Table on the history of the creation of a scientific picture of the world. Science: creating a scientific picture of the world. Events and participants

Public lesson in history in the 8th grade on the topic "Science: creation scientific picture of the world". The developed technological map of the lesson, abstract, road map of the student, applications, musical accompaniment.

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History Lesson Roadmap

8th grade student ___________________________________

The date________________

My mood

Theme of the lesson: ____________________________________________________________________________

Problem we are working on

________________________________________________________________________________

Invention is _________________________________________________________________

Opening is _________________________________________________________________________

1.Fill in the table

Branch of science	Scientist's name	Opening year	Discovery and its significance
Physics (example)	Michael Faraday	1831	Electromagnetic induction, which made it possible to create an electric motor (generator)
natural science


Microbiology


The medicine

2. Read the description of Marie Curie on page 53 of the textbook and answer the question:

What character traits should a scientist have? Select the one you want and rank it in order of importance.

Kind, polite, lazy, purposeful, cunning, cheerful, decent, strong in spirit, risky, smart, hardworking, reliable, selfish.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Match

	scientific revolution	the science of living organisms invisible to the naked eye
	Radioactivity	new knowledge that can change the picture of the world
	pasteurization	is the ability of atoms of certain isotopes to spontaneously decay by emitting radiation
	sterilization	heat treatment of foods designed to kill bacteria and other microorganisms, proposed by Louis Pasteur
	stethoscope	revolution in science
	microbiology	complete destruction of all types of microorganisms
	sensation	noise listening device internal organs: lungs, bronchi, heart ...

mark

Reflection

1. Today I learned _____________________________________________

2. It was difficult _____________________________________________________

3. I realized that ________________________________________________________

4. I was surprised by _____________________________________________________

6. My mood

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Lesson summary

During the classes.

1. Motivation of students to work.

I greet children with verses:

Our meeting is not accidental.
The guests were waiting for our lesson.
Need to get it right
At half an hour. Such is the time!
We will work well.
I am Galina Vitislavna!

On your desks there are leaflets - your road maps, in which we will work today. Sign them, put today's date and choose your mood, circle the emoticon that suits your mood.

Let's wish each other good luck and move on.

2. Actualization of basic knowledge.

I bring a black box to the class. Question to the children: There are two objects in the box that are familiar to you. Your task is to guess what is in the box? I give hints:

Subject number 1.

I'm sure many of you use it.

It's edible.

Liquid.

It happens in a jar, plastic or glass container.

Consists of two words beginning with the letter "K"

Coca Cola (correct).

Item #2

The object is almost round.

It is often part of your breakfast, and maybe even lunch.

You can do it yourself, especially girls. Yes, and the subject is feminine.

Sweet, tasty, fluffy, soft.

Bun.

I take out two buns from the black box.

See how they differ?

I break each bun in half and show the inside.One bun with raisins and the other without. And now I will tell the story of the appearance of these objects.

The invention of Coca-Cola.In the 19th century, the famous coca-cola was just... a cure for toothache! This remedy, which was a syrup in the form of a syrup, was created by an American pharmacist John Pemberton . And then one day the case intervened ... The fact is that when selling the medicine, it was supposed to be diluted with ordinary drinking water. But in the summer, when it's hot, stuffy, buyers are in a hurry, so the seller hurried and mixed up the taps - he poured not ordinary water into the potion, but sparkling water. As a result, the thick dark syrup hissed and foamed. And it turned out to be very tasty! So, thanks to Pemberton, and maybe a hasty pharmacist, the whole world today drinks coca-cola ...

The invention of the raisin bun.
This unexpected discovery took place in XIX century. Invented a raisin bun by a famous Russian baker Ivan Filippov . True, with the participation of a co-author - a cockroach! Once, the Governor-General of Moscow, Zakrevsky, in anger, all red and furious, attacked the confectioner, shouting that he had found a cockroach in a bun. Filippov was seriously frightened, but not at a loss - he calmly ate a cockroach. And he assured the governor that he misunderstood and mistook the raisins for a cockroach. And right there, in order to convince the formidable official, a whole batch of buns was urgently made in the bakery, in the dough of which a huge amount of raisins was added. The new kind confectionery came to very many tastes.

The heroes of my story accidentally found a technical solution that has found wide application in practice. Tell me how it can be called in one word?

Children:

Invention

Correctly. An invention is a technical solution that has novelty and practical applicability, usefulness.

Let's do some experiment with balls. The balls, you see, are exactly the same. You need to find out which ball will jump higher, but we must determine this only by touching the ball with our hand, but not by hitting it. How can we know? (check for elasticity).(Children experiment and draw a conclusion)

And now, thanks to experience, experiment and observation, we have revealed the properties of the ball, that is, we have discovered a pattern that allowed us to learn something new. What is meant by discovery?the existing laws of nature or the establishment of the properties of the material world, which make changes in our knowledge, our worldview.

Opening.

Right.

- Discovery is discovery...Let's write down the concepts in the roadmap.

In which lessons can you get acquainted with discoveries?

Physics, mathematics, chemistry, history. What is the name of all these concepts in one word?

Science.

3. Statement of the topic and purpose of the lesson.

What is the topic of our lesson today?

The science.

But this is only part of the topic. We will talk not only about the discoveries, but their main property, the main feature - about what? If you find it difficult to answer, find the answer to the question in the textbook point 1, §5, p. 46.

Changing our worldview. We look at the world from a scientific point of view, so the second part of the topic is the creation of a scientific picture of the world.

Write down the topic of today's lesson"Science: creating a scientific picture of the world".

What is our goal?

Find out how the initial picture of the world was created?

4. Discovery of new knowledge.

Open your textbook to page 46 and read the bottom four lines. Tell me where are you? Who did you see there?

But who is this boy, I'll tell you.

(Teacher's story about Faraday and its discovery electromagnetic induction, during the story hangs itportrait and picture - generator).

Electromagnetism was studied later by James Clark Maxwell, Heinrich Hertz. Their merit is that instead of a mechanical theory of the existence of the world, they created an electrodynamic one. Based on their discoveries, radio and telegraph were invented. Who invented it?

Marconi and Popov.

Lorentz, Stoney tried to explain the phenomenon of electromagnetism from the point of view of the structure of the atom.

What is an atom? This is a microparticle. And about the next sensations (by the way, what does this word mean?), connected with the study of the atom, will tell us………………

Radioactivity presentation

Thank you. A picture of an atom and a portrait of Marie Curie

The whole world knows the name of this scientist. Look at his portrait, invention and name. x-ray . Will tell us about him…………………

5. Independent work in groups (“Sensations continue”)

Everything that I and your classmates tell you today, try to remember. And now there will be a task for everyone. Look, there is a table in your roadmaps. It has several sections. We need to fill it. We will divide into groups, as you are sitting. One group is engaged in discoveries in the field of natural science and writes out the name of an outstanding natural scientist and his theory. The second group is working on microbiologists and their achievements, the third - with the discoveries of medicine. The fourth group has a special task - on the cards they will prepare a message about Nobel Prize. The fifth group performs task 2.)

6. Consolidation of the acquired knowledge.

Today we are in joint activities came up with new knowledge and concepts. We have one 3rd task left in the roadmap, which will allow you to evaluate your own performance in the lesson. Execute it. After you complete the task, I will tell you the correct answers.

7.Information about homework, briefing on its implementation.

1. In the next lesson, you will tell me which schools and educational establishments should have been in the 19th century to meet the needs of science and the needs of an industrial society. Compare them with modern educational opportunities. §5 pp51-53 question 3

8. Reflection of learning activities

I suggest that students choose the endings of the phrases:

Today I found out
It was difficult…
I realized that...
I was surprised...

Thanks for the lesson!

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Nobel Peace Prize

The famous Swedish engineer, chemist and businessman Alfred Nobel did not want his descendants to remember him as a "merchant of death" - the inventor of dynamite. Therefore, at the end of his life, he bequeathed most of his fortune to spend on the payment of international prizes - in chemistry, in physics, in medicine and physiology, in literature. In his will, Alfred Nobel also wrote about the Peace Prize.

This award has been presented annually in Norway since 1901. The winner is determined by the Norwegian Nobel Committee. It has five members who are elected by the Norwegian Parliament.

The Peace Prize includes a laureate's diploma, a medal and a cash check. The amount of the award is not constant, it changes depending on the income of the Nobel Foundation. Maybe in the amount of about 1 million euros. The Peace Prize medal is cast in solid gold and engraved with a portrait of Alfred Nobel. According to Nobel's will, the Peace Prize should be awarded to the person who has brought the greatest benefit to mankind and has done the most in the name of brotherhood among peoples, for the dissolution or reduction of active armies and for the holding and propaganda of congresses in support of peace.

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“Whoever looks at himself, sees his own face,
Who sees his face, knows his own worth,
Who knows the price, is strict with himself,
He who is strict with himself is truly great!”

(Pierre Gringore)

Self-analysis of the history lesson in the 8th grade

history and social studies teachers

(highest qualification category)

Belolyubtseva Galina Vitislavna.

This lesson was taught in 8th grade. There are 27 students in the class. Children are different in terms of development, so when working I tried to take into account the capabilities of each. Pupils study according to the textbook "History of the New Time" by the authors A.Ya.Yudovskaya, P.A. Baranov, revised in accordance with GEF LLC.

Lesson topic. Science: creating a scientific picture of the world.

Lesson Objectives:

activity:

In the process of building up work with children on this topic, I plannedform the following UUD:

personal:

cognitive: extracting the necessary information for solving cognitive problems from the textbook, messages from the teacher and classmates;

regulatory:

communicative:

Type of lesson: discovery of new knowledge.

Resource support: interactive whiteboard, pictures, road maps, portraits of scientists, presentations, "black box" with inventions.

The structure of the lesson is logical, meets the methodological and sanitary and hygienic requirements, as well as the purpose and type of the lesson.

All stages of the lesson were presented visually, each stage had its completeness and a logical transition to another stage.

On the organizational stagelesson created a situation to motivate the work in the lesson by greeting in poetic form.When defining a topiclesson used a visual-research method (“black box” and experience with balls), formed cognitive UUD. When formulating the tasks of the lesson by students - regulatory UUD.

The stage of updating knowledge was carried out on the basis of the principle of dialogical communication in such a way that children systematize the knowledge that they had received earlier and that they would need for the lesson.

At the lesson, the activity of students was traced through the use of a variety of activities that aroused children's interest, creative activity, and the desire to complete tasks. At this lesson, the children willingly joined in all types of work, demonstrating not only their knowledge, but also the ability to work collectively, in groups, independently, demonstrating homemade presentations.The form of the lesson interested the children, and they were happy to complete the tasks.. Enriched in class vocabulary, work was carried out on the formation of speech, the attention of children became more active, their horizons expanded, interest in the subject was instilled, and creative imagination developed. Attention was paid to the health-saving function.

Lesson structure, planned questions, practical activities contributed to cognitive activity students. To activate the thinking of students, problem situations were created, and an active visual series was used to perceive the material. At the lesson, methods and forms of work were used: work in groups, work with reference literature, research activities(work with documents).

There was a connection with life, interdisciplinary connections with physics, biology. The students in the lesson were active, attentive, efficient. During the reflection, each child was given the opportunity to evaluate their activities.

At every stage of the lessonwork was carried out with the road map and the consolidation of the studied material was in progress.

The tasks were completed in class. Most of the children coped with all tasks, revealed difficulties in work, which is an important component of regulatory UUD. The goal of the lesson has been achieved.

The lesson was conducted in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard.

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Technological map of the lesson

Subject, class	History, 8th grade
Lesson topic	Science: creating a scientific picture of the world
Name of the teacher	Belolyubtseva G.V.
Lesson type	Discovery of new knowledge
Used pedagogical technologies	Problem - research method, use of ICT, group work, individual independent activity
Planned results	personal including the readiness and ability of students to self-development, the formation of motivation for learning and cognition, the value-semantic attitudes of students, reflecting their individual-personal positions, social competencies, personal qualities; the formation of the foundations of civic identity; metasubject including mastered by students of universal learning activities (cognitive, regulative and communicative), ensuring the mastery of key competencies that form the basis of the ability to learn, and interdisciplinary concepts subject , including the experience mastered by students in the course of studying the subject area of activity specific to this subject area to obtain new knowledge, its transformation and application, as well as a system of fundamental elements scientific knowledge underlying the modern scientific picture of the world.
The purpose of the lesson	activity: the formation in students of the ability to implement methods of action (planning educational cooperation with the teacher and peers, developing the ability to independently and motivatedly organize their own cognitive activity(from setting a goal to obtaining and evaluating the result); Possible personal problem:inseparable bond scientific discoveries and Everyday life of a person: influence on the perception of the world, health status, education, etc.
Formation of UUD	Personal:		Cognitive:	Regulatory:	Communicative:
	responsible attitude to learning, readiness for self-development and self-education, the ability to speak in public, communicative competence in communication and cooperation with peers; approval of the internal position, motivation of the teaching;		extracting the necessary information for solving cognitive problems from the textbook, messages from the teacher and classmates	staging learning goal, tasks; construction of logical reasoning, including the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships;	listen and understand the speech and thoughts of others, be able to follow the rules of communication and behavior.
Resource support	Interactive whiteboard, pictures, road maps, portraits of scientists, presentations, "black box" with inventions.
Organizational structure of the lesson
Stage 1		Greeting in poetic form and acquaintance
Target		Attitude to gain knowledge
Stage duration		2 minutes
		road maps
Stage 2		Leading up to the study of a new topic
Target		To acquaint students with the main discoveries of the 19th century and their role in creating a scientific picture of the world, connection with modernity
Stage duration		7 min.
Knowledge update		Dialogic communication (inventions and discoveries)
		Problem, intrigue, experience
		Leading students to the formulation of the topic and problem of the lesson
Methods and forms of work		black box experiment
Stage 3…		Formulation of the topic and problems of the lesson
Stage 4…
Stage duration		16 min
Illustrative and didactic materials		Presentations, portraits of scientists, pictures with inventions
Form of organization of student activities		Group, individual, independent
Functions of the teacher at this stage		Organization of activity and speed in work, distribution of tasks
Methods and forms of work		Cognitive and problem tasks
Stage 5…		Roadmap work
Target		Encourage children to do homework
Stage duration		3 min
Slides captions: The discovery of radioactivity Prezentacii.com It all started with an atom... Democritus, a scientist of antiquity, believed that atoms are the smallest indivisible particles of matter, eternal, indestructible. At the end of the 19th century, physicists proved that the atom is a complex particle and consists of simpler (elementary) particles. Radioactivity appeared on the earth from the time of its formation, and man throughout the history of the development of his civilization was under the influence of radiation: radiation from the Sun, cosmic radiation, radiation from radioactive elements found in the Earth. Radioactive radiation is an outgoing flow of energy that occurs during the spontaneous decay of atomic nuclei. AA Becquerel The phenomenon of radioactivity was discovered by the French physicist A. Becquerel on March 1, 1896 under random circumstances. Becquerel put several photographic plates in a drawer and, to keep them out of the light, he crushed them with a piece of uranium salt. Then he noticed the blackening of the plate, explaining this by the emission of invisible rays from the uranium salt. Discovery Later, Becquerel conducted an experiment with metallic uranium - the effect of the emission of rays intensified. March 2, 1896 Becquerel announced his discovery of radioactivity Discovery of new radioactive elements Maria Skłodowska-Curie discovered the radiation of thorium. Later, she and her husband discovered previously unknown elements: polonium, radium. The Curies and Becquerel received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of radioactivity. Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie Marie Curie became the first woman in Europe to receive a PhD and receive the Nobel Prize twice. Made by Mk-Unique Prezentacii.com The lives of both generations of physicists Curie was literally sacrificed to her science. Marie Curie, her daughter Irene and son-in-law Frédéric Joliot-Curie died of radiation sickness resulting from many years of work with radioactive substances. Thanks to Becquerel, the Curie spouses, Rutherford, Niels Bohr, it became clear that the atom has a complex structure, and not at all the smallest indivisible particle, and that radioactive radiation occurs during the spontaneous decay of atomic nuclei In January 1896, a typhoon of newspaper reports swept over Europe and America about the sensational discovery of Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, professor at the University of Würzburg. It seemed that there was no newspaper that would not have printed a picture of the hand, which, as it turned out later, belonged to Bertha Roentgen, the professor's wife. And Professor Roentgen, having locked himself in his laboratory, continued to intensively study the properties of the rays he had discovered. DISCOVERY OF RENTGEN Roentgen was engaged in the study of electric discharge in glass vacuum tubes. On the evening of November 8, 1895, Roentgen was working as usual in his laboratory. Around midnight, feeling tired, he prepared to leave. Glancing around the laboratory, he turned off the light and was about to close the door, when he suddenly noticed some kind of luminous spot in the darkness. What is glowing? The sun had long since set, the electric light could not cause a glow, the cathode tube was turned off, and in addition it was covered with a black cardboard cover. Roentgen looked again at the cathode tube and reproached himself: it turns out he forgot to turn it off. Feeling for the switch, the scientist turned off the receiver. Disappeared and the glow of the screen; turned on the receiver again - and the glow appeared again. So he discovered new rays, named after him. When he, the first Nobel Prize winner, found himself in an extremely difficult financial situation (during the First World War), his friends from Holland sent butter and sugar to the starving scientist in Germany. But he could not afford personal well-being in the midst of the distress of his people and sent parcels for public distribution. Only the clear threat of starvation made him agree to an additional ration. He died on February 10, 1923 from an illness (from cancer of the internal organs) caused by rays, to which he gave life and a name. IN OUR TIME Fame, which X-ray avoided, found him after death. Mankind should be grateful to the scientist for his selflessness, for the discovery of X-rays and for their widest application in various fields of science, technology and medicine. V. K. Roentgen Maria Skladowska-Curie Charles Darwin Edward Jenner Koch Robert

Lesson on new history in the 8th grade on the topic: "Science: creating a scientific picture of the world"

History teacher, MOU Budinskaya OOSh

Tver region

Goals: - (sl.2)

Find out what changes have occurred in the development of science; what reasons contributed to the development of science and scientific knowledge;

How did these studies affect the lives of the people of the New Age;

To develop the ability to find the necessary information from various sources, the ability to make tabular records.

Equipment: presentation, computer, survey cards.

During the classes.

1. Org. the beginning of the lesson.

2. Checking homework.

1) testing

1. The development of railway transport in cities was facilitated by:

A) the appearance of steam locomotives;

B) the transformation of cities into industrial centers

C) a great desire to make life easier for the townspeople

2. The first public transport - the omnibus appeared for the first time in:

A) Paris

B) London

In Berlin

3. The appearance of trams with electric traction is associated with the name:

A) Edison

B) S. Rhodes

B) K. Benz

4. In what year was the first underground opened in London?

A) 1872

B) 1868

B) 1863

5. An integral part of the street landscape late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century was (a) the appearance

A) electric cars

B) lampposts

C) boys selling newspapers

6. A machine designed for sewing clothes was invented by:

A) L. Dagger

B) Singer

B) r. hill

7. The founder of the first method of photographing is:

A) L. Dagger

B) L. Sholes

B) Singer

8. Candles and oil lamps were replaced in the 50s by:

A) lights

B) kerosene lamps

B) lamps

9. In what year did L. Scholes receive a patent for the invention of the typewriter?

A) 1867

B) 1870

C) 1875

10. In the Napoleonic era, style dominated:

A) modern

B) classicism

Vampire

11. A distinctive feature of the early 20th century in clothing was that:

A) women's skirts are narrowed, and men wear three-piece suits;

B) women's skirts expand, men wear tailcoats

C) women wear cleavage, and men tuxedos and tailcoats

Criteria for evaluation:

Less than 5 - "2"

From 5 to 7 - "3"

From 8 to 10 - "4"

11 - "5"

Key to answers:

1-b, 2-a, 3-a, 4-c, 5-c, 6-b, 7-a, 8-b, 9-a, 10-c, 11-a

3. Communication of the topic and objectives of the lesson.

(sq. 3)Lesson plan:

The reasons rapid development Sciences.

"Master of Lightning".

The sensations continue.

Revolution in natural science.

The new science is microbiology.

Medical advances.

Development of education.

(sl. 4) - draw a table to be filled in during the lesson.

4. Learning new material:

1 ) work according to the textbook:

(sl. 5) Why, in the 19th - early 20th centuries, did they begin to develop so actively

various sciences?

You will find the answer to the question by reading point 1 on page 39.

(sq. 6)

Reasons for the development of science in modern times:

1. Life itself demanded to know the laws and use them in production

2. Fundamental changes in the consciousness and thinking of the people of the New Age.

(sl. 7) In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, which led to the creation of an electric motor. He became a member of the Royal Society.

Let's find out more about him.

Michael was born on September 22, 1791 in Newngton Butts (now Greater London). His father was a poor blacksmith from the London suburbs. The blacksmith was also the elder brother Robert, who in every possible way encouraged Michael's craving for knowledge and at first supported him financially. Faraday's mother, a hardworking and uneducated woman, lived to the time when her son achieved success and recognition, and was rightfully proud of him. The modest income of the family did not allow Michael to graduate even high school, from the age of thirteen he began working as a supplier of books and newspapers, and then at the age of 14 he went to work in a bookstore, where he also studied bookbinding. Seven years of work in the workshop on Blandford Street became for the young man and years of intense self-education. All this time, Faraday worked hard - he enthusiastically read all the scientific works he bound on physics and chemistry, as well as articles from the Encyclopædia Britannica, repeated in his home laboratory the experiments described in books, on home-made electrostatic devices. An important stage in Faraday's life was classes at the City Philosophical Society, where Michael listened to popular science lectures on physics and astronomy in the evenings and participated in disputes. He received money (one shilling to pay for each lecture) from his brother. At the lectures, Faraday made new acquaintances, to whom he wrote many letters in order to develop a clear and concise style of presentation; he also tried to master the techniques of oratory.

Gradually experimental studies more and more switched to the field of physics. After opening in 1820magnetic action of electric current, Faraday was fascinated by the problem of communication betweenandATan entry appeared in his laboratory diary: "Turn magnetism into electricity." Faraday's reasoning was as follows: if inelectricity has a magnetic force, and, according to Faraday, all forces are interconvertible, then the magnets must also excite an electric current. In the same year, he made an attempt to find the polarizing effect of current on light. Passing polarized light through water located between the poles of a magnet, he tried to detect the depolarization of light, but the experiment gave a negative result..

In 1823, Faraday became a member and was appointed director of the physical and chemical laboratories of the Royal Institute, where he conducted his experiments.

(sl. 8) In the 1860s, he developed the electromagnetic theory of light, which generalized the results of experiments and theoretical constructions of many physicists from different countries in the field of electromagnetism.

James Clerk Maxwell listen)) is a British physicist and mathematician. Scottish by birth. Member of the Royal Society of London (1861). Maxwell laid the foundations of modern classical electrodynamics (Maxwell's equations), introduced the concept of and , received a number of consequences from his theory (prediction , electromagnetic nature , and others). One of the founders (installed ). He was one of the first to introduce statistical representations into physics, showed the statistical nature (« ”), received a number of important results in and (Maxwell's thermodynamic relations, Maxwell's rule for phase transition liquid - gas and others). Pioneer of quantitative color theory; author of the principle . Maxwell's other work included studies on stability , and mechanics ( , Maxwell's theorem), optics, mathematics. He prepared manuscripts for publication , paid much attention , designed a number of scientific instruments.

(sl. 9) According to his theory, there are invisible waves in nature that transmit electricity in space. Light is a type of electromagnetic vibration.

(sl. 10 ) In 1883, the German engineer Heinrich Hertz confirmed the existence of electromagnetic waves and proved that no material object could interfere with their propagation.

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz - German physicist.

Graduated, FROMongg. was a professor. Since 1889 - professor of physics at the University of.

The main achievement is the experimental confirmation of the electromagnetic theory of light. Hertz proved the existence. He studied in detail, , and, proved that the speed of their propagation coincides with the speed of propagation of light, and thatis nothing more than a form of electromagnetic waves. He built the electrodynamics of moving bodies on the basis of the hypothesis that the ether is entrained by moving bodies. However, his theory of electrodynamics was not confirmed by experiments and later gave way to the electronic theory. The results obtained by Hertz formed the basis for the development.

In 1886-87. Hertz first observed and described the external. Hertz developed the theory of the resonant circuit, studied the properties of cathode rays, and investigated the effect of ultraviolet rays on an electric discharge. In a number of works ongave the theory of impact of elastic balls, calculated the time of impact, etc. In the book "Principles of Mechanics" (1894), he deduced the general theorems of mechanics and its mathematical apparatus, based on a single principle (Hertz's principle).

Hertz is the name given to the unit of measurement of frequency, which is included in the international metric system units.

(sl. 11) Hertz found that electromagnetic waves propagate at a speed of 300,000 km/s. These waves became known as Hertzian waves. It was on the basis of these discoveries that the wireless telegraph was created by Marconi and Popov. In 1897 A.S. Popov transmitted the first telegram, consisting of two words: "Heinrich Hertz"

- (sl. 12) Nevertheless, the discoveries continued. Back in 1878, the Dutch physicist Hendrik Anton Lorentz tried to explain Maxwell's electromagnetic theory in terms of atomic structure substances

Hendrik Anton Lorenz

Lorentz studied physics and mathematics in. A great influence on him, as a future physicist, was the teacher of astronomy, Professor. In universityWithhe then worked as a professor. In 1880, together with his practically namesakebrought out. He developed the electromagnetic theoryand electronic theory, and also formulated a self-consistent theory, and light. The name of this scientist is associated with a well-known school course physics(the concept of which he developed in) is the force acting onmoving in. ATwidely used method for calculating the local field, first proposed by Lorentz, and known as "».

He developed a theory about transformations of the state of a moving body, which describes a decrease in the length of an object during translational motion. Obtained within the framework of this theoryare the most important contribution to the development.

For explaining the phenomenon known as, he was awarded jointly with another Dutch physicist

(sl. 13) That., There was a revolution in natural - scientific ideas humanity, a new picture of the world was formed, which exists today

(sl. 14) At the end of 1895 in Germany, the physicist Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, based on Maxwell's theory of electromagnetic waves, discovered invisible rays, which he called X-rays.

x-ray

Opening rays

Despite the fact that Wilhelm Roentgen was a hardworking person and, being the head of the Physics Institute at the University of Würzburg, he used to stay up late in the laboratory, the main discovery in his life was - he did when he was already 50 years old. , Roentgen's experiments showed the basic properties of a previously unknown radiation, which was called X-ray. As it turns out, X-rays can penetrate many opaque materials; however, it is not reflected or refracted. x-ray radiation ionizes the surrounding air and illuminates the photo plates. ((sq. 15) Also Roentgen made the first pictures using X-rays.

The discovery of the German scientist greatly influenced the development of science. Experiments and studies using X-rays helped to obtain new information about the structure of matter, which, together with other discoveries of that time, forced us to reconsider a number of provisions of classical physics. After a short period of time, X-ray tubes found application in medicine and various fields of technology.

Representatives of industrial firms repeatedly approached Roentgen with offers to buy the rights to use the invention at a bargain price. But Wilhelm refused to patent the discovery, because he did not consider his research a source of income.

By 1919, X-ray tubes had become widespread and were used in many countries. Thanks to them, new areas of science and technology have appeared - , X-ray diagnostics, roentgenometry, and etc.

(sl. 16) - A whole group of scientists - Henri Becquerel, Pieri Maria Sklodowska - Curie, Ernest Rutherford, Niels Bohr - studied radioactivity and created the doctrine of the complex structure of the atom.

(feat. 17 ) In 1903, Marie and Pierre Curie, together with Henri Becquerel, received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for outstanding services in joint research on the phenomena of radiation."

(sl. 18) A revolution in natural science was made by the book of the great scientist - naturalist C. Darwin "The Origin of Species"

Charles Robert Darwin - English naturalist and traveler, one of the first to realize and clearly demonstrate that all types of living organisms evolve in time from common ancestors. In his theory, the first detailed presentation of which was published in in the book " ", basic driving force Darwin called evolution and . The existence of evolution was recognized by most scientists during the lifetime of Darwin, while his theory of natural selection as the main explanation for evolution became generally recognized only in the 30s of the 20th century with the advent of . The ideas and discoveries of Darwin in a revised form form the foundation of modern and form the basis as providing a logical explanation for biodiversity. Orthodox followers of Darwin's teachings develop a direction of evolutionary thought that bears his name ( ).

(p. 42 - 43 - textbook saying Darwin)

(sl. 19) In 1885, a scientist saved the life of a young man who had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog. He was working on getting a serum for rabies. Gave the world a new science - microbiology

Louis Pasteur - and , member ( ). Pasteur, showing the microbiological essence and many man, became one of the founders of microbiology and . His work in the field of crystal structure and phenomena formed the basis . Pasteur also put an end to the centuries-old dispute about the spontaneous generation of some life forms at the present time, empirically proving the impossibility of this (see. ). His name is widely known in non-scientific circles due to the technology he created and later named after him. .

By studyingPasteur took up. ToPasteur showed that education, andfermentation can only occur in the presence of, often specific.

Louis Pasteur proved that fermentation is a process closely related to life, which feed and multiply due to fermenting fluid. In clarifying this question, Pasteur had to refute Liebig's then dominant view of fermentation as a chemical process. Particularly convincing were Pasteur's experiments with a liquid containing pure sugar, various mineral salts, which served as food for the fermenting fungus, and ammonia salt, which supplied the necessary nitrogen to the fungus. The fungus developed, increasing in weight; ammonium salt was wasted. Pasteur showed that forit also requires the presence of a special "organized enzyme" (as the living cells of microbes were called at that time), which multiplies in the fermenting liquid, also increasing in weight, and with the help of which it is possible to cause fermentation in new portions of the liquid.

At the same time, Louis Pasteur made another important discovery. He found that there are organisms that can live without. For some of them, oxygen is not only unnecessary, but also poisonous. Such organisms are called strict. Their representatives are microbes that cause. At the same time, organisms capable of both fermentation and respiration grew more actively in the presence of oxygen, but consumed less organic matter from the environment. Thus it was shown that anaerobic life is less efficient. It has now been shown that aerobic organisms are able to extract almost 20 times more energy from the same amount of organic substrate than anaerobic ones.

(sl. 20)

The study of infectious diseases

In 1864, French winemakers turned to Pasteur with a request to help them develop means and methods to combat wine diseases. The result of his research was a monograph in which Pasteur showed that wine diseases are caused by various microorganisms, and each disease has a specific pathogen. To destroy the harmful "organized enzymes", he proposed to warm the wine at a temperature of 50-60 degrees. This method, called pasteurization, has found wide application both in laboratories and in the food industry.

AT Pasteur was invited by his former teacher South to find the cause of silkworm disease. After publication in work, at the request of his mother. The treatment ended successfully, the boy did not have any symptoms of rabies.

Interesting Facts

Pasteur was engaged in biology all his life and treated people without receiving any medical or biological education.

Pasteur also painted as a child. Whensaw years later his work, he said how good it was that Louis chose science, as he would be a great competitor to us.

AT(aged 46) Pasteur had a cerebral hemorrhage. He remained disabled: his left arm was inactive, his left leg dragged along the ground. He nearly died, but eventually recovered. Moreover, he made the most significant discoveries after that: he created the anthrax vaccine and the rabies vaccine. I. I. Mechnikova , Pasteur was a passionate patriot and hater of the Germans. When a German book or pamphlet was brought to him from the post office, he took it with two fingers and threw it away with a feeling of great disgust..

Later, a genus of bacteria was named after him - pasters, causing septic diseases, to the discovery of which he, apparently, had nothing to do.

Pasteur was awarded orders from almost all countries of the world. In total, he had about 200 awards.

(sl. 21) At the end of the 18th century, an English doctor noticed that milkmaids did not get smallpox, which at that time claimed the lives of thousands of people. Jenner correctly explained this by saying that milkmaids in a weak form become infected with smallpox from cows and this creates immunity in them. Therefore, he developed the first vaccine - against smallpox. Jenner came up with the idea of injecting a seemingly harmless vaccinia virus into the human body.

(sl. 22) At the beginning of the 19th century, Jean Corvisart "listened" to his patients with a special stick and determined the state of the lungs and heart by sound. René Laenne, student of Jean Corvisart, established that solid bodies produce sounds differently. He designed a tube from beech wood - a stethoscope. One end was applied to the patient's chest, and the other to the doctor's ear.

(sl. 23) German microbiologist, discovered anthrax bacillus, vibrio cholerae and tubercle bacillus. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905 for his research on tuberculosis.

Later, Koch made attempts to find the causative agent of tuberculosis, a disease at that time widespread and the main cause of death. Proximity , filled with tuberculosis patients, makes it easier for him - every day, early in the morning, he comes to the hospital, where he receives material for research: a small amount of sputum or a few drops of blood from patients with consumption.

However, despite the abundance of material, he still does not manage to detect the causative agent of the disease. Soon Koch realizes that the only way to achieve the goal is with the help of dyes. Unfortunately, ordinary dyes are too weak, but after several months of unsuccessful work, he still manages to find the necessary substances.

Institute of Microbiology at Dorotheestraße in - here Robert Koch discovered the causative agent of tuberculosis

The pounded tuberculosis tissue of the 271st preparation Koch stains in methyl blue, and then in a caustic red-brown dye used in leather finishing, and reveals tiny, slightly curved, bright blue-colored sticks - .

On March 24, 1882, when he announced that he had succeeded in isolating the bacterium that causes tuberculosis, Koch achieved the greatest triumph of his life. At that time, this disease was one of the main causes of death. In his publications, Koch developed the principles of "obtaining evidence that a particular microorganism causes certain diseases." These principles still underlie medical microbiology.

Cholera

Koch's study of tuberculosis was interrupted when, on instructions from the German government, he was part of scientific expedition went to Egypt and India to try to determine the cause of the disease . While working in India, Koch announced that he had isolated the microbe that causes this disease - .

(sl. 24) Russian and French biologist (zoologist, embryologist, immunologist, physiologist and pathologist).

One of the founders of evolutionary embryology, phagocytosis and intracellular digestion, creator of the comparative pathology of inflammation.

Winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1908). He created the original doctrine of the protection of organisms from microbes.

(sl. 25) Read for yourself the paragraph “Development of education” on pages 44-45 and answer the question “ How did education develop in different states?

5. Summing up the lesson:

(p. 26) Assignment on cards

Match the scientist and his invention

Michael Faraday

Invisible X-rays

James Maxwell

Electromagnetic waves

Heinrich Hertz

Discovery of radioactivity

Wilhelm Roentgen

Rabies vaccine

Pierre and Marie Curie

Discovery of electromagnetism

Charles Darwin

The causative agent of tuberculosis

Louis Pasteur

AND

"Origin of Species"

Robert Koch

Electromagnetic theory of light

Answers:

and

6. Homework(sl. 27)

Paragraph 5, questions, notes in a notebook.

The Age of Enlightenment set the stage for the boom in scientific discovery that took place in the 19th century. At the heart of the scientific worldview of the Enlightenment was the idea of rationalism - the predominance of reason in the thoughts and actions of people. Theology and the explanation of phenomena by divine providence are gradually giving way to the sciences of nature and man.

The scientific revolution began in Europe even earlier, in the 17th century, with the beginning of the triumph of reason and experiment, the search for causes and patterns. Astronomical discoveries became the foundation for the future development of science Galileo Galilei, the publication by Isaac Newton in 1687 of the basic concepts and axioms of classical mechanics, and the discovery.

Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes, who laid down the methods of experimental study of nature, are considered the founders of modern science.

The 18th century brought new discoveries in mathematics, physics, and chemistry. The phenomenon of photosynthesis, the law, ultrasound, were discovered. Medicine also developed: Edward Jenner developed the world's first vaccine against smallpox.

Events and participants

Physics and chemistry

1831- English physicist and chemist Michael Faraday discovered the phenomenon. Thanks to this discovery, the creation became possible.

1865- English physicist James Clark Maxwell developed the concept that light is an electromagnetic wave.

1869- Russian chemist DI. Mendeleev discovered chemical elements.

1888- German engineer Heinrich Hertz proved the existence theoretically described by Maxwell.

1895- German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen discovered the rays later named after him, allowing to enlighten and fix internal structure objects, as well as the human body. Wilhelm Roentgen is the first recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics.

1896- French physicist Antoine Becquerel discovered a phenomenon that explained the mechanism of action of X-rays.

1898- French scientists Pierre and Marie Curie discovered the radioactive metal radium. The discoveries of Becquerel, Curie, and Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr became the prologue of physics that triumphed in the 20th century atomic nucleus.

Biology and medicine

1859- English naturalist Charles Darwin published a work that became revolutionary in natural science. Darwin scientifically substantiated and outlined the theory of natural selection. The scientist came to the conclusion that living nature and man were not created by God, but were formed as a result of a long process of evolution. Darwin also proved that humans and apes have common ancestors.

1864- French biologist and chemist Louis Pasteur discovered, which are the causative agents of infectious diseases. This discovery was the beginning of a new science - microbiology. Thanks to Pasteur's discoveries, sterilization and pasteurization technologies were developed to keep food from spoiling longer.

1882- German microbiologist Robert Koch discovered the causative agent of tuberculosis, "Koch's bacillus", and developed preventive measures against epidemics.

Social Sciences

1848- German economist and philosopher Karl Marx published the "Manifesto of the Communist Party", in which he proclaimed quick death capitalism. In his works, Marx developed the theory of the class struggle and the theory of the change of socio-economic formations; showed that the structure of people's lives is determined by the method of organizing material production.

Conclusion

The 19th century was the century of the triumph of science and technology. Scientific research served as accelerators of the industrial revolution, the practical application of science began to bring commercial benefits. Fundamental discoveries were also made that served as the foundation for scientific and technological breakthroughs of the 20th century, such as space exploration.

Parallels

Darwin's doctrine of the origin of species and natural selection in terms of the strength of its impact on the minds of contemporaries can be compared with the discovery of the great scientist of the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus. heliocentric system peace. While Copernicus showed that the Earth is not at all the center of the universe, but itself revolves around the Sun, Darwin substantiated not the divine, but the earthly origin of man, and even mentioned the common ancestor of man and monkey. Both of these discoveries dealt a serious blow to the pride of man, violated the idea of the dominant position of man in the system of the universe. Both discoveries - both Darwin and Copernicus - were not recognized by the church for a long time as contradicting the Holy Scriptures.

slide 1

SCIENCE: CREATING A SCIENTIFIC PICTURE OF THE WORLD.

slide 2

"Lord of Lightning"

Among the great discoveries is the discovery of electromagnetism by Michael Faraday (1791-1867). In 1831, M. Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. He noticed that if a copper wire crosses magnetic lines of force, an electric current appears in it. This discovery made it possible to start creating an electric motor. The “Lord of Lightning” was called by his contemporaries. The scientist became a member of the Royal Society.

slide 3

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen

At the end of 1895, the physicist V.K. Roentgen, based on Maxwell's theory of electromagnetic waves, discovered invisible rays, called X-rays. These rays had the following properties: Remaining invisible, they penetrate miscellaneous items to varying degrees, and with their help, you can not only capture what is hidden from the eyes with a layer, but also capture it on film. The great invention immediately received practical application in medicine. Roentgen was the first physicist to be awarded the Nobel Prize.

slide 4

Roentgen's discovery needed an explanation. A whole group of scientists - Pierre Curie, Maria Sklodowska-Curie, Henri Becquerel, Niels Bohr - studied the phenomenon of radioactivity and created the doctrine of the complex structure of the atom. The discovery of radioactivity, for which the Curies and A. Becquerel received the Nobel Prize in Physics, opened the way to the "strange world of microparticles." Some energy was hidden inside the atom, it was released during the decay of the atomic nucleus, and at the same time, the transformation of an atom of a radioactive substance into an atom of another substance took place. It became clear that the atom is not the smallest indivisible particle, that it itself has a complex structure.

slide 6

Charles Darwin

A revolution in natural science was made by the book of the English scientist-naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) "The Origin of Species". Based on a huge generalization of botanical and zoological material accumulated during a round-the-world trip, the scientist came to the conclusion that all wildlife was gradually formed in the process of long development.

Slide 7

The new science of microbiology.

Natural scientists all over the world argued about whether "spontaneous generation" exists. Louis Pasteur didn't argue, he worked! Pasteur established that fermentation is a biological process caused by microbes. Pasteur's experiments were great importance to create sterilization and pasteurization methods for various products. He developed methods of protective vaccinations against contagious diseases and rabies. His research served as the basis for the doctrine of immunity.

Goals: - (sl.2)

Find out what changes have occurred in the development of science; what reasons contributed to the development of science and scientific knowledge;
How did these studies affect the lives of the people of the New Age;
To develop the ability to find the necessary information from various sources, the ability to make tabular records.

Equipment: presentation, computer, survey cards.

During the classes.

1. Org. the beginning of the lesson.

2. Checking homework.

1) testing

1. The development of railway transport in cities was facilitated by:

A) the appearance of steam locomotives;

B) the transformation of cities into industrial centers

C) a great desire to make life easier for the townspeople

2. The first public transport - the omnibus appeared for the first time in:

A) Paris

B) London

In Berlin

3. The appearance of trams with electric traction is associated with the name:

A) Edison

B) S. Rhodes

B) K. Benz

4. In what year was the first underground opened in London?

5. An integral part of the street landscape of the late XIX - early XX century was (a) the appearance

A) electric cars

B) lampposts

C) boys selling newspapers

6. A machine designed for sewing clothes was invented by:

A) L. Dagger

B) Singer

B) r. hill

7. The founder of the first method of photographing is:

A) L. Dagger

B) L. Sholes

B) Singer

8. Candles and oil lamps were replaced in the 50s by:

A) lights

B) kerosene lamps

B) lamps

9. In what year did L. Scholes receive a patent for the invention of the typewriter?

10. In the Napoleonic era, style dominated:

A) modern

B) classicism

11. A distinctive feature of the early 20th century in clothing was that:

A) women's skirts are narrowed, and men wear three-piece suits;

B) women's skirts expand, men wear tailcoats

C) women wear cleavage, and men tuxedos and tailcoats

Criteria for evaluation:

Less than 5 - "2"

5 to 7 - "3"

8 to 10 - "4"

Key to answers:

1-b, 2-a, 3-a, 4-c, 5-c, 6-b, 7-a, 8-b, 9-a, 10-c, 11-a

3. Communication of the topic and objectives of the lesson.

(v. 3) Lesson plan:

Reasons for the rapid development of sciences.
"Master of Lightning".
The sensations continue.
Revolution in natural science.
New science - microbiology.
Medical advances.
Development of education.

(sl. 4) - draw a table to be filled in during the lesson.

4. Learning new material:

1) work on the textbook:

(sl. 5) Why, then, in the 19th - early 20th centuries, they began to develop so actively

various sciences?

You will find the answer to the question by reading point 1 on page 39.

Reasons for the development of science in modern times:

1. Life itself demanded to know the laws and use them in production

2. Fundamental changes in the consciousness and thinking of the people of the New Age.

(sl. 7) In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, which made it possible to start creating an electric motor. He became a member of the Royal Society.

Let's find out more about him.

Michael was born on September 22, 1791 in Newngton Butts (now Greater London). His father was a poor blacksmith from the London suburbs. The blacksmith was also the elder brother Robert, who in every possible way encouraged Michael's craving for knowledge and at first supported him financially. Faraday's mother, a hardworking and uneducated woman, lived to the time when her son achieved success and recognition, and was rightfully proud of him. The modest income of the family did not allow Michael to even finish high school, from the age of thirteen he began working as a supplier of books and newspapers, and then at the age of 14 he went to work in a bookstore, where he also studied bookbinding. Seven years of work in the workshop on Blandford Street became for the young man and years of intense self-education. All this time, Faraday worked hard - he enthusiastically read all the scientific works he bound on physics and chemistry, as well as articles from the Encyclopædia Britannica, repeated in his home laboratory the experiments described in books, on home-made electrostatic devices. An important stage in Faraday's life was classes at the City Philosophical Society, where Michael listened to popular science lectures on physics and astronomy in the evenings and participated in disputes. He received money (one shilling to pay for each lecture) from his brother. At the lectures, Faraday made new acquaintances, to whom he wrote many letters in order to develop a clear and concise style of presentation; he also tried to master the techniques of oratory.

Gradually, his experimental research more and more switched to the field of physics. After the discovery in 1820 by H. Oersted of the magnetic action of electric current, Faraday was fascinated by the problem of the connection between electricity and magnetism. In 1822, an entry appeared in his laboratory diary: "Turn magnetism into electricity." Faraday's reasoning was as follows: if in the experiment of Oersted the electric current has a magnetic force, and, according to Faraday, all forces are interconvertible, then magnets must also excite an electric current. In the same year, he made an attempt to find the polarizing effect of current on light. Passing polarized light through water located between the poles of a magnet, he tried to detect the depolarization of light, but the experiment gave a negative result.

In 1823, Faraday became a member of the Royal Society of London and was appointed director of the physical and chemical laboratories of the Royal Institute, where he conducts his experiments.

(sl. 8) In the 1860s, he developed the electromagnetic theory of light, which generalized the results of experiments and theoretical constructions of many physicists from different countries in the field of electromagnetism.

James Clerk Maxwell is a British physicist and mathematician. Scottish by birth. Member of the Royal Society of London (1861). Maxwell laid the foundations of modern classical electrodynamics (Maxwell's equations), introduced the concepts of displacement current and electromagnetic field into physics, obtained a number of consequences from his theory (prediction of electromagnetic waves, electromagnetic nature of light, light pressure, and others). One of the founders of the kinetic theory of gases (he established the distribution of gas molecules by velocities). He was one of the first to introduce statistical representations into physics, showed the statistical nature of the second law of thermodynamics ("Maxwell's demon"), obtained a number of important results in molecular physics and thermodynamics (Maxwell's thermodynamic relations, Maxwell's rule for the liquid-gas phase transition, and others). Pioneer of quantitative color theory; author of the principle of color photography. Maxwell's other works include studies on the stability of Saturn's rings, elasticity theory and mechanics (photoelasticity, Maxwell's theorem), optics, and mathematics. He prepared for publication the manuscript of the works of Henry Cavendish, paid much attention to the popularization of science, designed a number of scientific instruments.

(f. 9) According to his theory, there are invisible waves in nature that transmit electricity in space. Light is a kind of electromagnetic oscillations.

(sl. 10) In 1883, the German engineer Heinrich Hertz confirmed the existence of electromagnetic waves and proved that no material object could prevent their propagation

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz is a German physicist.

Graduated from the University of Berlin, from 1885 to 1889. was a professor of physics at the University of Karlsruhe. Since 1889 he has been a professor of physics at the University of Bonn.

The main achievement is the experimental confirmation of the electromagnetic theory of light by James Maxwell. Hertz proved the existence of electromagnetic waves. He studied in detail the reflection, interference, diffraction and polarization of electromagnetic waves, proved that the speed of their propagation coincides with the speed of propagation of light, and that light is nothing but a variety of electromagnetic waves. He built the electrodynamics of moving bodies on the basis of the hypothesis that the ether is entrained by moving bodies. However, his theory of electrodynamics was not confirmed by experiments and later gave way to the electronic theory of Hendrik Lorentz. The results obtained by Hertz formed the basis for the development of radio.

In 1886-87. Hertz was the first to observe and describe the external photoelectric effect. Hertz developed the theory of the resonant circuit, studied the properties of cathode rays, and investigated the effect of ultraviolet rays on an electric discharge. In a number of works on mechanics, he gave the theory of impact of elastic balls, calculated the time of impact, etc. In the book "Principles of Mechanics" (1894), he gave the derivation of general theorems of mechanics and its mathematical apparatus, based on a single principle (Hertz's principle).

Since 1933, Hertz has been the name of the unit of measurement of frequency Hertz, which is included in the international metric system of units SI.

(sl. 11) Hertz established that electromagnetic waves propagate at a speed of 300,000 km/s. These waves became known as Hertzian waves. It was on the basis of these discoveries that the wireless telegraph was created by Marconi and Popov. In 1897 A.S. Popov transmitted the first telegram, consisting of two words: "Heinrich Hertz"

- (sq. 12) Nevertheless, the discoveries continued. Back in 1878, the Dutch physicist Hendrik Anton Lorentz tried to explain Maxwell's electromagnetic theory from the point of view of the atomic structure of matter.

Hendrik Anton Lorenz

Lorentz studied physics and mathematics at Leiden University. A great influence on him, as a future physicist, was the teacher of astronomy, Professor Frederick Kaiser. At the University of Leiden from 1878 he then worked as a professor of mathematical physics. In 1880, together with his practically namesake Ludwig Lorentz, he derived the Lorentz-Lorentz formula. He developed the electromagnetic theory of light and the electronic theory of matter, and formulated a self-consistent theory of electricity, magnetism, and light. The name of this scientist is associated with the Lorentz force known from the school physics course (the concept of which he developed in 1895) - the force acting on an electric charge moving in a magnetic field. In electrodynamics, the method of calculating the local field, first proposed by Lorentz, and known as the Lorentz Sphere, is widely used.

He developed a theory about transformations of the state of a moving body, which describes a decrease in the length of an object during translational motion. The Lorentz transformations obtained within the framework of this theory are the most important contribution to the development of the theory of relativity.

For explaining the phenomenon known as the Zeeman effect, he was awarded in 1902, together with another Dutch physicist Peter Zeeman, the Nobel Prize in Physics

(sl.13) Thus, a revolution took place in the natural-scientific ideas of mankind, a new picture of the world was formed, which exists today

(sl. 14) At the end of 1895 in Germany, the physicist Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, based on Maxwell's theory of electromagnetic waves, discovered invisible rays, which he called X-rays.

Opening rays

Despite the fact that Wilhelm Roentgen was a hardworking person and, being the head of the Physics Institute at the University of Würzburg, used to stay up late in the laboratory, he made the main discovery in his life - X-rays - when he was already 50 years old. On November 8, 1895, Roentgen's experiments showed the basic properties of a previously unknown radiation, which was called X-ray. As it turns out, X-rays can penetrate many opaque materials; however, it is not reflected or refracted. X-ray radiation ionizes the surrounding air and illuminates the photo plates. ((sq. 15) Also Roentgen made the first pictures using X-rays.

By 1919, X-ray tubes had become widespread and were used in many countries. Thanks to them, new areas of science and technology appeared - radiology, radiodiagnosis, radiometry, X-ray diffraction analysis, etc.

(sl. 16) - A whole group of scientists - Henri Becquerel, Pieri Maria Sklodowska - Curie, Ernest Rutherford, Niels Bohr - studied radioactivity and created the doctrine of the complex structure of the atom.

(f. 17) In 1903, Marie and Pierre Curie, along with Henri Becquerel, received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for outstanding services in joint research on the phenomena of radiation."

(sl. 18) A revolution in natural science was made by the book of the great scientist - naturalist C. Darwin "The Origin of Species"

Charles Robert Darwin, an English naturalist and traveler, was one of the first to realize and clearly demonstrate that all types of living organisms evolve over time from common ancestors. In his theory, the first detailed presentation of which was published in 1859 in the book On the Origin of Species, Darwin called natural selection and indefinite variability the main driving force of evolution. The existence of evolution was recognized by most scientists during Darwin's lifetime, while his theory of natural selection as the main explanation for evolution became generally recognized only in the 30s of the 20th century with the advent of the synthetic theory of evolution. The ideas and discoveries of Darwin in a revised form form the foundation of the modern synthetic theory of evolution and form the basis of biology, as providing a logical explanation for biodiversity. The orthodox followers of Darwin's teachings develop the direction of evolutionary thought that bears his name (Darwinism).

(pp. 42 - 43 - Darwin's saying textbook)

(sl. 19) In 1885, a scientist saved the life of a young man who had been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog. He was working on getting a serum for rabies. Gave the world a new science - microbiology

Louis Pasteur - French microbiologist and chemist, member of the French Academy (1881). Pasteur, having shown the microbiological essence of fermentation and many human diseases, became one of the founders of microbiology and immunology. His work in the field of crystal structure and the phenomenon of polarization formed the basis of stereochemistry. Pasteur also put an end to the centuries-old dispute about the spontaneous generation of some life forms at the present time, empirically proving the impossibility of this (see Origin of life on Earth). His name is widely known in non-scientific circles due to the pasteurization technology he created and later named after him.

Pasteur began studying fermentation in 1857. By 1861, Pasteur had shown that the formation of alcohol, glycerol, and succinic acid during fermentation could only occur in the presence of microorganisms, often specific ones.

Louis Pasteur proved that fermentation is a process closely related to the vital activity of yeast fungi, which feed and multiply due to the fermenting liquid. In clarifying this question, Pasteur had to refute Liebig's then dominant view of fermentation as a chemical process. Particularly convincing were Pasteur's experiments with a liquid containing pure sugar, various mineral salts, which served as food for the fermenting fungus, and ammonia salt, which supplied the necessary nitrogen to the fungus. The fungus developed, increasing in weight; ammonium salt was wasted. Pasteur showed that lactic fermentation also requires the presence of a special “organized enzyme” (as living microbial cells were called at that time), which multiplies in the fermenting liquid, also increasing in weight, and with the help of which it is possible to cause fermentation in new portions of the liquid.

At the same time, Louis Pasteur made another important discovery. He found that there are organisms that can live without oxygen. For some of them, oxygen is not only unnecessary, but also poisonous. Such organisms are called strict anaerobes. Their representatives are microbes that cause butyric fermentation. At the same time, organisms capable of both fermentation and respiration grew more actively in the presence of oxygen, but consumed less organic matter from the environment. Thus it was shown that anaerobic life is less efficient. It has now been shown that aerobic organisms are able to extract almost 20 times more energy from the same amount of organic substrate than anaerobic ones.

The study of infectious diseases

In 1864, French winemakers turned to Pasteur with a request to help them develop means and methods to combat wine diseases. The result of his research was a monograph in which Pasteur showed that wine diseases are caused by various microorganisms, and each disease has a specific pathogen. To destroy the harmful "organized enzymes" he proposed to warm the wine at a temperature of 50-60 degrees. This method, called pasteurization, has found wide application both in laboratories and in the food industry.

In 1865, Pasteur was invited by his former teacher to the south of France to find the cause of the silkworm disease. After the publication in 1876 of the work of Robert Koch "The Etiology of Anthrax", Pasteur devoted himself entirely to immunology, finally establishing the specificity of the pathogens of anthrax, puerperal fever, cholera, rabies, chicken cholera and other diseases, developed ideas about artificial immunity, proposed a method of preventive vaccinations , in particular from anthrax (1881), rabies (together with Emile Roux 1885), involving specialists from other medical specialties (for example, surgeon O. Lannelong).

The first rabies vaccination was given on July 6, 1885, to 9-year-old Josef Meister at the request of his mother. The treatment ended successfully, the boy did not have any symptoms of rabies.

Interesting Facts

Pasteur was engaged in biology all his life and treated people without receiving any medical or biological education.

Pasteur also painted as a child. When J.-L. Gerome saw his work years later, he said how good it was that Louis chose science, since he would be a great competitor to us.

In 1868 (at the age of 46) Pasteur suffered a cerebral hemorrhage. He remained disabled: his left arm was inactive, his left leg dragged along the ground. He nearly died, but eventually recovered. Moreover, he made the most significant discoveries after that: he created the anthrax vaccine and the rabies vaccine. When the scientist died, it turned out that a huge part of his brain was destroyed. Pasteur died of uremia.

According to II Mechnikov, Pasteur was a passionate patriot and hater of the Germans. When a German book or pamphlet was brought to him from the post office, he took it with two fingers and threw it away with a feeling of great disgust.

Later, a genus of bacteria, Pastera, was named after him, causing septic diseases, to the discovery of which he, apparently, had nothing to do.

Pasteur was awarded orders from almost all countries of the world. In total, he had about 200 awards.

(sn. 21) At the end of the 18th century, an English doctor noticed that milkmaids did not get smallpox, which at that time claimed the lives of thousands of people. Jenner correctly explained this by saying that milkmaids in a weak form become infected with cowpox and this creates immunity in them. Therefore, he developed the first vaccine - against smallpox. Jenner came up with the idea of injecting a seemingly harmless vaccinia virus into the human body.

(sl. 22) At the beginning of the 19th century, Jean Corvisart "listened" to his patients with a special stick and determined the state of the lungs and heart by sound. René Laenne, a student of Jean Corvisart, found that solid bodies produce sounds in different ways. He designed a tube from beech wood - a stethoscope. One end was applied to the patient's chest, and the other to the doctor's ear.

(sl. 23) German microbiologist, discovered anthrax bacillus, vibrio cholerae and tubercle bacillus. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905 for his research on tuberculosis.

Later, Koch made attempts to find the causative agent of tuberculosis, a disease at that time widespread and the main cause of death. The proximity of the Charite clinic, filled with tuberculosis patients, makes it easier for him - every day, early in the morning, he comes to the hospital, where he receives material for research: a small amount of sputum or a few drops of blood from patients with consumption.

Institute of Microbiology at Dorotheestrasse in Berlin - here Robert Koch discovered the causative agent of tuberculosis

Koch stains the pounded tubercular tissue of the 271st preparation in methyl blue, and then in a caustic red-brown dye used in leather finishing, and reveals tiny, slightly curved, bright blue-colored sticks - Koch's sticks.

Koch's study of tuberculosis was interrupted when, on instructions from the German government, he went on a scientific expedition to Egypt and India in order to try to determine the cause of cholera. While working in India, Koch announced that he had isolated the microbe that causes the disease, Vibrio cholerae.

(sl. 24) Russian and French biologist (zoologist, embryologist, immunologist, physiologist and pathologist).

One of the founders of evolutionary embryology, phagocytosis and intracellular digestion, creator of the comparative pathology of inflammation.

Winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1908). He created the original doctrine of the protection of organisms from microbes.

(sl. 25) Read independently the item “Development of education” on pages 44-45 and answer the question “How did education develop in different states?”

5. Summing up the lesson:

(p. 26) Assignment on cards

Match the scientist and his invention

6. Homework (sl. 27)

Paragraph 5, questions, notes in a notebook.

Table on the history of the creation of a scientific picture of the world. Science: creating a scientific picture of the world. Events and participants

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During the classes.

1. Motivation of students to work.

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Events and participants

Physics and chemistry

Biology and medicine

Social Sciences

Conclusion

Parallels