdom, the number of cities, especially large centers, grew.

New methods of building were born, new building materials were used.

The main artistic trend in the architecture of this time was eclecticism. Among the Russian architects of the post-reform era there were many outstanding masters. Students should get acquainted with the work of A.E. RezanovA, A.M. Gornostaev, V.O. Sherwood and others.

The question of the development of Russian painting requires knowledge that the leading center for the training of professional architects, sculptors, and artists was still the Russian Academy of Arts. It should not be denied that the Academy trained specialists of the European level. However, the restriction of freedom of creativity by academic dogmas caused discontent among the part of her students who shared democratic convictions. Dissatisfaction with the academic system of teaching among some students of the Academy of Arts in the 60s. 19th century led to the first organized action against the academic order. In the history of Russian culture, this event is known as the "Riot of the Fourteen". Students need to understand the reasons for the protest of young artists, to study materials about the activities they created in 1863. "The First St. Petersburg Artel of Free Artists".

It is especially important to analyze the reasons for the creation, the composition of the participants, the ideological guidelines of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions.

Considering the work of masters of fine arts, it is necessary to single out the main directions in the development of painting: everyday genre, historical painting, portrait and landscape painting

Students should study the biographies of such famous painters of the second half of the 19th century as V.G. Perov, I.E. Repin, V.I. Surikov, A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin and others.

The development of sculpture in the period under study was associated with the work of sculptors of the academic direction - M.O. Mikeshin and A.M. guardian. The realistic direction in sculpture was expressed in the work of M.M. Antokolsky.

The democratization of the country's artistic life, which took place in the early 1860s, led to qualitative, radical shifts in the entire way of musical life. This is confirmed by the development of musical criticism and theoretical thought about music; organization in 1860 of the Russian Musical Society (RMO). Its goal was to "develop musical education and a taste for music in Russia and encourage domestic talent." In 1862, in St. Petersburg, and in 1866, in Moscow, on the initiative of the famous pianists and conductors brothers A. G. and N. G. Rubinshten, conservatories were opened. For the first time, the profession of musician acquired a legal status; the title of "free artist", assigned at the end of the course, meant a certain civil status.

The successor of the creative tradition of M. I. Glinka was P. I. Tchaikovsky, whose name is associated with the development of Russian musical culture of the era under study. The realistic traditions of M. I. Glinka were further developed in the work of the members of the circle of composers of the realistic direction - “The Mighty Handful”, which included M. A. Balakirev, M. P. Mussorgsky, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A. P. Borodin and Ts. A. Cui. Students should study their biographies, know the main musical works. Theatrical life in the 1860s-1890s was represented by opera theaters - the Bolshoi and Mariinsky, as well as drama theaters. The leading role was played by the Maly and Alexandrinsky theatres. Students must study dramaturgy, directing features, theatrical education system; get acquainted with the history of the creation of the capital's theaters, as well as the work of the leading artists who worked in them (M. S. Shchepkin, P. M. Sadovsky, P. A. Strepetova, G. N. Fedotov, M. N. Yermolov - at the Maly Theater; V. V. Samoilov, P. V. Vasiliev, K. A. Varlamov, M. G. Savina - at the Alexandrinsky Theater.

It is important to note that after the abolition of the monopoly of the Imperial Theaters in 1882, the creation of theaters in the Russian provinces began. Students must prepare performances about the theaters of the Don.

Abstract topics:

1. New trends in Russian culture in the post-reform period.

2. "Wanderers" and their social significance.

3. Provincial theater in the second half of the 19th century (on the example of the development of theaters in Rostov-on-Don, Taganrog, Novocherkassk).

Sources and literature:

1. Botkina A.P.M. Tretyakov in life and art. M., 1960.

2. Minchenkov Ya.D. Memories of the Wanderers. L., 1961.

3. Tenisheva M. K. Impressions of my life. L., 1991.

1. Allenov M.M. and others. Russian art X - early XX: Architecture. Sculpture. Painting. Graphic arts. M., 1989.

2. Aronov A.A. World art culture: Russia: the end of the 19th - 20th centuries. Study guide. M., 1999.

3. Gordeeva E. M. Composers of the "Mighty Handful". M., 1986.

4. Zezina M.R. Koshman L.V., Shulgin V.S. Culture of Russia in the IX-XX centuries. - M., 1996.

5. Kondakov I.V. Culture of Russia. M., 1999.

6. Kuleshov V.I. History of Russian literature of the 19th century. M., 1997.

7. Culture and art of Russia in the 19th century. M., 1985.

8. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. M., 1971.

9. Lisovsky V. G. Academy of Arts. L., 1988.

10. Likhachev D.S. Russian art from antiquity to the avant-garde. M., 1993.

11. Nikitin V.S. Tchaikovsky: old and new. - M., 1990.

12. Organization of science in post-reform Russia. L., 1987.

13. Essays on Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century. \ edited by N.M. Volynkin. M., 1982.

14. Petrovskaya I.F. Theater and audience of Russian capitals. 1875-1917. - L. 1990.

15. Petrovskaya I.F. Theater and audience in provincial Russia. Second half of the 19th century. - M., 1979.

16. Plotnikov V.I. Folklore and Russian fine arts of the second half of the 19th century. L., 1987.

17.

18. Poznansky V.V. Essays on the history of Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century. M., 1976.

19. Russian artistic culture of the second half of the 19th century. M., 1991.

20. Ryabtsev Yu. S. History of Russian culture: Artistic life and life of the XVIII-XIX centuries. M., 1997.

21. Sarabyanov D.V. History of Russian art of the second half of the 19th century: a course of lectures. M., 1989.

22. Soboleva E.V. The struggle for the reorganization of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in the middle of the XIX century. L., 1971.

23. Soboleva E.V. Organization of science in post-reform Russia. L., 1983.

24. Sternin G.Yu. Russian artistic culture of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. M., 1995. Shchetinina G.I. The ideological life of the Russian intelligentsia. Late XIX - early XX century. M., 1995.

25. Shchetinina, G.I. The ideological life of the Russian intelligentsia. Late 19th-early 20th century M., 1995.

26. Eymontova, R. G. Russian universities on the verge of two eras: From serf Russia to capitalist Russia. M., 1985.

27. Yakovkina N. I. History of Russian culture: XIX century. SPb., 2000.

Tests

to the topic: "Russian culture in the second half of the nineteenth century".

A.M. Feofanov

UNIVERSITY AND SOCIETY: STUDENTS OF MOSCOW UNIVERSITY OF THE XVIII - BEGINNING OF THE XIX CENTURY (SOCIAL ORIGIN AND LIFE)

UNIVERSITY AND SOCIETY: STUDENTS OF MOSCOW UNIVERSITY IN XVIII -ARLY XIX CENTURY (BACKGROUND AND MODE OF LIFE)

Keywords: history of Russia in the late 18th - early 19th century, Moscow University, social composition of the population, students, social composition of the population of the Russian Empire.

Key words: history of Russia of late XVIII - early XIX century, Moscow University, social membership of population, students, social membership of population of the Russian Empire.

annotation

The article talks about the existence of the Moscow Imperial University in the first decades of its existence, the end of the 18th - the beginning of the 19th century. Such a little-studied issue as the life of students, its social composition, way of life, cultural life, participation in public life is touched upon. The conditions of life and education at Moscow University are compared with the conditions that existed in Western, primarily German, universities.

The article tells about Moscow Imperial University in the first decades of its existence (late XVIII - early XIX century). There is touched upon such an insufficiently known problem as students’ life, its social membership, mode of life, cultural life, participation in public life. The conditions of life and education in Moscow University are compared to those of European ones, first of all of German universities.

The formation and development of Moscow University took place with the direct participation of the state, which needed trained personnel. University graduates joined the ranks of officials, the military, became writers, scientists and courtiers, i.e. constituted the elite of society. But university education did not immediately acquire value in the eyes of society. Namely, the attitude of society to education and determined the number of students. Of course, society's view of the university also changed depending on the policy pursued by the state, and not only in the field of education, but also in social policy. The university itself, as a scientific and social center, had a cultural impact on society.

Number and social composition. The social composition reflects the degree of connection with the university of various strata of society. So far, historiography has not received adequate coverage of the issue of the number and social composition of students at Moscow University in the period under review. Everything was limited to general phrases about the "raznochinsk character" of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th centuries, in order to emphasize its "democratic" direction.

Several epochs are distinguished in the dynamics of the number of students at Moscow University. Surges in receipts are associated with an increase in public attention to

university. A surge was (sometimes) followed by a fall. The sharp increase in the number of students is associated with the renovation of the university Muravyov, when there was a tripling of the number of students.

In the initial period, which lasted until the end of the 1770s, the maximum number of students accepted did not exceed 25 people, and the average value was 15 students per year.

Since 1780, in the dynamics of the number of students at Moscow University, the results of the influence of the “Novikov decade” that began in 1779 have been felt. In 1780-1784. The number of students entering the university increased sharply and fluctuated from 17 to 54 people, with an average number of 37 people. A significant number of students in these years were accepted for the maintenance of the Friendly Scientific Society.

Beginning in 1785, student enrollment fell again. Moscow University, as the center of the Masonic circle, caused concern and distrust of the government of Catherine II, Novikov's public initiatives were suppressed, and the university itself could not yet independently provide for itself a wide influx of students.

A new period in the dynamics of the number of students opened in 1803, when one of the results of the university reforms was to attract public attention to Moscow University. From that moment on, the number of applicants has been steadily growing: in 1803-1809 it was from 28 to 61 people, in 1810-1820 - from 70 to 117 people. All this indicates a qualitative change in the social status of Moscow University after the adoption of the Charter of 1804 and the new role of students in society, when studying at the university began to be considered necessary for further entry into life. The clear boundary between 1809 and 1810 is connected with the same change. under the influence of the decree adopted on August 6, 1809 on examinations for the rank. This decree established a direct link between education and promotion to rank, requiring all those wishing to receive the ranks of the 8th and 5th grades to present a certificate received from the university and indicating that they had passed the exams. After the adoption of the decree, the number of people wishing to become students increased dramatically.

Starting with a modest figure of 30 students and about 15 applicants per year, Moscow University by 1812 reached the milestone of 300 students (students and students), which brought him into a number of the largest universities in Europe.

Moscow University was an all-class educational institution. The low number of students at Moscow University in the second half of the 18th century was explained primarily by the insufficient influx here from the leading Russian service class - the nobility. In the eyes of the Russian nobles of that time, studying at the university was not a value in itself, studying university sciences was considered a luxury that was not necessary for further service, and “the very word student sounded something ungentlemanly”. The nobles willingly studied at the gymnasium, but instead of continuing their studies at the university, they preferred to enter the cadet corps or directly into military service. Raznochintsy, on the other hand, more often entered religious educational institutions, because they did not have the means to study at the university at their own expense.

In Europe, in the same way, the nobles preferred to pave the way to the highest government positions through a military career. Representatives of the noble class "had an irresistible aversion to examinations and diplomas, because, unlike commoners, they did not need to document what was due to them by birthright." You can remember M.M. Speransky, who spoke sharply about exams for rank, offering to accept any nobleman into military service as an officer, requiring from them the only knowledge of the beginnings of mathematics and the Russian language.

Since the beginning of the XIX century. a steady trend is formed, according to which the nobles accounted for at least half of the applicants. These conclusions make it possible to significantly correct statements about the “raznochinsk” nature of Moscow University.

In total, for the period from the founding of Moscow University to the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812, we identified, according to various data (indication of class when enrolling in a university gymnasium, title, biographical data), about 500 nobles and more than 400 commoners, out of a total of about 1,400 people who studied at the Moscow university of that time. From this we can conclude that the number of nobles made up more than a third of the total number of all students in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries, but hardly more than half. It should also be taken into account that many graduates of the Noble Boarding School, who were nobles and became visitors to university lectures, remained under the jurisdiction of the boarding authorities, i.e. actually students, were not included in the published lists of students.

Let us now consider the main social groups of students in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. more. Raznochintsy. This group includes the children of soldiers, philistines, merchants, petty officials (clerks, copyists, clerks), less often children of secretaries (boards, departments and spiritual consistories), doctors (head physicians, healers and assistant doctors), pharmacists, teachers. The main part of the raznochintsy were children of the clergy, mostly rural priests, less often deacons, as well as sextons, psalmists and other clerks.

Sometimes people from the clergy could have a close relationship with other social groups: they were the children of priests, whose ancestors were nobles, but for some reason they took the rank. For example, the father of Fyodor Petrovich Lubyanovsky was from a noble family, descended from a Polish native, but he himself served as a priest. From a noble family was Anton Antonovich Prokopovich-Antonsky, whose father became a priest in the Chernihiv province.

Peasants practically did not study at Moscow University during this period (although the “Project on the Establishment of Moscow University” of 1755 gave them such an opportunity): only the example of Gavrila Zhuravlev, a former serf, is known.

University Director Prince M.I. Argamakova. Some serfs could study at Moscow University with the permission of their masters, but did not receive freedom and, accordingly, were not students. This is how the serf Nikolai Smirnov, who was a servant of the Golitsyn princes, studied at the university.

Nobles. Among the students of Moscow University in the second half of the XVIII century. the entire spectrum of the Russian nobility is represented - from the capital to the provincial, from titled persons to small estate families. The first titled nobles appeared among the students of Moscow University as early as 1760. These are princes Leon Gruzinsky and Timofei Gagarin. We also meet representatives of such families as the Shikhmatovs, the Salagins, the Kasatkin-Rostovskys, and the Diveevs. At the same time, the famous memoirist, poet and playwright, Prince I. M. Dolgorukov studied at Moscow University.

Of course, among the nobles who studied at Moscow University, there were representatives not only of aristocratic families, but also of the broad mass of the service nobility. In 1779, to attract nobles to study, the Noble Boarding School was opened, created on the initiative of M.M. Kheraskov. Soon the boarding house gained a reputation as the leading elite educational institution in Moscow. Pupils of the upper classes received the right to attend university lectures. Thus, for the students of the Noble boarding school, the production of students at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. did not contradict the fact that they continued to be in the boarding house itself: we find such examples in the biographies

brothers Turgenev, Grammatin, Odoevsky. At the same time, the nobles willingly studied at the boarding school, but rarely continued their studies at the university itself.

As a result of the activities of the trustee M.N. Muravyov at Moscow University and government reforms in the field of education at the beginning of the 19th century. not only did the number of students increase sharply, but the social composition of the student body also changed. From 1807 to 1812 titled nobles entered the university every year. The lists of students included the names of not only Russian princes, but also German Baltic barons, such as Engelhard, Ridiger, Bistrom, Budberg, and others.

In Europe, for representatives of the third estate, a university diploma opened the way to state (royal or princely) service1. In response to competition from educated commoners who served in the state apparatus, the need for education also arose among the nobility. In the XVIII century. “the ruling class, in order to maintain its position, was forced to receive a university education”2. The lectures of professors are listened to by the aristocracy, including princes, counts, barons and princes of the royal house. The titled nobility was in the XVIII century. in the universities of Würzburg, Tübingen, Strastburg and Jena about 5%, in Leipzig, Heidelberg and Halle about 7%, and in Göttingen it even reached 13%3

Russian nobles of the second half of the 18th century. considered the university as a stepping stone to start a future service career, and for this they mainly used the gymnasium (where they received the certificates necessary for promotion to the rank, which was not the case in Europe), and students were rarely enrolled. Therefore, initially the students of Moscow University, indeed, had a raznochin character, although the share of the nobility in it was about one quarter and was quite tangible. Gradually, the social composition of students changed in favor of an increasing proportion of the nobles, which indicated the strengthening of the public recognition of the university and its role in the education of the service class.

Age of students enrolled in the university. An exact answer is much more difficult due to the imperfection of our source data. In the absence of an archive for the second half of the 18th - the first decade of the 19th century. in our reconstructed lists of students, we can establish the year of their birth only if there is any additional data. These are, firstly, the statements about the successes of students who studied in 1764-1768, preserved in the RGADA, in which, along with other data, the age of students was given. Also, the year of birth is known for those students who have become writers, statesmen and public figures, and then student lists can be supplemented with data from biographical dictionaries.

The majority of students entering Moscow University were between 15 and 19 years of age. An absolute record for the second half of the 18th century. recorded in the case of Yevgeny Syreyshchikov (in the future - a teacher at the university gymnasium, who received the title of extraordinary professor of philosophy there): he was promoted to students from the gymnasium at the age of 11 in 1768, when the student body was significantly weakened after the withdrawal of several dozen students for work in the Legislative Commission. At the beginning of the XIX century. such cases were somewhat more common: at the age of 11, Alexander Lykoshin entered the students and, apparently, his comrade Griboedov (if we assume the later of the two possible dates of the writer’s birth), and at the age of 13 Griboyedov had already graduated from the verbal department of his university with a degree candidate, and later continued to listen to lectures of the ethical and political department.

In general, in the XVIII century. students were older (16-18 years old) than at the beginning of the 19th century, and even older (as a rule, 19 years old and above) were graduates of seminaries entering the university (as D.N. Sverbeev wrote, they already “shaved their beards” ). In connection with the desire of noble families to accelerate the advancement of their offspring through the ranks at the beginning of the 19th century. there was such a phenomenon as "students-boys".

It was the Charter of 1804, which secured the right to the rank of class 14 for the title of university student, that stimulated noble families to send their children to students as early as possible (a phenomenon akin to how in the 18th century noble children from infancy

were in the regiments). The fact that when enrolling in a university at the beginning of the 19th century. in noble families, the title of a student was valued primarily, and not the opportunity to comprehend science, the diary of S.P. perfectly conveys. Zhikhareva. “My title is not a trifle and will please my

home,” writes Zhikharev, who became a student in 1805 at the age of 16. “I foresee,” he continues, “that it will not be long for me to listen to my good professors. Father, delighted with my 14th grade, hurries the service.

1 Khavanova O.V. Merits of fathers and talents of sons. S. 12.

Paulsen F. German universities. S. 110.

3 A History of the University in Europe. P. 321.

Thus, the "rejuvenation" of the students of Moscow University in the early XIX

in. associated with the influx of students of young nobles.

The main problems of organizing student life are: did students stand out as a separate group, and with the help of what attributes did this happen. According to paragraph 21 of the "Project for the Establishment of Moscow University", the ultimate goal of a student's studies is to receive a certificate. This certificate performed a certain social function (which, as a rule, did not exist in Western universities) - it provided "protection" when entering the service. Noble students in the 18th century sought to obtain a certificate that gave the right to production in the next rank. For raznochintsy, the university had to specifically "petition" for their rank-and-file production.

Initially, the university was considered by the state almost exclusively as an educational institution for the training of officials, who can be taken away without waiting until the end of their period of study. A significant number of students who did not complete the course were appointed to serve in the Senate and other state institutions, and were appointed teachers. So, in 1767, 42 students were taken to the Legislative Commission, which disrupted the normal course of education, since after that only 5 students remained at the “higher” faculties: 4 in law and 1 in medicine.

The Patriotic War of 1812 interrupted the normal course of study for many of the students, during which many of them dropped out of school, joined the militia or went to provide medical care to the army. Among the reasons for the dismissal of students during this period, there is already a desire to continue education in other educational institutions. For example, Vasily Matveyevich Chernyaev in 1812 moved to the medical faculty of Kharkov University.

The rules of conduct at the university were quite strictly regulated. The first of the intra-university acts regulating the life of students was adopted in 1765. Students were forbidden to quarrel and fight, especially duels and seconds. This project was published in 1765 under the title "Charter, to the observation of which all university students undertake in writing." For admission to students, a certificate of "good manners" was required. Students had to "dress decently, avoiding cynical vileness, as well as excessive panache", "live modestly and in proportion to their incomes, without entering into any debts."

Uniform was the corporate sign of the university. “The university had its own uniform, similar to the uniform of the Moscow province,” crimson with a blue velvet collar and white buttons. The first mention of the introduction of a uniform at the university dates back to 1782 and is associated with the celebration of the 20th anniversary of the accession to the throne of Empress Catherine II. The uniform of the Moscow province, which both professors and students had to wear, then consisted of a red cloth camisole, knee-length pantaloons, stockings, shoes and a black triangular hat.

But not all students wore such a uniform. The only exceptions were the days of university-wide celebrations. From the notes of Timkovsky it is known that “the students did not have any specific uniform in their attire”, even “not everyone had a university uniform. Everyone, even those on a salary, was dressed as he could and as he wanted. Ilya Fedorovich himself wore a "Novgorod blue and black" uniform.

“Forms,” recalled Poludensky, who studied at the university in the 1790s, “as now, self-styled students did not have, as for the state students, they had

coats and uniforms. There was a difference in uniforms between the raznochintsy and the nobles, and, as was said before, they lived separately. “At first, the raznochintsy had a blue uniform with red cuffs, and the nobles had a red one with blue cuffs.” In fact, the difference in uniforms between raznochintsy and nobles was only among high school students. “When raznochintsy gymnasiums were promoted to students,” P.I. Strakhov, - they exchanged a crimson dress for a green noble one.

On October 14, 1800, Moscow University's own uniform was officially approved, different from the uniforms of other departments - a dark green caftan, "the collar and cuffs on the caftan are crimson, the buttons are white, in one half with the coat of arms of the Empire, and in the other with the attributes of learning." On April 9, 1804, a new student uniform was approved by the decree “On uniforms for Moscow University and subordinate schools”: “a single-breasted caftan of dark blue cloth, with a standing collar and crimson cuffs”, decorated with gold embroidery. But even during the reign of Alexander I, students, especially those of their own kind, continued to wear their own dress. According to the memoirs, "students, both state-owned and private, went in particular dresses, of course, almost all in frock coats and rare in tailcoats." And even in the 1820s, according to Pirogov's memoirs, "uniforms did not yet exist."

The situation changed only in the reign of Nicholas I. When examining the university, it was noticed that the students "do not have a uniform and defined uniform in all respects." On May 22, 1826, a decree was issued “On allowing state students of Moscow University to have shoulder straps on their uniforms” “to distinguish them from their own”, and on September 6, 1826, a decree “On uniforms for students of Moscow University and for pupils of a noble boarding school and gymnasium” . According to him, a blue single-breasted student uniform was adopted. The uniform was needed so that "students, having a uniform dress, accustomed to order and to their future appointment for public service."

No less, and even more important sign of a student than a uniform, was a sword. In § 23 of the Draft on the Establishment of Moscow University, it was indicated that the sword was given to students "for encouragement", "as is the case in other places." The sword was a symbol of personal dignity; it was worn by the nobles. Thus, non-nobles, receiving the title of students, were, as it were, equal in rights with the noble class. In addition, in accordance with the Charter of 1804, a university student entering the service was immediately enrolled in the 14th grade, which gave the rights of personal nobility. Therefore, after 1804, the handing over of the sword already had not only a symbolic, but also a real meaning of a change in the social status of the former commoner. THEM. Snegirev recalled how, after graduation in 1807 as a student, “with childish admiration he put on a student uniform, a three-cornered hat and hung a sword, which he put with him on the bed ... It seemed to me that not only relatives and neighbors, but also counter and the transverse ones looked at my sword, and what flattered my childish vanity most of all, the guards and soldiers saluted me.

Here we see a clear resemblance to German universities. Paulsen notes that if in the Middle Ages “university statutes forced the scholastic to wear spiritual dress, from the middle of the 17th century the student, both in dress and manners, considers himself a model of a nobleman. And along with the sword, this necessary accessory of a noble costume, the duel also penetrated into the university world. It is characteristic that at the same time fencing teachers appeared at the universities (in the Middle Ages, students were forbidden to carry weapons). So “the forms of life of the nobility acquire the value of an ideal; the place of the medieval scholar, the cleric-seminarian, is occupied by an academic student of the 17th century, who plays the role of a cavalier.

According to § 24 of the "Project for the Establishment of Moscow University", a university court was established. The appearance of such a university court confirmed

corporate nature of the first Russian university: after all, for any

of the European University, such a court was an inalienable property and exercised the right of "academic freedom" of the members of the corporation, according to which none of them (a professor, a student or even an employee of the university) was under the jurisdiction of the city authorities, but could be tried only by the same members as him. corporations, and only in accordance with the laws issued by his university. True, at Moscow University this norm did not take root well and acted without fail only in relation to students, while gymnasium teachers in the second half of the 1750s. had several clashes with the Moscow magistrate, trying to prove that they did not have the right to arrest them for misconduct (in particular, for debts). The University Charter of 1804 confirmed the corporate law of the university court.

On the conduct of cases in the university court in the XVIII century. give a presentation of excerpts from the minutes of the University Conference. The court was carried out by the director of the university together with other members of the Conference. The punishments for students who violated discipline (mainly due to fights) were deprivation of the sword, imprisonment for several days in a punishment cell, dismissal from state scholarships, and finally, expulsion from the university.

A special kind of violation of university regulations were cases of student marriage. Although there was no direct prohibition of a student from marrying in any university laws, however, the curator Adodurov wrote: “I was informed that student Yudin married among those who were on state support ... And as it does not happen in any Academy and university, and students not only is it indecent, but it also creates a great obstacle in teaching the sciences. Student Yudin was deprived of his scholarship.

Some students have fled the university. In the order of the curator Adodurov about the "runaway student" Ivan Popov dated October 30, 1768, just such a case is described. For his act, student Popov was expelled from the university and sent to the office of the Synod, since he came from a clergy class. Thus, the expelled student was deprived of the increase in social status he had achieved, returning back to his estate.

Students in the 18th century begins to realize his own identity, to realize himself as a kind of community, different from other inhabitants of the city. This manifested itself, in particular, in clashes between representatives of the university and city dwellers. Such skirmishes begin from the very first years of its existence. Already in 1757

in the city, a fight between high school students and “titular junkers” (students of colleges) was recorded. Its instigator Pyotr Argamakov, the son of the university director, along with other participants was arrested and punished with rods.

“The city police,” recalled Pirogov, who studied at Moscow University in 1824-1828, “did not have the right to dispose of students and the guilty had to be delivered to the university.” This privilege was abolished by decree of Nicholas I dated

September 4, 1827 "On the assignment of students of Moscow University, living outside the university, to the supervision of the city police."

Students who were unable to study on their own allowance were admitted to the state kosht on the basis of a petition, subject to good academic performance, good behavior and presentation of a certificate of poverty, signed by several persons of noble birth. The first state students received 40 rubles a year. In 1799, their salary, which was paid out in thirds, was already 100 rubles. in year. If the number of state students exceeded the established number, they could be paid a student stipend, i.e. the same as received by state-owned high school students. Since 1804, the state kosht was 200 rubles a year, and in the medical department - 350 rubles. First of all, those students whom the government was preparing to serve as doctors or teachers were admitted to state-owned hospitals. After graduating from university, they were to

as compensation to the state for education, serve at least 6 years under the Ministry of Public Education.

Some students lived in apartments with friends or relatives. M.A. Dmitriev lived with his uncle. By kinship with Professor Barsov, Poludensky lived in his apartment. Without the help of acquaintances or relatives, it would be quite difficult for self-sufficient students to support themselves.

A favorite place for student meetings was the tavern "Great Britain", where comradely drinking parties were sometimes held. In general, students often visited taverns. “It happened very often,” recalled Dmitriev, “that, returning at one in the afternoon from lectures, I had to go on foot back either to Tverskaya or Kuznetskaya Most to dine with a restaurateur.”

In a letter from Göttingen to his brother, A.I. Turgenev, Nikolai, responding to the reproach of A.F. Merzlyakova, who “was hurt to see his friend’s brother often in the coffee shop and with Chebotarev,” writes: “I went there not for pranks, not to drink and fool around there, but for pleasure, completely allowed. There I often found acquaintances, friends, talked with them, drank tea, coffee, read newspapers and nothing more.

“According to the formidable saying of Sandunov at that time: “The samovar is a tavern tool and is not suitable for school”, this tool was vetoed, and therefore some had copper teapots and thus consoled themselves with tea drinking. Others fled for this business to the taverns Tsaregradsky (in Okhotny Ryad) and Znamensky (not far from the present Treasury Chamber). In these bright establishments (now there are no traces of them), some of the students were regular patrons. In taverns, students drank not only tea, but also stronger drinks. “It happened like this: the sex served tea, after a few seconds the spoon knocks, the sex rushes in. They say to him: “Give me more hot water,” he grabs a kettle in which there is still a lot of water (and no water is needed) and brings the same kettle, as if with water, but it contains aqua vitae. It can be seen that at that time the conditions of tavern establishments did not allow trading in precious moisture, and the owners were afraid of spies, who no doubt were everywhere. State-owned students managed to visit the tavern even in the morning before lectures.

Zhikharev preferred dinners and balls to other entertainment, he often attended opera and ballet. Pupils of the university with less exacting requests entertained themselves in a different way: they participated in fisticuffs on Neglinnaya, where, according to the memoirs of I.M. Snegirev, “bursaks of the theological academy and students of the university converged, wall to wall: the little ones started, the big ones ended. The Neglin patchworkers helped the university students.”

Many students liked to walk in Maryina Roshcha or Sokolniki on holidays. Lyalikov recalls that the students “did not miss the so-called monastic festivities on their temple holidays. Once, I remember, the three of us hired a boat at the Moskvoretsky Bridge (Aug. 6) and sailed to the Novospassky Monastery. They also swam to the Sparrow Hills, ate milk and raspberries in Maryina Roshcha and Ostankino.

The students also visited the theatre. The University Theater was one of the first in Russia. Students and high school students took part in the preparation of the performances. The theater had an educational mission, bringing the university closer to Russian society. In addition to theatrical performances, masquerades were also given at Christmas time or Shrovetide, and "on Sundays and holidays, evening dances or concerts sometimes took place."

Since 1760, the student troupe has become professional and is called the Russian Theatre. Such Russian actors as Troepolskaya, Lapin, Mikhailova and others began their activities in the university theater. In 1776, the entrepreneur Medox created the first permanent public professional theater in Moscow, for which in 1780 Medox built a large building on Petrovka Street - Petrovsky theatre. It was in it that in 1783 the comedy "Undergrowth" by Fonvizin was shown for the first time in Moscow. The troupe included outstanding actors, among them - Peter

Alekseevich Plavilshchikov, who graduated from Moscow University in 1779. In 1825, a new building was built on the site of the Petrovsky Theater (now the Bolshoi Theatre).

Students spent the money saved from tuition fees, as well as earned by translating books and private lessons, to visit the theater and buy books.

An important role during the stay of students at the university was assigned to their church life. When the university was located in the building of the Apothecary House, students went to services in the Kazan Cathedral. After the university acquired Repnin’s house, “next to this place, standing nearby along Nikitskaya Street, was the parish stone church of the Assumption of the Mother of God, or St. Dionysius the Areopagite, was renamed university and attached to it. On April 5, 1791, she was consecrated in the left wing of the university building under construction at Mokhovaya Church in the name of St. martyr Tatiana. In September 1817, the church of St. George on Krasnaya Gorka, and in 1820 a chapel was consecrated in honor of St. martyr Tatiana.

According to the memoirs of Poludensky, at the end of the XVIII century. At that time, there was no special church at the university, and students were taken in turn to different parish churches.

As Lyalikov recalled, students “usually fasted during the first week of Great Lent. Vespers were listened to in the large dining room in the constant presence of Sandunov and both sub-inspectors. The choir was one of their own." “We communed the Holy Mysteries,” he recalled, “in St. George’s Church on Mokhovaya. Imagine (even now it surprises me): during the entire time, quite a long time, the communion of students (there were 40 of us, and three times as many medical students) Sandunov and Mudrov were holding a veil in front of those approaching the chalice, like inspectors. Students visited not only the university church, but also other Moscow churches. “In general, we were often told to go to services in our parish (George on Krasnaya Gorka) church; but everyone constantly went to the neighboring Nikitsky Monastery or in groups somewhere far away, for example, to Donskoy, Novodevichy. The reasons for choosing this or that church were both beautiful singing and a good sermon in this temple. Zhikharev was a lover of church singing. After mass, however, he can go to see an art gallery (of the late Prince Golitsyn) or horse races.

Students also showed themselves as part of the literary space of Moscow. In the XVIII century. The university included a whole complex of institutions. It operated a library, a printing house and a bookstore. It was in the university printing house that the newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti began to be printed, around which lovers of literature united. Gymnasium students and students of Moscow University were involved in the work on the issue of this newspaper. “Literary and typographical activity at the university,” Shevyrev writes, “every year revived more and more. The newspapers aroused the attentive participation of the public. In 1760 it was impossible to find a complete copy of the previous year's newspapers in a bookshop.

In the early 1760s, a new group of periodicals appeared at Moscow University - literary magazines. University publications were conceived as a plan to educate society through cultural impact on it.

The first four magazines (“Useful Amusement”, “Free Hours”, edited by Kheraskov, “Innocent Exercise” (published by I.F. Bogdanovich), “Good Intention”), published at Moscow University in the early 1760s, were literary publications. Well-known writers participated in them - Sumarokov, Kheraskov, Trediakovsky and a large group of young people who began to try their hand at creativity.

In 1771, on the initiative of curator Melissino, Moscow University formed its first official scientific society - the Free “Russian” Assembly. It was established "to correct and enrich the Russian language, through the publication of useful, and especially for the instruction of the youth of need, writings and translations,

verse and prose." Melissino himself was the chairman of the meeting, he was replaced by the director of the university

M.V. Priklonsky. The members of the society included many "noble persons", such as Princess Dashkova, historian M.M. Shcherbatov, Sumarokov and Prince Potemkin himself. The meetings of the Assembly were held very solemnly and magnificently. According to the descriptions of contemporaries, Potemkin was sitting at the table, "exhibiting the diamond buckles of his shoes, flaunting them in front of the students who, in uniform, standing around, were present at these meetings." The Free Russian Assembly attracted the Russian elite to the cause of education, which made it possible to exert a significant influence on society and generate many supporters, including Novikov and M.N. Muraviev.

Societies of a somewhat different nature appeared at Moscow University in the 1780s. Their appearance is associated with the activities of Freemasons, primarily Novikov and Schwartz. Novikov himself was a pupil of the Moscow University; Kheraskov attracted him to work at the university. On May 1, 1779, the university signed a contract with Novikov, according to which the university printing house was leased to him for ten years. Novikov's main goal was to spread enlightenment, "which he understood only as based on religious and moral principles, mainly in a mystical spirit." To translate foreign books, he attracted students, thereby providing them with significant material support. Since 1779, he has been publishing the Morning Light magazine in Moscow.

In 1779 Novikov met Schwartz, a professor of German at the university. Their common goals were "the training of teachers in the spirit of Masonic ethics, the introduction of new rules of education." Thanks to their labors, in 1779 the Teacher's (Pedagogical) Seminary was opened, and in 1782 - the Translation (Philological) Seminary. The first of them was intended to prepare students for teaching, and the second - to translate foreign works into Russian. On March 13, 1781, at the initiative of Schwartz, the first student society was opened at the university under the name "Assembly of University Pupils". The goal of the society was to "improve the Russian language and literature" through writings and translations. Many students were active participants in the meeting. M.I. Antonovsky “composed a charter for this society, the rules of which, considering the members of this society, were so well educated that, upon leaving the university and entering the public service, they then turned out to be the most capable people for it, so that a rare one of them now serves without distinction ( except for those persecuted by envy and malice), less than the 4th grade.

In 1782, on a Masonic basis, a Friendly Scientific Society was formed around the university. It brought together more than 50 people. More than 20 students studied under his supervision, including the future metropolitans Seraphim (Glagolevsky) and Mikhail (Desnitsky), professors P.A. Sokhatsky, A.A. Prokopovich-Antonsky and P.I. Strakhov. It was the circle of Novikov's comrades in the Friendly Scientific Society that produced literary publications at the university in the 1780s.

In 1781, Novikov published the "Moscow Monthly Edition", in 1782 the journal "Evening Dawn" began to be published, and from 1784 - "The Rest of the Hardworker". The contents of these magazines mainly consisted of poems or "discourses" written by students on moral and philosophical topics. "The Rest of the Worker" had a pronounced occult-mystical orientation, as evidenced by the fact that articles such as "On the Science Called Cabal" were placed there, and the well-known mystic Swedenborg was also given a positive assessment.

Such an obvious propaganda of mysticism could not fail to attract the attention of the authorities. In a decree dated December 23, 1785, Catherine II wrote that “many strange books” were being printed in Novikov’s printing house, and Archbishop Platon was ordered to examine them and test Novikov in the law of God. As a result, Novikov's circle was persecuted:

in 1786 the Philological Seminary and the Friendly Learned Society were closed. As a result, student literary activity froze for several years.

Students of Moscow University took an active part in the social and literary life of Russia. Many of them were talented writers, poets; some of them became publishers. Thanks to the translation activities of students, Moscow and all of Russia got acquainted with Western literature. The process of education and upbringing continued outside the walls of university classrooms, in private apartments. Student circles formed new views, laid down a system of values, thus, the process of the student's entry into public life took place. This is how the “cultural colonization” of urban space by the university took place.

Thus, the transfer of European university realities to Russia took place, although the local soil created certain specifics. Moscow University, like European ones, was a corporation, the signs of which were relative autonomy, its own court, uniform and some other privileges.

The everyday life of students at Moscow University still bore the imprint of the estates they came from, and the formation of a single "corporate" denominator in the period under review is out of the question. At the same time, communication brought young men from different social groups together and formed a common space of ideas. Ultimately, the initial history of the students of Moscow University at that time testifies to the ongoing process of the formation of a student corporation, awareness of common interests and life tasks, which in many ways became characteristic of students in the middle of the 19th century.

The university brought together representatives of different classes by organizing common forms of life. Although raznochintsy prevailed among students and professors at the university for a long time, it was closely associated with the culture of the nobility.

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    Higher education in Russia under Alexander I. The teaching staff, its cultural and scientific level. Higher education in the second quarter of the 19th century. General Rules of the Imperial Universities. The educational system of post-reform Russia.

    The struggle for secondary and higher education for women in Russia was an integral part of the social and pedagogical movement that unfolded from the middle of the 18th century, when the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and boarding schools for girls were first created.

    Engineering student initiative. Creation of the university. Scientists and specialists of the Odessa Polytechnic University.

    The introduction of fees in higher education. The position of paying students. Charging tuition fees. Fellows. Providing for the poor. Housing status of fellows. Individual scholarships. The ninth conference of the trade union section of the students.

    Political life of Russia at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Students as a social stratum. Revolutionary movement in the student environment of St. Petersburg. Organizations and leaders of the revolutionary student movement in St. Petersburg.

    Organization of new departments. Student practice. Development of MGSU-MISI.

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