What role do these paths play? "Flowers of Eloquence". Tropes and figures of speech, their role in the creation of a poetic text. Syntactic means of expression

The most important role in artistic speech is played by tropes - words and expressions used not in a direct, but in a figurative sense. Tropes create in the work the so-called allegorical figurativeness, when the image arises from the convergence of one object or phenomenon with another.

This is the most common function of all tropes - to reflect in the structure of the image a person's ability to think by analogy, to embody, according to the poet, "the convergence of things far away", thus emphasizing the unity and integrity of the world around us. At the same time, the artistic effect of the trail, as a rule, is the stronger, the farther the approaching phenomena are separated from each other: such is, for example, Tyutchev's likening of lightning to “deaf-mute demons”. On the example of this path, one can trace another function of allegorical figurativeness: to reveal the essence of this or that phenomenon, usually hidden, the potential poetic meaning contained in it. So, in our example, Tyutchev, with the help of a rather complex and non-obvious path, makes the reader take a closer look at such an ordinary phenomenon as lightning, to see it from an unexpected angle. Despite the complexity of the paths, it is very accurate: indeed, the reflections of lightning without thunder are naturally designated by the epithet “deaf and dumb”.

For literary analysis (as opposed to linguistic analysis), it is extremely important to distinguish between general language tropes, that is, those that are included in the language system and are used by all its speakers, and author's tropes that are once used by a writer or poet in a given specific situation. Only the tropes of the second group are capable of creating poetic imagery, while the first group, common language tropes, should not be taken into account in the analysis for obvious reasons. The fact is that common language tropes are “erased”, as it were, from frequent and widespread use, lose their figurative expressiveness, are perceived as a stamp and, therefore, are functionally identical to vocabulary without any figurative meaning. So, in Pushkin’s line “From the surrounding mountains the snow has already fled in muddy streams” contains a common language trope - the personification of “ran away”, but when reading the text we don’t even think about it, but the author didn’t set such a task for himself, using the expressive meaning that has already lost its construction. True, it should be noted that sometimes a common language, worn out trope can be “refreshed” by rethinking, introducing additional meanings, etc. So, the general language metaphor “rain - tears” is no longer impressive, but here is how Mayakovsky reinterprets this image: “Tears from the eyes, from the lowered eyes of the drainpipes.” Through the introduction of new poetic meanings (houses are personified, and drainpipes are associated with eyes), the image acquires a new pictorial and expressive power.

One of the most common methods of “refreshing” a common language trope is the method of its implementation; most often implemented as a metaphor. At the same time, the trope is overgrown with details that, as it were, make the reader perceive it not in a figurative, but in the literal sense. Let us give two examples from the work of Mayakovsky, who often used this technique. In the poem "A cloud in pants" the common language metaphor "nerves diverged" is implemented:

like a sick person out of bed

nerve jumped.

Walked first

barely,

then he ran

excited,

Now he and the new two

They rush about in a desperate tap dance.

The plaster on the ground floor has collapsed.

small,

jumping mad,

Nerves are shaking!

Another example: the implementation of the metaphorical expression "to make an elephant out of a fly." It is clear that no specifics are assumed in the general language “elephant”: this is not a real, but a metaphorical elephant, while Mayakovsky gives it precisely the features of a real elephant: “He makes an elephant out of a fly and sells ivory.” A metaphorical elephant cannot have any ivory, it is just a designation, a sign of something very large, as opposed to something very small - a fly. Mayakovsky gives concreteness to the elephant, thereby making the image unexpected, arresting attention and producing a poetic impression.

In the analysis of a particular work, it is important not only and even not so much to analyze one or another trope (although this can be useful for students to understand the mechanism of action of an artistic micro-image), but to assess how allegorical figurativeness is characteristic of a given work or a given writer, to what extent it is important in the general figurative system, in the folding of the artistic style. So, for Lermontov or Mayakovsky, frequent and regular use of tropes is characteristic, and for Pushkin and Tvardovsky, for example, on the contrary, a rare and stingy use of allegorical imagery; there the figurative system is constructed with the help of other means.

There are a fairly large number of varieties of trails; since you can read about them in educational and reference publications, we will simply list the most important ones here without definitions and examples. So, the tropes include: comparison, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, allegory, symbol, irony (not to be confused with the typological variety of pathos!), oxymoron (or oxymoron), paraphrase, etc.

TRAILS- words used in a figurative sense. They vividly and clearly draw objects and actions and give us the opportunity to see them as the author saw them when creating the work. With their help, the author conveys his attitude to the depicted.

№

Trope definition

Role in the text

Examples

EPITET - a figurative definition, which is usually expressed by an adjective ("a cruel storm") in a figurative sense, but can also be an adverb ("ardently love").

Enhance the expressiveness, figurativeness, brightness of the language. Allocate feature or the quality of an object, phenomenon, create a living idea of the object; evaluate an object or phenomenon; cause a certain emotional attitude towards them; help to see the author's attitude to the depicted; reveal the inner state of the hero.

And across the river timidly glitter golden lights. Half an hour later they parted impatient calls. Exit the operating room wearily smile and say so ... And Timofey walked beside him and carried a bag of bread and carrots and scared proud of himself. Little Timothy felt sorry for himself for a long time, lying on a pile of fallen leaves and looking into distant indifferent sky.

COMPARISON - comparison of objects on the basis of their common feature. Usually, comparison is expressed by a comparative turnover with unions as, exactly, as if, as if. It can also be expressed in the form instrumental case of nouns. Can be joined with words similar, similar.

Comparisons, like epithets, play the same roles in the text: strengthening its figurativeness and figurativeness, creating more vivid, expressive images; highlighting, emphasizing any essential features of the depicted objects, their features, qualities, actions; expression of author's assessments and emotions.

The dog sighed deeply and loudly, as a man. The white birch under my window was covered with snow, exactly silver. Under blue skiesmagnificent carpets, glittering in the sun, the snow lies snake drifting snow rushes across the earth. Looks like the eyes of a cautious cat your eyes.

PERSONIFICATION - endowing inanimate objects with actions characteristic of a person.

Personifications serve to create vivid, expressive and figurative pictures of something, to enhance the transmitted thoughts and feelings; to express the author's characteristics of objects.

The earth is sleeping in a blue radiance. They said about the teacher Ksenia Andreevna that she hands sing. wild pock with my grateful and quiet soul heard, lured and fed birds.

METAPHOR - the transfer of properties from one object to another based on their similarity. The metaphor is based on comparison, but it is not formalized with the help of comparative conjunctions, therefore the metaphor is called a hidden comparison. Therefore, a metaphor can often be converted into a comparison using words like, like, like.

Through the metaphorical meaning of words and phrases, the author of the text enhances the visibility and clarity of the depicted. Metaphors serve as an important means of expressing the author's assessments and emotions, the author's characteristics of objects and phenomena.

Crimson bonfire sunset. Whole my dog bloomed with soul Biter, and it changed her beyond recognition. And now blind and deaf not only she, but also her soul. See eyes, which stopped in fear and expectation.

PERIPHRASE (PERIPHRASE) - replacement of the name of an object with some descriptive phrase.

Paraphrases allow: to highlight and emphasize the most significant features of the depicted object; brighter and more fully express the author's assessment of the depicted; avoid unnecessary repetition. Paraphrases (especially expanded ones) make it possible to give the text a solemn, sublime, pathetic sound.

So I sat in the clearing, rested and looked at forest king.(i.e. deer) Mountain climbers(climbers) city of white nights(Petersburg) black gold(oil)

IRONY - hidden mockery. Kind of allegory when outwardly a positive assessment hides a smile.

Evaluation of what is ridiculed. Making fun of the negative qualities of the subject, the hero.

breakaway, smart, are you wandering, head?) (in reference to a donkey). Men's suits for sale. And what are the colors? Huge selection colors! Black, black-gray, gray-black, blackish-gray…

HYPERBOLE - excessive exaggeration of the properties of the depicted object

The use of hyperbole and litotes allows the authors of texts to sharply increase the expressiveness of the depicted, give thoughts a bright emotional coloring, and convey the author's assessment.

They probably called a hundred times. Again mushrooms found Vitka, not without reason stare at the tea saucer. Purr - her whole life.

LITOTA - an excessive understatement of the properties of the depicted subject.

little man with a fingernail We - Fewer forest ants.

Syntactic means (figures of speech)

Figures of speech are special syntactic constructions.

Antithesis reveals the contrast between phenomena or objects. Forms the antithesis of a pair (or several) of antonyms, linguistic or contextual. When everything is calm, you make noise; when everyone is worried, you are calm; . . if you need to be silent - you scream; when you should speak, you are silent.

gradatsi i is a rhetorical figure, the essence of which is the arrangement of enumerated elements (words, phrases, phrases) in ascending order of their meaning (“ascending gradation”) or in descending order of values (“descending gradation”). Full life Russian classics in school is a condition for the existence of our people, our state; it is, as they say now, a matter of national security. Not reading "Onegin", not knowing "Crime and Punishment", "Oblomov", we turn into some other people. What's with the "people"! They don't call us otherwise than "population". . . ” The first sentence is built on the basis of the “ascending” gradation. From the second sentence to the end of the passage, the gradation is descending.

Repeat used to enhance the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm. White-white; asked-asked for help; a little.

Lexical repetition- repetition of the same word or phrase with slight variations. Behind those villages are forests, forests, forests. Winter was waiting, nature was waiting.

Anaphora- a type of repetition: the same word, several words, are repeated at the beginning of several phrases following one after another. Anaphora gives rhythm to speech.

Epiphora- repetition of the same elements at the end of each parallel row. I would like to know why I am a titular councillor? Why a titular adviser?

Syntax parallelism- repeat syntactic constructions, a special arrangement of successive phrases with the same syntactic structure, with the same word order, the same type of predicates. In the previous example, anaphora is inseparable from syntactic parallelism. I miss my grandfather's house with its large green yard. . . I miss the spacious kitchen in my grandfather's house with its dirt floor. . . I miss the evening roll call of women from hill to hill ...

Period- this is a way of syntactic design of a complex sentence, which combines anaphora and syntactic parallelism. When I think about the fate of Russian literature, when I remember the feat of arms that she accomplished, when I understand that she lives in the soul of every person at any time - then I agree with Maxim Gorky: yes, literature is our national pride!

Rhetorical exclamation marks the emotional semantic culmination of a segment (part) of speech. Serves the task of establishing active interaction with the addressee. O times! Oh manners!

Rhetorical question serves for the emotional highlighting of the semantic centers of the text, for the formation of the emotional and evaluative attitude of the addressee to the subject of speech. What is culture, why is it needed? What is culture as a system of values? What is the purpose of the liberal arts education that we have always had in the tradition?

Allegory - allegory, in art - a detailed assimilation, the details of which add up to a system of hints; moreover, the direct meaning of the image is not lost, but is supplemented by the possibility of its figurative interpretation. In fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the image foxes, greed - in the guise wolf, deceit - in the form snakes.

Parceling- such a division of the sentence, in which the content of the statement is realized not in one, but in two or more intonation-semantic speech units, following one after another after a separating pause. Flerov knows everything. And Uncle Grisha Dunaev. And the doctor too.

Ellipsis- omission of an element of the statement, easily restored in a given context or situation. In all - the windows are curious, on the roofs - the boys. We sat down - in ashes, hailstones - in dust, in swords - sickles and plows.

Default- a turn of speech, which consists in the fact that the author does not fully express the thought, leaving the reader to himself what exactly remained unsaid. But listen: if I owe you ... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus.

Grotesque- the image of reality in an exaggerated, ugly - comic form, the interweaving of the real with the fantastic, the scary with the funny.

Pathos- (feeling, passion) - passionate inspiration, uplift.

An integral part of any literary work They are able to make the text unique and individually author's. In literary criticism, such means are called tropes. You can learn more about what trails are by reading this article.

Fiction could not exist without various figures of speech, which give the works a special style. Any author, whether a poet or a prose writer, constantly uses tropes to help convey his own thoughts and emotions that he wants to express in his creation. Exactly large quantity tropes differ from other types of author's texts. So, let's talk in more detail about the means of speech expressiveness themselves: what they are, what types exist, which of them are most often used, what are their functions and features.

Let's find out what paths are. Tropes are those that make the text more expressive and lexically diverse. There are many types of these means: metaphor, metonymy, personification, hyperbole, synecdoche, parcellation, litote, epithet, comparison and others. Let's discuss these paths in more detail. There are really a lot of them in the Russian language, so some scientists tried to single out several such means of expression, from which all the others originated. So, after a series of studies, it was found that the "main" tropes are metaphor and metonymy. However, there is no single classification of means of speech expressiveness, since scientists could not determine a single trope from which all the others were formed.

Let us explain the meaning of the paths listed above.

A metaphor is a hidden comparison, such a turn of phrase that helps to compare several objects with each other without the help of the words “like”, “same as”, “similar to something”, and so on.

Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another according to the principle of "adjacency".

Personification is the assignment of human qualities to inanimate objects.

Hyperbole is an exaggeration of any properties of an object.

Epithets are special paths. In literature, they occupy a very important place, as they characterize the features of an object: size, color. If we are talking about something animated, then this trope can clarify the character, appearance.

Parceling is one of the ways to focus on the desired part of the sentence by separating it from the main sentence.

Now you have an idea of what trails are and what they are. This knowledge can be useful to you not only for analysis, but also for creating your own author's texts. Keeping in mind the expressive function of tropes, you can easily diversify the vocabulary of your work with bizarre turns that will make it individual and unique.

So, knowing what paths are, you can create your own literary masterpieces that will turn out to be as unusual and individual as possible!

Paths and figures

4. personification is a path through which inanimate objects, natural phenomena, abstract concepts appear either in human form (anthropomorphism), or in the form of another living being. The personification is closely connected with the mythological consciousness, which is based on the animation and deification of all living things. Not surprisingly, personification is one of the most frequent tropes in folklore: wind-father; mother river etc.

Personification can be expressed:

metaphorical definition ( the dormant bell woke the fields);

nouns ( silent old man);

Metaphorical verb and its forms ( and the dark forest, leaning, slumbers);

personifying comparisons ( and the sun, like a cat, pulls the ball towards itself).

5 . Metonymy(with gr. renaming) - this path is based on adjacency transfer, that is, objects or phenomena are connected by a causal or other connection. In essence, metonymy is a concise description of a subject. There are a huge number of connections between phenomena that form metonymic expressions. We highlight only the main ones:

Between content and containing: drank the whole samovar;

Between an action and the instrument of that action: their villages and fields for a violent raid / he doomed swords and fires;

Between the object and the material from which it is made: porcelain and bronze on the table;

Between a place and the people who are in it: And restless Petersburg / Already awakened by the drum;

Between a trait and its carrier: gluttonous youth flies.

6. Synecdoche- trope, which is a kind of metonymy. In synecdoche, transference is based on quantitative relationships. Even M.V. Lomonosov in his "Brief Guide to Eloquence" identified seven main types of synecdoche. This classification, with minor amendments, is also found in modern reference dictionaries:

1. replacement of a specific concept by a generic one: Well, sit down, luminary!

2. replacement of a generic concept with a specific one: most of all take care and save a penny

3. the use of the name of the part instead of the name of the whole: I only need a roof over my head

4. the use of the name of the whole instead of the name of the part: he was buried in the globe of the earth

5. use of singular instead of plural: Swede, Russian, stabs, cuts, cuts

6. plural usage instead of singular: We all look at napoleons

7. a certain amount instead of an indefinite one: there are thousands suddenly falling

7. Hyperbole- a trope based on excessive exaggeration, intensification of a feature. Basically, such signs as size, weight, color, quantity, intensity of processes, etc. are subjected to hyperbolization: his blood boiled like melted metal in his veins.

The history of hyperbole is quite long: being widespread in folklore works (epics, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings), it is also frequent in modern literature.

The functions of a hyperbola are manifold. In different eras, she could express solemn delight, convey the strong, vivid feelings of the characters, be used as a characterological tool when creating an image, especially a comic one.

8. Meiosis is a trope inverse to hyperbole. It is based on a deliberate understatement: the stroller is light as a feather. Especially interesting are the cases when the authors combine hyperbole and meiosis:

Adishe city windows smashed

On tiny, sucking lightsadki .

Some researchers confuse the concepts of meiosis and litote, since translated from Greek. the latter means simplicity, smallness, moderation. However, more often the term "litote" is used in the case of "negation of the opposite" or "negation of the opposite property": believe me: I did not listen without participation.

9. Oxymoron(oxymoron) - a trope (or, in the view of some researchers, a stylistic figure), consisting in the combination of two words that contradict each other in meaning, connected by attributive relations. With an oxymoron, the lexical meaning is always played up:

a living corpse, a skinny hero, self-confidently embarrassed.

10. Paraphrase (a)- a trope, which consists in replacing a word or expression with a descriptive phrase, in which more essential features of the signified are called:

Farewell, free element (sea); singer Giaura and Juan

Paraphrase (a) has several varieties:

a) antonomasia or antonomasia (from Greek renaming), including the following cases

Replacing a proper name with a descriptive phrase - indirect naming ( land of the rising sun; author of The Master and Margarita);

Usage own name, as a rule, widely known, instead of a common noun, for naming another person endowed with similar features: Russian Sappho (about the young Akhmatova), domestic Rubens (about Kustodiev);

Usage geographical name associated with some events to indicate similar events: Third Rome (about Moscow);

Use instead of a proper name for the name of a person, phenomenon, place of naming its main property, sign: and here the white (about death) marks the house with crosses

b) dysphemism or cacothemism - the intentional use of rude, vulgar, stylistically reduced, sometimes obscene words in order to express a sharply negative assessment or create other stylistic effects: why am I lighter than all idiots, but also darker than any shit?

c) euphemism - replacement of a rude taboo word or expression with a softer, more acceptable ethically and aesthetically: only a woman who came here to sell / her beauty

11. Irony - a trope in which a word or statement acquires in the context of speech a meaning that is opposite to the literal meaning or negates it. In stylistics, there is also the term antiphrasis to refer to this phenomenon - the use of a word, as well as phrases or sentences in a meaning that is opposite to the usual one, which is achieved with the help of context or a certain intonation: how lovely! Deceive a person, and then pretend to be an angel.

This is the most common function of all tropes - to reflect in the structure of the image the ability of a person to think by analogy, to embody, according to the poet, "the convergence of things far away", thus emphasizing the unity and integrity of the world around us. At the same time, the artistic effect of the trail, as a rule, is the stronger, the farther the approaching phenomena are separated from each other: such is, for example, Tyutchev's likening of lightning to “deaf-mute demons”. On the example of this path, one can trace another function of allegorical figurativeness: to reveal the essence of this or that phenomenon, usually hidden, the potential poetic meaning contained in it. So, in our example, Tyutchev, with the help of a rather complex and non-obvious path, makes the reader take a closer look at such an ordinary phenomenon as lightning, to see it from an unexpected angle. Despite the complexity of the paths, it is very accurate: indeed, the reflections of lightning without thunder are naturally designated by the epithet “deaf and dumb”.

For literary analysis (as opposed to linguistic analysis), it is extremely important to distinguish between general language tropes, that is, those that have entered the language system and are used by all its speakers, and author's tropes, which are used once by a writer or poet in this particular situation. Only the tropes of the second group are capable of creating poetic imagery, while the first group, common language tropes, should not be taken into account in the analysis for obvious reasons. The fact is that common language tropes are “erased”, as it were, from frequent and widespread use, lose their figurative expressiveness, are perceived as a stamp and, therefore, are functionally identical to vocabulary without any figurative meaning.

So, in Pushkin’s line “From the surrounding mountains the snow has already fled in muddy streams” contains a common language trope - the personification of “ran away”, but when reading the text we don’t even think about it, but the author didn’t set such a task for himself, using the expressive meaning that has already lost its construction. True, it should be noted that sometimes a common language, worn out trope can be “refreshed” by rethinking, introducing additional meanings, etc. So, the general language metaphor “rain - tears” is no longer impressive, but here is how Mayakovsky reinterprets this image: “Tears from the eyes, from the lowered eyes of the drainpipes.” Through the introduction of new poetic meanings (houses are personified, and drainpipes are associated with eyes), the image acquires a new pictorial and expressive power.

like a sick person out of bed

nerve jumped.

Walked first

barely,

then he ran

excited,

Now he and the new two

They rush about in a desperate tap dance.

The plaster on the ground floor has collapsed.

small,

jumping mad,

Nerves are shaking!

So, for Lermontov or Mayakovsky, frequent and regular use of tropes is characteristic, and for Pushkin and Tvardovsky, for example, on the contrary, a rare and stingy use of allegorical imagery; there the figurative system is constructed with the help of other means.

There are a fairly large number of varieties of trails; since you can read about them in educational and reference publications, we will simply list the most important ones here without definitions and examples. So, the tropes include: comparison, metaphor, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, symbol, irony (not to be confused with the typological variety of pathos!), oxymoron (or oxymoron), paraphrase, etc.

The figurative and expressive means of the language allow not only to convey information, but also to clearly and convincingly convey thoughts. Lexical expressive means make the Russian language emotional and colorful. Expressive stylistic means are used when an emotional impact on listeners or readers is necessary. It is impossible to make a presentation of oneself, a product, a company without the use of special language tools.

The word is the basis of figurative expressiveness of speech. Many words are often used not only in the direct lexical meaning. The characteristics of animals are transferred to a description of the appearance or behavior of a person - clumsy like a bear, cowardly like a hare. Polysemy (polysemy) - the use of a word in various meanings.

Homonyms are a group of words in the Russian language that have the same sound, but at the same time carry a different semantic load, serve to create a sound game in speech.

Types of homonyms:

homographs - words are spelled the same, they change meaning depending on the stress set (lock - lock);
homophones - words when written differ in one or more letters, but are perceived the same way by ear (the fruit is a raft);
homoforms - words that sound the same, but at the same time refer to different parts of speech (I'm flying in an airplane - I'm flying a runny nose).

Puns - used to give speech a humorous, satirical meaning, betray sarcasm well. They are based on the sound similarity of words or their ambiguity.

Synonyms - describe the same concept from different angles, have a different semantic load and stylistic coloring. Without synonyms, it is impossible to build a vivid and figurative phrase; speech will be oversaturated with tautology.

Synonym types:

full - identical in meaning, used in the same situations;
semantic (semantic) - designed to give shade to words (conversation-conversation);
stylistic - have the same meaning, but at the same time refer to different styles of speech (finger-finger);
semantic-stylistic - have a different shade of meaning, refer to different styles of speech (do - bungled);
contextual (author's) - used in the used context for a more colorful and multifaceted description of a person or event.

Antonyms - words have the opposite lexical meaning, refer to the same part of speech. Allows you to create bright and expressive phrases.

Tropes are words in Russian that are used in a figurative sense. They give speech and works imagery, expressiveness, are designed to convey emotions, vividly recreate the picture.

Trail definition

	Definition
Allegory	Allegorical words and expressions that convey the essence and main features of a particular image. Often used in fables.
Hyperbola	Artistic exaggeration. Allows you to vividly describe properties, events, signs.
Grotesque	The technique is used to satirically describe the vices of society.
Irony	Tropes that are designed to hide the true meaning of the expression through light mockery.
Litotes	The opposite of hyperbole - the properties and qualities of the subject are deliberately underestimated.
personification	A technique in which inanimate objects are attributed the qualities of living beings.
Oxymoron	Connection in one sentence of incompatible concepts (dead souls).
paraphrase	Description of the item. A person, an event without a precise name.
Synecdoche	Description of the whole through the part. The image of a person is recreated by describing clothes, appearance.
Comparison	The difference from metaphor is that there is both what is being compared and what is being compared with. In comparison, unions are often present - as if.
Epithet	The most common figurative definition. Adjectives are not always used for epithets.

Metaphor is a hidden comparison, the use of nouns and verbs in a figurative sense. There is always no object of comparison in it, but there is something with which they are compared. There are short and extended metaphors. Metaphor is aimed at an external comparison of objects or phenomena.

Metonymy is a hidden comparison of objects by internal similarity. This distinguishes this trope from a metaphor.

Syntactic means of expression

Stylistic (rhetorical) - figures of speech are designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech and works of art.

Types of stylistic figures

The name of the syntactic construction	Description
Anaphora	The use of the same syntactic constructions at the beginning of adjacent sentences. Allows you to logically highlight a section of text or a sentence.
Epiphora	The use of the same words and expressions at the end of adjacent sentences. Such figures of speech give the text emotionality, allow you to clearly convey intonations.
Parallelism	Construction of neighboring sentences in the same form. Often used to reinforce a rhetorical exclamation or question.
Ellipsis	Deliberate exclusion of an implied member of a sentence. Makes speech more lively.
gradation	Each subsequent word in the sentence reinforces the meaning of the previous one.
Inversion	The arrangement of words in a sentence is not in direct order. Reception allows you to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Give the phrase a new sound.
Default	Conscious understatement in the text. It is designed to awaken deep feelings and thoughts in the reader.
Rhetorical address	Emphasized appeal to a person or inanimate objects.
Rhetorical question	A question that does not imply an answer, its purpose is to attract the attention of the reader or listener.
Rhetorical exclamation	Special figures of speech to convey expression, tension of speech. Make the text emotional. Grab the reader's or listener's attention.
polyunion	Repeated repetition of the same unions to enhance the expressiveness of speech.
Asyndeton	Intentional omission of unions. This technique gives dynamism to speech.
Antithesis	Sharp opposition of images, concepts. The technique is used to create a contrast, it expresses the author's attitude to the event being described.

Tropes, figures of speech, stylistic means of expression, phraseological statements make speech convincing and vivid. Such turnovers are indispensable in public speaking, election campaigns, rallies, presentations. AT scientific publications and official business speech, such means are inappropriate - accuracy and persuasiveness in these cases is more important than emotions.

An integral part of any literary work are They are able to make the text unique and individually author's. In literary criticism, such means are called tropes. You can learn more about what trails are by reading this article.

Fiction could not exist without various figures of speech, which give the works a special style. Any author, whether a poet or a prose writer, constantly uses tropes to help convey his own thoughts and emotions that he wants to express in his creation. It is a large number of tropes that differ from other types of author's texts. So, let's talk in more detail about the means of speech expressiveness themselves: what they are, what types exist, which of them are most often used, what are their functions and features.

Let us explain the meaning of the paths listed above.

Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another according to the principle of "adjacency".

Personification is the assignment of human qualities to inanimate objects.

Hyperbole is an exaggeration of any properties of an object.

Parceling is one of the ways to focus on the desired part of the sentence by separating it from the main sentence.

So, knowing what paths are, you can create your own literary masterpieces that will turn out to be as unusual and individual as possible!

Speech. Analysis of expressive means.

It is necessary to distinguish between tropes (figurative and expressive means of literature) based on the figurative meaning of words and figures of speech based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.

Lexical means.

Usually in the review of task B8, an example of a lexical means is given in brackets, either in one word or in a phrase in which one of the words is in italics.

synonyms(contextual, linguistic) - words that are close in meaning	soon - soon - one of these days - not today or tomorrow, in the near future
antonyms(contextual, linguistic) - words that are opposite in meaning	they never said to each other you, but always you.
phraseological units- stable combinations of words close in lexical meaning one word	at the edge of the world (= “far away”), missing teeth (= “frozen”)
archaisms- obsolete words	squad, province, eyes
dialectism- Vocabulary common in a certain area	chicken, goof
book, colloquial vocabulary	daring, associate; corrosion, management; squander money, outback

Trails.

In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in brackets, as a phrase.

Types of trails and examples for them in the table:

metaphor- transferring the meaning of a word by similarity	dead silence
personification- likening an object or phenomenon to a living being	dissuadedgolden grove
comparison- comparison of one object or phenomenon with another (expressed through unions as, as if, as if, comparative degree adjective)	bright as the sun
metonymy- replacement of the direct name with another by adjacency (i.e. based on real connections)	The hiss of foamy glasses (instead of: foamy wine in glasses)
synecdoche- the use of the name of the part instead of the whole and vice versa	a lonely sail turns white (instead of: a boat, a ship)
paraphrase– replacing a word or group of words to avoid repetition	author of "Woe from Wit" (instead of A.S. Griboyedov)
epithet- the use of definitions that give the expression imagery and emotionality	Where are you going, proud horse?
allegory- expression of abstract concepts in specific artistic images	scales - justice, cross - faith, heart - love
hyperbola- exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty of the described	in a hundred and forty suns the sunset burned
litotes- underestimation of the size, strength, beauty of the described	your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble
irony- the use of a word or expression in the reverse sense of the literal, with the aim of ridicule	Where, smart, are you wandering, head?

Figures of speech, sentence structure.

In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.

epiphora- repetition of words at the end of sentences or lines following one another	I would like to know. Why am I titular councilor? Why exactly titular councilor?
gradation- construction of homogeneous members of the sentence by increasing meaning or vice versa	came, saw, conquered
anaphora- repetition of words at the beginning of sentences or lines following one another	Ironthe truth is alive with envy, Ironpestle, and iron ovary.
pun- play on words	It was raining and two students.
rhetorical exclamation (question, appeal) - exclamatory, interrogative sentences or a sentence with an appeal that do not require a response from the addressee	Why are you standing, swaying, thin mountain ash? Long live the sun, long live the darkness!
syntactic parallelism- the same construction of sentences	young everywhere we have a road, old people everywhere we honor
polyunion- repetition of an excess union	And a sling, and an arrow, and a crafty dagger Years spare the winner ...
asyndeton– construction complex sentences or a number of homogeneous members without unions	Flickering past the booth, women, Boys, benches, lanterns ...
ellipsis- omission of implied word	I'm behind a candle - a candle in the stove
inversion- indirect word order	Our amazing people.
antithesis- opposition (often expressed through the unions A, BUT, HOWEVER or antonyms	Where the table was food, there is a coffin
oxymoron- a combination of two contradictory concepts	living corpse, ice fire
citation- transmission in the text of other people's thoughts, statements indicating the author of these words.	As it is said in the poem by N. Nekrasov: “You have to bow your head below the thin bylinochka ...”
questionable-reciprocal the form statements- the text is presented in the form of rhetorical questions and answers to them	And again a metaphor: "Live under minute houses ...". What do they mean? Nothing lasts forever, everything is subject to decay and destruction
ranks homogeneous members of the proposal- enumeration of homogeneous concepts	He was waiting for a long, serious illness, leaving the sport.
parceling- a sentence that is divided into intonation-semantic speech units.	I saw the sun. Above your head.

Remember!

When completing task B8, you should remember that you fill in the gaps in the review, i.e. restore the text, and with it the semantic and grammatical connection. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates that agree with omissions, etc.

It will facilitate the task and the division of the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on changes in the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence.

Parsing the task.

(1) The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun through the infinite Universe. (2) The life support system on our beautiful ship is so ingenious that it is constantly self-renewing and thus keeps billions of passengers traveling for millions of years.

(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying on a ship through outer space, deliberately destroying a complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we are putting this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, cutting down forests, spoiling the oceans. (5) If on a small spaceship astronauts will fussily cut the wires, unscrew the screws, drill holes in the skin, then this will have to be qualified as suicide. (6) But there is no fundamental difference between a small ship and a large one. (7) It's only a matter of size and time.

(8) Humanity, in my opinion, is a kind of disease of the planet. (9) Wound up, multiply, swarm microscopic, on a planetary, and even more so on a universal, scale of being. (10) They accumulate in one place, and immediately deep ulcers and various growths appear on the body of the earth. (11) One has only to introduce a drop of harmful (from the point of view of the earth and nature) culture into the green coat of the Forest (a team of lumberjacks, one barracks, two tractors) - and now a characteristic, symptomatic painful spot spreads from this place. (12) They scurry, multiply, do their work, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous administrations.

(13) Unfortunately, just as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of the so-called technical progress, are such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication between man and nature, with the beauty of our land. (14) On the one hand, a man twitched by an inhuman rhythm modern life, crowding, a huge flow of artificial information, weaned from spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this outside world itself has been brought to such a state that sometimes it no longer invites a person to spiritual communication with it.

(15) It is not known how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?

(According to V. Soloukhin)

“The first two sentences use a trope like _______. This image " cosmic body” and “astronauts” is the key to understanding the author’s position. Discussing how humanity behaves in relation to its home, V. Soloukhin comes to the conclusion that "humanity is a disease of the planet." ______ (“they scurry, multiply, do their job, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous administrations”) convey the negative deeds of man. The use of _________ in the text (sentences 8, 13, 14) emphasizes that everything said by the author is far from being indifferent. Used in the 15th sentence ________ "original" gives the argument a sad ending, which ends with a question.

List of terms:

epithet
litotes
introductory words and insert structures
irony
extended metaphor
parceling
question-answer form of presentation
dialectism
homogeneous members suggestions

We divide the list of terms into two groups: the first - epithet, litote, irony, extended metaphor, dialectism; the second - introductory words and plug-in constructions, parcelling, question-answer form of presentation, homogeneous members of the sentence.

It is better to start the task with passes that do not cause difficulties. For example, gap #2. Since the whole sentence is given as an example, some syntactic means is most likely implied. In a sentence “they scurry, multiply, do their job, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous administrations” rows of homogeneous members of the sentence are used : Verbs scurry, multiply, do business, gerunds eating away, exhausting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb "transfer" in the review indicates that the place of the gap should be the word in plural. In the list in the plural there are introductory words and plug-in constructions and homogeneous member sentences. A careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without losing their meaning are absent. Thus, at the place of pass No. 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the sentence.

In pass number 3, the numbers of sentences are indicated, which means that the term again refers to the structure of sentences. Parceling can be immediately “discarded”, since the authors must indicate two or three consecutive sentences. The question-answer form is also an incorrect option, since sentences 8, 13, 14 do not contain a question. There are introductory words and plug-in constructions. We find them in sentences: in my opinion, unfortunately, on the one hand, on the other hand.

In place of the last gap, you must substitute the term male, since the adjective “used” must agree with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example “ original". Masculine terms - epithet and dialectism. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Turning to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "original disease". Here, the adjective is clearly used in a figurative sense, so we have an epithet in front of us.

It remains to fill only the first gap, which is the most difficult. The review says that this is a trope, and it is used in two sentences, where the image of the earth and us, people, as an image of a cosmic body and astronauts is rethought. This is clearly not irony, since there is not a drop of mockery in the text, and not litotes, but rather, on the contrary, the author deliberately exaggerates the scale of the disaster. Thus, the only thing left possible variant- a metaphor, the transfer of properties from one object or phenomenon to another based on our associations. Expanded - because it is impossible to isolate a separate phrase from the text.

Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.

Practice.

(1) As a child, I hated matinees, because my father came to our kindergarten. (2) He sat on a chair near the Christmas tree, chirped on his button accordion for a long time, trying to find the right melody, and our teacher strictly told him: “Valery Petrovich, higher!” (Z) All the guys looked at my father and choked with laughter. (4) He was small, plump, began to go bald early, and although he never drank, for some reason his nose always had a beet red color, like that of a clown. (5) Children, when they wanted to say about someone that he was funny and ugly, said this: “He looks like Ksyushka’s dad!”

(6) And at first in the kindergarten, and then at school, I carried the heavy cross of my father's absurdity. (7) Everything would be fine (you never know who has any fathers!), But it was not clear to me why he, an ordinary locksmith, went to our matinees with his stupid harmonica. (8) I would play at home and not dishonor myself or my daughter! (9) Often straying, he sighed thinly, like a woman, and a guilty smile appeared on his round face. (10) I was ready to sink through the ground with shame and behaved emphatically coldly, showing with my appearance that this ridiculous man with a red nose had nothing to do with me.

(11) I was in the third grade when I had a bad cold. (12) I have otitis media. (13) In pain, I screamed and pounded my head with my palms. (14) Mom called an ambulance, and at night we went to the district hospital. (15) On the way we got into a terrible snowstorm, the car got stuck, and the driver shrillly, like a woman, began to shout that now we will all freeze. (16) He screamed piercingly, almost cried, and I thought that his ears also hurt. (17) The father asked how much was left to the regional center. (18) But the driver, covering his face with his hands, repeated: “What a fool I am!” (19) The father thought and quietly said to his mother: “We will need all the courage!” (20) I remembered these words for the rest of my life, although wild pain circled me like a snowflake blizzard. (21) He opened the car door and went out into the roaring night. (22) The door slammed behind him, and it seemed to me that a huge monster, with a clanging jaw, swallowed my father. (23) The car was rocked by gusts of wind, snow was falling on the frosty windows with a rustle. (24) I cried, my mother kissed me with cold lips, the young nurse looked doomed into the impenetrable darkness, and the driver shook his head in exhaustion.

(25) I don’t know how much time has passed, but suddenly the night was lit up with bright headlights, and a long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and through my eyelashes I saw my father. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.

(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time later he was ill with bilateral pneumonia.

(32) ... My children are perplexed why, when decorating a Christmas tree, I always cry. (ZZ) From the darkness of the past, a father comes to me, he sits under the tree and puts his head on the button accordion, as if stealthily wants to see his daughter among the dressed up crowd of children and smile at her cheerfully. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and also want to smile at him, but instead I start to cry.

(According to N. Aksyonova)

Read a fragment of a review based on the text that you analyzed while completing tasks A29 - A31, B1 - B7.

This fragment examines the language features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the gaps with the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. If you do not know which number from the list should be in place of the gap, write the number 0.

The sequence of numbers in the order in which they are written by you in the text of the review at the place of the gaps, write down in the answer sheet No. 1 to the right of the task number B8, starting from the first cell.

“The use by the narrator to describe the blizzard of such a lexical means of expression as _____ ("terrible blizzard", "impenetrable darkness"), gives expressive power to the depicted picture, and such paths as _____ ("pain circled me" in sentence 20) and _____ ("the driver began to scream shrillly, like a woman" in sentence 15), convey the drama of the situation described in the text . A technique such as _____ (in sentence 34) enhances the emotional impact on the reader.

In stylistics and rhetoric, artistic tropes are elements of speech figurativeness. Tropes (Greek tropos - turnover) are special turns of speech that give it visibility, liveliness, emotionality and beauty. The tropes presuppose the conversion of a word, a revolution in its semantics. They arise when words are used not in a direct, but in a figurative sense; when, by means of matching by adjacency, expressions enrich each other with a spectrum of lexical meanings.

For example, in one of A.K. Tolstoy we read:

A sharp ax wounded a birch,

Tears rolled down the silvery bark;

Don't cry, poor birch, don't complain!

The wound is not fatal, it will be cured by the summer ...

In the above lines, in fact, the story of one spring birch, which received mechanical damage to the tree bark, is recreated. The tree, according to the poet, was preparing to wake up from a long winter hibernation. But a certain evil (or simply absent-minded) person appeared, wanted to drink birch sap, made an incision (notch), quenched his thirst and left. And juice continues to flow from the incision.

The specific texture of the plot is acutely experienced by A.K. Tolstoy. He sympathizes with the birch and regards its history as a violation of the laws of life, as a violation of beauty, as a kind of world drama.

Therefore, the artist resorts to verbal-lexical substitutions. The poet calls the incision (or notch) in the bark a "wound". And birch sap - "tears" (of course, birch cannot have them). The trails help the author to identify the birch and the person; to express in a poem the idea of mercy, compassion for all living things.

In poetics, artistic tropes retain the significance they have in stylistics and rhetoric. Tropes are called poetic turns of language, implying the transfer of meanings.

There are the following types of artistic tropes: metonymy, synecdoche, allegory, comparison, metaphor, personification, epithet.

Metonymy is the simplest type of allegory, involving the replacement of a name with its lexical synonym ("ax" instead of: "axe"). Or a semantic result (for example, the "golden" age of Russian literature" instead of: "Russian literature XIX century"). Metonymy (transfer) underlies any trope. Metonymic, according to M. R. Lvov, are “connections by adjacency”.

Synecdoche is such a metonymy in which the name is replaced by a name that is narrower or broader in semantics (for example, “nosach” instead of “man” (with a big nose) or “two-legged” instead of: “people”). A replacement name is identified by its characteristic feature The that names the replacement name.

An allegory is a figurative allegory intended for rational decoding (for example, the Wolf and the Stalker in the well-known fable by I. A. Krylov “The Wolf in the Kennel” are easily deciphered by the images of Napoleon and Kutuzov). The image in the allegory plays a subordinate role. He sensually embodies any meaningful idea; serves as an unambiguous illustration, a "hieroglyph" of an abstract concept.

Comparison is such a metonymy, which is revealed in two components: compared and comparing. And it is grammatically formed with the help of conjunctions: “like”, “as if”, “as if”, etc.

For example, S.A. Yesenina: “And birch trees (comparison component) stand like (union) big candles (comparison component).”

Comparison helps to see the subject from a new, unexpected point of view. It highlights in him hidden or hitherto unnoticed features; gives it a new semantic being. So, comparison with candles, "gives" Yesenin birches harmony, softness, warmth, and blinding beauty, characteristic of all candles. Moreover, trees, thanks to such a comparison, are understood as living, even coming to God (since candles, as a rule, burn in the temple).

Metaphor, according to the fair definition of A.A. Potebni, there is a "abbreviated comparison." It detects only one - the comparison component. Comparable - is speculated by the reader. The metaphor is used by A.K. Tolstoy in a line about a wounded and weeping birch. The poet apparently provides only a replacement word (comparative component) - "tears". And the replaced (comparable component) - "birch sap" - is conjectured by us.

Metaphor is a hidden analogy. This trope genetically grows out of comparison, but has neither its structure nor grammatical design (the conjunctions “like”, “as if”, etc. are not used).

Personification is the personification ("revival") of inanimate nature. Thanks to the personification, earth, clay and stones acquire anthropomorphic (human) features, organicity.

Quite often, nature is likened to a mysterious living organism in the work of the Russian poet S.A. Yesenin. He says:

Where there are cabbage patches

Sunrise pours red water,

Maple tree little uterus

Green udder sucks.

An epithet is not a simple, but a metaphorical definition. It arises by conjugation of heterogeneous concepts (approximately according to the following scheme: bark + silver = "silver bark"). The epithet opens the limits of the traditional features of an object and adds new properties to them (for example, the epithet “silver” gives the object (“bark”) consistent with it the following new features: “light”, “brilliant”, “clean”, “black”) .