The process of increasing the share of the urban population. Urbanization - the rapid growth of cities and urban population: positive and negative aspects. Urbanization and its role in the life of society. Human socialization
Concept of Urbanization
Urbanization (from Latin Urbanus - urban, urbs - city) is a historical process of increasing the role of cities, urban lifestyle and urban culture in the development of society, associated with a spatial concentration of activities in relatively few centers and areas of predominant social economic development.
Concretizing this definition, which has become too general from the standpoint of modern geourban studies, two important points should be added to it:
1. wide exit of the city beyond its official (which has become too close) boundaries and the formation of post-urban urban systems - agglomerations, urbanized areas, megacities;
2. a significant change in the person himself in the city, meaning an increase in the diversity of needs, an increase in the requirements for quality, level and lifestyle, a change in the system of values, norms of behavior, culture, intelligence, etc.
The term "urbanization" appeared for the first time in foreign literature in 1867 in Spain, in Russian - in 1957 (in the translation of the UN Report on the World Social Situation). This term began to be used more regularly in Soviet scientific literature from the late 1960s, i.e. a century later than for the first time abroad, and at the same time, the phenomenon itself was often assessed negatively. Therefore, in the study of the process of urbanization, especially in the early stages, Soviet science lagged noticeably behind Western science.
Urbanization as a complex, dynamic, multifaceted process is the object of interdisciplinary research. Representatives of different sciences, and sometimes even one science, have their own vision of this process. Therefore, there is still no single generally accepted definition of urbanization.
Keeping in mind the different content that is embedded in the understanding of urbanization, two types of its definition are proposed:
1. urbanization in the narrow sense means the growth of cities, especially large ones, an increase in the share of the urban population;
2. in a broad sense - the historical process of increasing the role of cities, urban lifestyle and urban culture in the development of the city.
The ambiguity of understanding urbanization was largely facilitated by the very versatility of the process, which covers a variety of problems and aspects of urban development: social, economic, demographic, ethnic, cultural, etc.
The essence of urbanization is the process of development big cities(more than 100 thousand inhabitants) and large agglomerations and vast urban areas that are formed on their basis, which are the main focuses of territorial development and the main bearers of the properties and features of modern urbanization. Therefore, only when urban processes are considered within a wider territorial framework than the city, using the agglomeration, urbanized area and other urban systems for this, do they get an idea of the true scale of modern urbanization.
The particular importance of studying urbanization is explained by the fact that it is the resulting process that forms the relationship between man, society and the environment. The most important result, the measure of urbanization, is now more and more realized by the person himself with the growth of his capabilities, abilities and creativity in the context of the spread of the urban value system on a global scale.
The process of becoming urbanization
The increasing role of cities in the life of society has accompanied mankind throughout its history. But only in the 19th century. begins a noticeable concentration of the population in cities. At the beginning of the 20th century it intensifies even more, but the scale of urbanization especially increases after the Second World War, when, according to G. Child, the "urban revolution" began. Since the 1950s the process is increasingly characterized not only by quantitative but also by qualitative changes (the emergence of new forms of settlement, agglomeration, suburbanization, etc.). Thus, when the definition of "modern" is used in relation to urbanization, it means, as a rule, its functioning since the middle of the last century.
With the deepening of urbanization, however, the inevitable evolution of socio-geographical ideas about it takes place, especially noticeable in the second half of the 20th century. the emphasis in determining the essence of urbanization is gradually shifting from the growth of the urban population, its share in the population of the country or region to the level of population concentration in large cities, agglomerations and supra-glomeration settlement systems; then to the spread of the urban way of life, changing the norms of human behavior in the city, the quality of the urban environment and the study of man in the city as a phenomenon of culture and, more broadly, of the whole civilization. These signs do not oppose each other; the transfer of emphasis to one of them reflects only the successive stages of the knowledge of urbanization as the process itself deepens, and its study by science.
Urbanization as a classical global process
IN modern science global processes can be represented, firstly, as covering the whole world and, secondly, as systemic phenomena that permeate all human life.
Globality and universality modern process urbanization has deep historical roots. They manifest themselves in our time on two levels:
1. on the philosophical and worldview (interdisciplinary). Urbanization occupies one of the first places among the global problems of our time, since it is in the city, as a focus, that most of the world's problems are concentrated and the prospects for the development of mankind are determined. Therefore, urbanization largely determines the development of terrestrial civilization from the time of the appearance of the ancient city to the present day.
2. on the problem. Urbanization in today's highly controversial and differentiated world is characterized by the following common main problems:
The conflict between rapidly expanding urbanized areas and the resources of cultivated agricultural land, forest land, etc., necessary to maintain a balance between nature and society;
Cultural and economic conflict between urban and rural areas, degradation of the economy and the demographic state of the rural population under the influence of the expansion of urbanization;
The conflict between the explosiveness of the formally increasing urban population and the clearly non-urban level (for a significant part) of its culture and consciousness, the insufficient preparedness of the production and service sectors for such a rapid growth of cities; this is the problem of the so-called pseudo or false urbanization that began in the mid-1930s. in USSR;
A conflict of a socio-cultural and socio-ethnic nature within urbanized territories as a result of sharply increased property and other differences between the so-called old and new residents of cities, due to the replenishment of low-skilled labor at the expense of emigrants.
Urbanization is a deeply spatial process, concentrated and clearly expressed when it is projected onto the territory, mapped. In the process of evolution, the areas of the urbanized environment are expanding and their qualitative change is taking place.
The following essential features are characteristic of the spatial evolution of modern urbanization:
1. concentration, intensification, differentiation and diversity of urban activities (functions), and more recently, agriculture in suburban areas of large centers;
2. distribution outside the centers and urbanized areas of the urban lifestyle with a special structure of communication, culture, system of value orientations;
3. development of large urban agglomerations, urbanized areas and zones as a result of strengthening interconnections in settlement systems;
4. complication of forms and systems of urban settlement: the transition from point and linear to nodal, strip, etc.;
5. increase in the radii of settlement within agglomerations and urbanized areas, associated with places of application of labor, recreation areas, etc., and causing the territorial growth of urban systems; accordingly, there is an increase in the areas of highly urbanized territories due to the expansion of old and the emergence of new centers of urbanization.
The spatial development of urbanization is further characterized by the transformation of a network of urban settlements into settlement systems, the differentiation of urban space, the involvement of new territories in the sphere of influence of cities. various types and rank, expanding the areas of the urbanized environment.
When determining the nature of the urbanization of a country or region, the concepts of urban structure and territorial-urban structure are used. The urban structure is the ratio of settlements of various sizes (population) in their total number, the total population. The territorial-urban structure is understood as the ratio and mutual arrangement areas that are:
1. development of urbanization in breadth (development of new cells) or in depth (complication of forms and structures of settlement);
2. the severity and pattern of the network of supporting urban centers;
3. degree of maturity of urban agglomerations;
4. spatial differentiation of regional urban systems.
Urbanization is a comprehensive process, it covers not only urban areas, but increasingly rural areas as well, largely determining its transformation - demographic, social, economic, spatial, etc. That is why many rural problems (mobility, change structures of the rural population, depopulation) are now very closely connected with urbanization. Cities have a diverse impact on the surrounding rural area, gradually, as it were, “processing” it, reducing the size of the countryside. As a result, there is a rapid development of the suburbs of large cities - suburbanization (literally, "urbanization of the suburbs"). At the same time, some urban conditions and norms of life are being introduced into rural settlements, i.e. Rurbanization (rural urbanization). The urbanization of rural areas also leads to its qualitative changes: non-agricultural occupations of the rural population are growing, its pendulum migration is increasing, especially to cities and the suburban area of large centers, the socio-professional and demographic structure of rural residents, their lifestyle, the level of improvement of rural settlements, etc. e. Vast zones of gravity of large centers are being formed, in which close direct and reverse links are formed between the city and the countryside.
Urbanization of the population
A comparative analysis of the demographic aspects of the development of the urbanization process in various countries of the world is usually based on data on the growth of the urbanization of the population - the share of the urban or so-called urbanized population. Since the criterion for identifying urban settlements varies significantly in individual countries, in order to obtain comparable data, the population of all settlements that have reached a certain population level is often included in the urban population. In 2002, more than 1/3 of the world's population lived in settlements with a population of over 5,000 people (at the beginning of the 19th century, less than 3%), and in settlements with a population of over 20,000 people. - more than 1/4. When using national criteria for the allocation of urban settlements, the dynamics of urbanization of the population is as follows. In 1800, the proportion of the urban population in the entire population of the globe was about 3%, in 1850 - 6.4%, in 1900 - 19.6%. From 1800 to 2000, it increased almost 18 times (up to 51.2%).
The outpacing growth of the urban and non-agricultural population compared to the rural and agricultural population is the most characteristic modern urbanization. In three parts of the world - Australia and Oceania, North America and Europe, urban dwellers predominate; they are being overtaken by rapidly urbanizing Latin America; at the same time, the population of the Afro-Asian countries, due to its large numbers, creates a preponderance of the village over the city on average in the world. The developed countries of the first world have the highest percentage of the urban population: in Europe - Great Britain (91%), Sweden (87%), Germany (85%), Denmark (84%), France (78%), the Netherlands (76%), Spain (74%), Belgium (72%); in North America, the USA (77%) and Canada (76%); in Asia, Israel (89%) and Japan (78%); in Australia and Oceania - Australia (89%) and New Zealand (85%); in Africa - South Africa (50%). When the proportion of the urban population exceeds 70%, the rate of its growth, as a rule, slows down and gradually (when approaching 80%) stops.
Urbanization is characterized by the concentration of the population in large and super big cities. It is the growth of large cities (with a population of over 100,000 people), the new forms of settlement associated with them and the spread of the urban lifestyle that most clearly reflect the process of urbanization of the population.
Table 1 - Dynamics of the world process of urbanization in the 19th - 20th centuries
| Year | Urban population, million people | Share of urban population in the world population, % |
| 1800 | 50 | 5,1 |
| 1850 | 80 | 4,3 |
| 1900 | 220 | 13,3 |
| 1950 | 738 | 29,3 |
| 1960 | 1033 | 34,2 |
| 1970 | 1353 | 36,6 |
| 1980 | 1752 | 39,4 |
| 1990 | 2277 | 43,1 |
| 2000 | 2926 | 47,5 |
This table shows the dynamics of the global urbanization process, the increase in the share of the urban population, due to the increase in the rural population, the growth of cities and urban infrastructure, the creation of new jobs and the improvement of the quality of life in cities.
URBANIZATION
URBANIZATION
the process of urban growth - an increase in the proportion of the urban population, as well as the emergence of increasingly complex networks and systems of cities. General features of U.: 1 - the rapid growth of the urban population; 2 - the concentration of the population and households in large cities (there are already more than 200 "millionaire" cities); 3 - "spreading" of cities, expansion of their territory. Modern Ukraine is characterized by a transition from the city to urban agglomerations—territorial groupings of urban and rural settlements—and to megalopolises, the largest forms of settlement formed as a result of the coalescence of urban agglomerations. The largest urban agglomerations of the world are around Mexico City, Tokyo, Sao Paulo and New York (16-20 million people live in each of them). Urbanization is associated with 3/4 of the total volume of environmental pollution. Despite the fact that cities occupy only 1% of the earth's land area, almost half of the world's population and the bulk of industries are concentrated in them. Large cities and urban agglomerations have a particularly strong impact on the environment - the plume of polluting and thermal effects can be traced at a distance of up to 50 km.
Brief geographical dictionary. EdwART. 2008 .
Urbanization
a multifaceted process of increasing the role of cities, which leads to changes in the distribution of productive forces, socio-demographic structure, lifestyle and culture of the population, its settlement. In the broadest sense, urbanization is the spread of urban lifestyles. In a narrow (statistical) sense, urbanization is the outstripping growth of the urban population and the growth of cities, especially large ones (over 100 thousand inhabitants). The indicators of the share of the urban population in its total population and the share of the population of large cities in the urban population most often characterize the level of urbanization, which is called urbanization. The urban population is growing due to the natural growth of its own population, the migration of the population from rural to urban settlements, the inclusion of rural settlements within the city limits, adm. transformation of rural settlements into urban ones. According to estimates, the urban population in the world in 1800 accounted for 3%, in 1900 - 14%, in 1950 - 29%, in 2000 - almost 50%. In developed countries, this figure approaches 80-90%. In Russia, the urban population is 73%. In the 20th century the world's urban population grew very rapidly, and in the 2nd half. - at a rapid pace: in the 19th century. it grew by 190 million people, during the first 50 years of the 20th century. - by 520 million, and for the second - by almost 2.2 billion. The growth of the urban population in recent decades has many times exceeded the general growth of the world's population, especially large cities have grown rapidly (see Fig. City). At present, both in the world and in Russia, they concentrate 2
/3 of the urban population, with 40% (more than 25% in Russia) living in millionaire cities. It is in the predominant growth of large cities and emerging around them urban agglomerations and even larger forms of settlement is the essence of urbanization.
Urbanization has striking geographical features; it proceeds differently in different regions and countries. As a rule, the higher the proportion of the urban population, the lower its growth rate, and when approaching 80%, growth almost stops. In many developed countries, the urban population itself has now stabilized. But the process of urbanization does not stop: the environment in the cities themselves is changing, their functions are deepening, ties between settlements are strengthening, urban agglomerations are being formed and megalopolises, there is a process suburbanization And urbanization. In developing countries, the rate of urbanization growth is very high: a population explosion (see Fig. natural movement of the population) causes rapid growth of the urban population. In some countries, there is an unbridled growth of capitals, the formation of multimillion-dollar urban agglomerations (in 1950, out of the 30 largest agglomerations of the world, 20 were located in developed countries, in 1990 - only 9; according to forecasts, only 5 will remain in 2015) - this is a different type of urbanization (cf. false urbanization) than in developed countries.
Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .
Synonyms:
See what "URBANIZATION" is in other dictionaries:
URBANIZATION- (from lat. urbanus urban), the process of increasing the number of urban settlements, especially characteristic of the 20th century. Urbanization is a powerful environmental factor, accompanied by the transformation of the landscape, land, water resources, mass production ... ... Ecological dictionary
- (French urbanisation, from Latin urba nus urban, urbs city), historical. the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, which covers social prof., demographic. the structure of the population, its way of life, culture, location ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
URBANIZATION- (French urbanization, English, urbanization, from Latin urbanus urban, urbs city), historical. the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, which embraces changes in the location of production. forces, primarily in the resettlement of us., its socially ... Demographic Encyclopedic Dictionary
- [fr. urbanisation Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
URBANIZATION, urbanization, pl. no, female (from lat. urbanus urban) (sociological). The concentration of economic and cultural life in large urban centers, characteristic of the capitalist system. urbanization of the country. Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
Concentration Dictionary of Russian synonyms. urbanization noun, number of synonyms: 2 hyperurbanization (1) … Synonym dictionary
urbanization- and, well. urbanization f. lat. urbanus urban. 1. The concentration of economic and cultural life in large urban centers, characteristic of the capitalist social system. ALS 1. 2. Giving something to l. traits, features inherent in ... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language
The growth of cities, especially large ones, an increase in the proportion of urban residents, the concentration of population and economic life in large cities Dictionary of business terms. Akademik.ru. 2001 ... Glossary of business terms
- (from the Latin urbanus urban), the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society. The prerequisites for urbanization are the growth of industry in cities, the development of their cultural and political functions, and the deepening of the territorial division of labor. For urbanization ... ... Modern Encyclopedia
- (from lat. urbanus urban) the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society. The main social content of urbanization lies in special urban relations (K. Marx), covering the socio-professional and demographic structure ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Books
- Urbanization and ecological safety of the territory of new Moscow, R. G. Mamin, G. V. Orekhov, A. A. Bayrasheva. The main methodological problems and tasks of urbanization in terms of assessing the quality of the environment within the boundaries of the territories annexed to New Moscow are considered. Water, land,…
1. The process of increasing the share of the urban population, increasing the role of cities and spreading the urban lifestyle is:
A) urbanization
B) migration
B) emancipation
D) adaptation
2. Natural population growth is:
A) the ratio of births to deaths
B) the difference between birth and death rates
C) the difference between the number of people who entered and those who left the country
D) the ratio of those who entered the country to the number of births per year
3. The movement of the population across the territory is:
A) urbanization
B) migration
B) recreation
D) emancipation
4. The Slavic language group of peoples includes:
A) Buryats
B) Russians
B) Altaians
5. In the Asian part of Russia live:
A) Karelians
B) Chuvash
D) Buryats
6. The peoples of the North Caucasus include:
A) Bashkirs
B) Chechens
B) Karelians
D) Udmurts
7. Which of the following peoples belongs to the Indo-European language family:
A) Buryats
B) Russians
B) Kalmyks
D) Tatars
8. The smallest people are:
A) Tatars
B) Russians
D) Chuvash
A) 7 thousand people
B) 3 thousand people
C) 12 thousand people
D) 30 thousand people
10. The largest urban agglomeration in Russia is:
A) Moscow
B) Samara
B) Nizhny Novgorod
D) Novosibirsk
11. Specify natural area, within which the largest rural settlements are located:
A) tundra
D) desert
12. Indicate the region through which the Main Settlement Strip passes:
A) European North
B) Central Russia
C) North of the Far East
D) North of Eastern Siberia
13. Select the subject of the Russian Federation with the highest proportion of the urban population:
A) Kalmykia
B) Moscow region
C) Magadan region
D) Murmansk region
14. The lowest population density in the region:
A) Rostov
B) Vladimirskaya
B) Magadan
D) Moscow
15. Select the region in which there is a migration increase in the population:
A) Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)
B) Moscow region
C) Magadan region
16.Select the region in which there is a migration outflow of the population:
A) Moscow region
C) Magadan region
D) Leningrad region
17. The current demographic situation in Russia is characterized by:
A) high natural growth
B) low natural increase
B) zero natural increase
D) negative natural increase
18. In which of the republics of the Russian Federation is there a high natural increase:
A) Karelia
B) Yakutia
B) Dagestan
19. Religion, which occupies a leading place in the number of believers in Russia:
B) orthodoxy
B) Buddhism
D) shamanism
20. A significant part of believers profess Islam in:
A) Karelia
B) Kalmykia
D) Yakutia
Answers:
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A B B B D B B C C A C B B C B C D C B B
The first factor
affecting
— the influence of the environment. Half of the world's population lives in the lowlands, 1/3 - in coastal areas. Most of the population lives along the river banks. People inhabit areas with a favorable climate. Therefore, the most populous states are in the subtropical and subequatorial climate, as well as in the temperate south. Second factor
- economic. The presence of resources (land, forest, minerals, etc.) has always attracted people, this explains the development of lowlands by people. Third factor
The rural population in the world has traditionally been larger, but in the 21st century the population of villages and cities has leveled off. (3.4 billion rural and 3.4 billion urban) By 2050, a significant increase in the urban population is expected. At the same time, citizens occupy only 3% of the land surface. The global effect of urbanization has become most noticeable in the economically developed regions of the world. Thus, the level of urbanization has already exceeded 80% in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and Europe.
Among the less developed regions, an extremely high level of urbanization (78%) has been achieved in Latin America and the Caribbean. In contrast, Africa and Asia have urban proportions of 38% and 41%, respectively. Urbanization is expected to increase in all major areas over the next decade, with Africa and Asia accelerating faster. The urban population is highly concentrated in a limited number of countries. In 2007, three-quarters of the world's 3.3 billion urban dwellers lived in 25 countries, with urban populations ranging from 29 million in South Africa to 561 million in China. The top three countries with the most urban dwellers are: . Today, 35% of the world's urban population lives in these states. Russia is also in the list of 25 countries.
agglomerations Megalopolis is a horizontal line of large and small cities merged into a single line. Linearity is one of the distinguishing features of a megalopolis from a megalopolis. Currently, there is a phenomenon suburbanization . This is the relocation of part of the wealthy population to the suburbs. For example: Rublevskoe highway in Moscow. Population density is closely related to urbanization. The world average is 40 people. per km2. But basically, the entire population of the land is located on 7% of the area of \u200b\u200bthe continents. 90% of the population lives in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres. Migration has become a common phenomenon in the modern world. Migration is a population shift. The departure of people from their country for permanent residence is called emigration, the entry is called immigration. Since 2013, the natural disaster for the European Union has been the process of migration of people from Asia and Africa to European countries. According to official estimates, since January 2015, 1.2 million people have applied for asylum in the EU countries. The unprecedented influx of migrants has become a serious burden for many EU countries. Until the end of 2016, a new wave of emigration up to 3 million people is expected. This is more than the population of Lithuania, Slovenia, Latvia, Estonia, Cyprus, Luxembourg or Malta. The burden of receiving and servicing migrants is distributed differently among the EU countries. The most serious falls on Germany, France and Sweden. People want to go to Germany because it is a democratic country with a strong economy, a country where the role of both Christianity and religious freedom is strong, and where you can get both a good education and appropriate medical care. The main motive of migrants when moving is to find a place to apply their labor. These migrations are called labor migrations. In the 19th century, from many backward countries came "muscle drain" "brain drain"
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115. Megalopolises of the USA
Another important feature of the urbanization process in the United States is formation of megalopolises- vast urbanized zones of a strip-like configuration, which are formed as a result of the actual merging of many neighboring agglomerations of different ranks. Typically, such urbanized lanes stretch along the most important transport routes and multi-highways, or a kind of economic axes.
The United States can be called the birthplace of megalopolises.
It was here that the Northeastern, Lakeside and California megalopolises were formed and studied. General view Table 59 gives about each of them.
The oldest and most studied of them is the Northeastern (Atlantic) megalopolis. The well-known geographer Jean Gottmann, who borrowed this name from Ancient Greece, called this urbanized strip a megalopolis. By extreme points its strike is also called the Boswash megalopolis, i.e.
e. Boston - Washington (Fig. 180). It included the CMSAs of Boston, New York, Philadelphia and dozens of PMSAs. The core of the Lakeside megalopolis, often referred to as the Chipits (Chicago-Pittsburgh), are the CMSAs of Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, and also dozens of PMSAs.
And in the California megalopolis e, also called Sansan (San Francisco - San Diego), the CMSA of San Francisco and Los Angeles stand out.
Scientific forecasts For quite a long time, they began to proceed from the fact that, firstly, there should be an expansion of the three named megalopolises and, secondly, the formation of new ones in other parts of the country is quite likely.
Now with full confidence it can be argued that such forecasts came true (Fig. 181).
§ 66. URBANIZATION
This figure shows that the Northeast megalopolis has moved significantly to the south, the Lakeside megalopolis to the northeast, and the California megalopolis to both the north and south. In addition, in general terms, three new megalopolises have formed - on the coasts of Florida, the Gulf of Mexico and Pacific Ocean. It is noteworthy that the two megalopolises have actually become international, since they are located within both the United States and Canada.
Table 418
US MEGALOCITIES
It is not necessary to imagine a megalopolis as a zone of continuous urban development.
On the contrary, such development usually occupies only a very small part (about 1/10) of its entire territory, while the rest of the space is occupied by cottages, fields, forests, transport routes, reservoirs, free land.
Urbanization is a global process
The main economic force in the world economy is labor resources. The first factor affecting formation of a labor resource — the influence of the environment. Half of the world's population lives in the lowlands, 1/3 - in coastal areas. Most of the population lives along the river banks. People inhabit areas with a favorable climate.
Therefore, the most populous states are in the subtropical and subequatorial climate, as well as in the temperate south. Second factor - economic.
The presence of resources (land, forest, minerals, etc.) has always attracted people, this explains the development of lowlands by people. Third factor - employment. In industrial areas, there is a significantly larger population than in others with similar conditions. The main form of accommodation of the population people in the modern world are gradually becoming cities. Urbanization is the process of growth of cities and urban population, the strengthening of their economic role, the widespread urban lifestyle. The rural population in the world traditionally has more, but in the 21st century the population of villages and cities has leveled off (3.4 billion people).
rural and 3.4 billion urban) By 2050, a significant increase in the urban population is expected. At the same time, citizens occupy only 3% of the land surface. The global effect of urbanization has become most noticeable in the economically developed regions of the world.
Thus, the level of urbanization has already exceeded 80% in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and Europe.
Among the less developed regions, an extremely high level of urbanization (78%) has been achieved in Latin America and the Caribbean. In contrast, Africa and Asia have urban proportions of 38% and 41%, respectively. Urbanization is expected to increase in all major areas over the next decade, with Africa and Asia accelerating faster.
Urbanization
The urban population is highly concentrated in a limited number of countries. In 2007, three-quarters of the world's 3.3 billion urban dwellers lived in 25 countries with an urban population of 29 million or more.
people in South Africa to 561 million people in China. The top three countries with the most urban dwellers are: China, India and the United States of America. Today, 35% of the world's urban population lives in these states.
Russia is also in the list of 25 countries. GIANT CITIES (unofficial data for 2015 from an unknown source)
Urbanization is closely related to the concept of huge cities. Satellites of large cities form agglomerations . Megalopolises have become the highest link in the process of urbanization. Megalopolis is a horizontal line of large and small cities merged into a single line.
Linearity is one of the distinguishing features of a megalopolis from a megalopolis. Currently, there is a phenomenon suburbanization . This is the relocation of part of the wealthy population to the suburbs. For example: Rublevskoe highway in Moscow.
Population density is closely related to urbanization. The world average is 40 people. per km2. But basically, the entire population of the land is located on 7% of the area of \u200b\u200bthe continents. 90% of the population lives in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres. Migration has become a common phenomenon in the modern world. Migration is a population shift.
The departure of people from their country for permanent residence is called emigration, the entry is called immigration. Since 2013, the natural disaster for the European Union has been the process of migration of people from Asia and Africa to European countries. According to official estimates, since January 2015, 1.2 million people have applied for asylum in the EU countries. The unprecedented influx of migrants has become a serious burden for many EU countries. Until the end of 2016, a new wave of emigration up to 3 million people is expected.
This is more than the population of Lithuania, Slovenia, Latvia, Estonia, Cyprus, Luxembourg or Malta. The burden of receiving and servicing migrants is distributed differently among the EU countries. The most serious falls on Germany, France and Sweden. People want to go to Germany because it is a democratic country with a strong economy, a country where the role of both Christianity and religious freedom is strong, and where you can get both a good education and appropriate medical care.
The main motive of migrants when moving is to find a place to apply their labor. These migrations are called labor migrations. In the 19th century, from many backward countries came "muscle drain" in a post-industrial society "brain drain"
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Importance of urbanization in modern society
Urbanization in a broad sense is a multifaceted socio-economic, demographic and geographical process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society. In a narrow sense, this is the growth of cities, mostly large ones, an increase in the proportion of the urban population.
Modern urbanization occurs not only due to the classical scheme characteristic of past centuries, that is, due to visiting rural residents and foreigners.
Of particular importance are such factors as the transformation of rural settlements into urban areas and the formation of large-scale suburban areas that have all the features of a city.
The consequence of this was the so-called suburbanization. This is the emergence of urban agglomerations (megacities), that is, territorial groupings of urban and rural settlements that form a vast zone of continuous development. In fact, they are "super-cities" and consist of a core and periphery.
The core of agglomerations is mainly the capitals of states, important industrial centers. The population of such a sprawling city may be a significant proportion of the inhabitants of the entire country. The first signs of suburbanization began to appear before the Second World War, as a form of flight of the wealthy from the social ills of the big city.
Currently, about 25 large urban agglomerations with a population of over 10 million have formed on the planet.
people These are Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, Tokyo, New York, Shanghai and Beijing, Bombay, Jakarta. The largest city in the world is Mexico City (25.8 million people). In our country, the Moscow agglomeration stands out, consisting of hundreds of urban and several hundred rural settlements.
Urbanization reaches its highest degree in megalopolises (the merger of several largest megalopolises), where you can get from city to city without leaving the city limits.
These formations include Boswash (Boston - Washington), Tokaido (Tokyo - Osaka - Nagoya), California megalopolis, Rhine megalopolis, English megalopolis with cores - London and Liverpool agglomerations.
Modern cities occupy 1% of the land area, but they contain half of the world's population and most of the industry.
In the early 90s. In the twentieth century, the level of urbanization in developed countries was about 72%, in developing countries - 33%. Now the situation is rapidly changing. As communication technologies improve and investment in human capital increases, the growth of large cities in developing countries will continue.
According to the level of urbanization, the countries of the world are divided into two groups: highly urbanized with a share of the urban population above 50% (North America, Australia, most countries Western Europe, Japan, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, South Africa, etc.) and medium urbanized with a share of the urban population below 20% (Afghanistan, Nepal, Laos, Ethiopia, Somalia, etc.).
There is also false urbanization, where an increase in the urban population is not accompanied by sufficient job growth.
Yesterday's peasants join the ranks of the unemployed, they begin to create slums within the city, which they call the "belt of poverty." So, 80% of the population of Addis Ababa, 70% of the population of Casablanca live in slums.
Growth and development of cities increase in the proportion of the urban population in the country for
Mostly false urbanization is used to characterize the situation in developing countries. It is associated not so much with the development of urban functions as with the displacement of people from rural settlements as a result of relative agrarian overpopulation.
Hyperurbanization is represented by zones of uncontrolled development of urban formations and overload of the natural landscape, in which the ecological balance is disturbed.
If false urbanization is a problem in developing countries, then hyperurbanization is characteristic of developed countries. Both of these problems exist in Russia (false urbanization, which has a specific form, is less common: the inability of cities to provide the incoming population with the required social infrastructure).
Russia is a country with a high level of urbanization. Urbanization in our country occurred due to three factors: natural growth, migration growth and administrative-territorial transformations (for example, the inclusion of rural settlements within the city limits).
Regions Russian Federation differ significantly in the degree of urbanization. A high proportion of the urban population is recorded in the Northwestern (83.5%) and Central (81.3%) federal districts, the minimum level of urbanization is typical for the North Caucasus (49.1%) and Southern (62.4%) districts . The lowest share of the urban population is registered in the Republic of Altai (27.6%), the Chechen Republic (35%), the Republic of Ingushetia (38.3%).
Urbanization in modern Russia is associated with certain contradictions:
- segregation of the poor population and its displacement to the "roadside" of urban life;
- the growth of unemployment and internal migration: more people live in cities than they are able to "digest";
- the supply of labor in cities significantly outstrips demand, which leads to the development of an unorganized sector of the economy engaged in small-scale production and services;
- an increase in the criminal sector, including the "shadow" economy and organized crime.
Despite the fact that the urban environment is improving even in provincial cities, it is dangerous for children and adolescents.
The result of the Soviet urban planning doctrine is that micro-district development does not allow organizing publicly controlled yard spaces: children and teenagers have stopped walking in yards. The urban infrastructure of leisure is not oriented for the most part to the social group of teenagers. Additional education, culture and sports are highly commercialized, mass teenage public organizations practically correspond.
However, urban life and culture have become an integral part of the social habitat.
The majority of Russians, being citizens, set the tone for the development of society, influence the system of social management, change social environment and, ultimately, for the lives of new generations.
At present, urbanization is due to the scientific and technological revolution, changes in the structure of productive forces and the nature of labor, deepening links between activities, as well as information links.
The urban environment provides a higher standard of quality of life in comparison with peripheral non-urban areas.
This is expressed in the greater development of transport, communications and communications, healthcare and education, culture and the leisure industry. The concentration of economic, administrative and human resources creates the prerequisites for an active exchange of information, the emergence and dissemination of inventions. Therefore, cities have advantages for creating and implementing new technologies.
Accommodation educational institutions influences the development of territorial settlement systems.
This significance is especially evident in the example of small settlements. The school closes in the village, and then the settlement itself dies, young parents move to those settlements where there is an opportunity to educate their children, and pensioners remain in the dying village to live out their lives, and soon only the postal address and abandoned farmland remain from the settlement.
Unfortunately, this trend, which is negative for the Russian settlement system, is only growing. In 2014 alone, as part of the so-called optimization programs, 592 small schools were liquidated, by 2020
scheduled to close another 3639 educational organizations. At present, almost 6 thousand settlements in Russia with a population of 300 to 1.5 thousand people do not have schools. Out of 940 settlements, it takes more than 25 km to get to the nearest school.
Transformation processes in modern Russia have led to a discrepancy between the structure of education and the dynamics of settlement.
"The changing settlement system is becoming out of scale with social service networks designed and built in accordance with the stepped model of spatial organization." There is an institutional imbalance, which is most noticeable in the system of basic general education. Therefore, it is necessary to redesign the educational social network, while observing the guarantee of the rights of all citizens to education - mandatory, generally accessible and free of charge - for citizens and villagers.
Discrimination by place of residence is unacceptable: in rural and urban school education different educational technologies can be used, however, the results of schoolchildren upon graduation must meet the same requirements.
Overcoming the institutional imbalance can be facilitated by the restructuring of basic general education: both within the entire five-year cycle of the basic school, and within the academic year. Such projects are built taking into account the possibilities of schoolchildren of different ages for daily or weekly pendulum migrations. A similar variant of separation by educational levels is successfully implemented in Finland, which occupies a leading position in the results of PISA (International Program for the Assessment of Student Educational Achievement).
The researchers put forward the concept of shrinking the economic ecumene, which is based on the vastness of the territory of Russia and the lack of funds for its development.
Therefore, it is necessary to abandon the development of the North and Siberia, limiting ourselves only to European Russia. The implementation of this concept is observed today in Russia: the economic space is concentrated around large socio-economic centers, there is a compression of the economic space, mainly due to the reduction of peripheral rural settlements.
The reduction of the rural settlement system is transforming institutions of secondary general (complete) education.
The school begins to perform a missionary function, replacing the functions of disappearing social institutions (clubs, libraries, social welfare agencies).
The closure of educational institutions and the disappearance of villages leads to a reduction in the functioning cultural and economic territorial space. These territories are outside the boundaries of the socio-economic life of the country.
A study of the impact of urbanization processes on the functioning of an educational social institution showed that there are both positive and negative consequences of this process.
The urban settlement system contributes to the concentration and advanced development of educational structures, on the one hand, and segregation, the displacement of the poor to the “backyards” of urban life, on the other. The results of urbanization also have a dual nature in the rural settlement structure: the intensive development of distance learning and self-education equalizes the chances of urban and rural youth to receive equally high-quality education, but the reduction of educational infrastructure in rural areas significantly reduces the chances for rural youth.
The complexity and multidimensional nature of the urbanization process requires a balanced management approach, taking into account the accumulated foreign and domestic experience in resolving issues of the socio-territorial organization of society as a whole and the education system as its subsystem.
Sociology as a scientific discipline was formed in response to the challenges of the rapid industrial urbanization of the 19th century: the mass migration of people to cities, the rupture of traditional social ties, the formation of new types of communities that are different from the traditional patriarchal forms of solidarity - stimulated the formation of sociology.
Therefore, we can say that almost all classical sociology is essentially the sociology of the city.
Summary
The sociology of settlement is a field of sociological knowledge that studies the origin, essence, patterns of functioning of the city and village as integral systems.
City - a type of settlement characterized by the presence of a single closed space in which there is a set of dwellings (in ancient times, city walls served as the boundary of such a space), a large number and high population density, a high degree of diversity and integration professional activity residents, the predominantly anonymous nature of their contacts.
The rural settlement community is the opposite of the city in all its main characteristics.
Here, the territorial concentration of the population is relatively low, the degree of socio-economic development is lower, a small set of species labor activity, the primary occupation of people is agricultural labor, a large professional and social homogeneity of the population.
Urbanization in a broad sense is a multifaceted socio-economic, demographic and geographical process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society.
In a narrow sense, this is the growth of cities, mostly large ones, an increase in the proportion of the urban population.
Questions for self-examination
1. Describe the essence and typology of cities.
2. What are the reasons for the emergence of cities?
Village: definition, functions, typology.
4. Why does the city become a cause of alienation of people?
5. Highlight the similarities and differences between urban and rural cultures.
Rural community, its features in Russia.
7. Culture and subcultures of the city, their role in the development of the individual.
8. What is urbanization?
What are the features of education in urban and rural conditions?
10. Describe the consequences of urbanization processes.
Burgess E. Urban Growth: An Introduction to research project// Personality. Culture. Society. - 2002. - T. IV. - Issue. 1-2 (11-12).
The Accounts Chamber checked the optimization in the field of healthcare, culture, education and social services // http://ach.gov.ru/press_center/news/21297
Abankina I.V.
Problems of the basic school and the settlement system in Russia. //Problems of education. 2005. No. 2. pp. 2-19.
Pivovarov Yu.L. Compression of the “economic ecumene” of Russia// World economy and international relations. 2002. No. 4. S. 63-69.
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All rights belong to their authors.
Introduction
1. The process of urbanization
2. Pattern of urbanization in developing countries
3. The global process of urbanization
4. Features of urbanization in Russia
Conclusion
Bibliography
Application
Introduction
Currently, almost half of the world's population (47 percent) lives in cities.
During the period 2000-2015, the number of urban dwellers is expected to increase by 2 per cent annually.
Population concentration, consumption patterns, modes of transport and economic activities in cities have a significant impact on the environment, mainly as a result of resource consumption and waste generation.
At the same time, it is in cities that there are opportunities to ensure the sustainable development of ever-increasing masses of people.
Urbanization is one of the most important components of socio-economic development.
For decades, urbanization in Russia at first was simply not recognized as one of the important processes of the formation of a person, environment and society, and then in the 70-80s, it was considered within the framework of the formational features of the development of production and settlement systems with a significant underestimation of its global patterns and socio-cultural and civilizational foundations.
A philosophically inconsistent approach was established and carefully guarded, according to which urbanization is easily manageable, because its laws are established by leaders depending on certain goals they put forward.
Urbanization is the growth of cities, the increase in the proportion of the urban population in a country, region, world, the emergence and development of increasingly complex networks and systems of cities.
Thus, urbanization is a historical process of increasing the role of cities in the life of society, its gradual transformation into a predominantly urban one in terms of the nature of work, the lifestyle and culture of the population, and the specifics of the location of production. Urbanization is one of the most important components of socio-economic development.
urbanization process
The urbanization of a country is a process of increasing the proportion of the urban population, which is accompanied by an increase in the economic, political and cultural importance of cities compared to rural areas.
There is a global trend towards urbanization. In most countries, it is a natural consequence and stimulus of economic development passing through the stages of industrialization and post-industrialization. Therefore, the level of urbanization, measured as the percentage of the urban population in relation to the total population of the country, is especially high in developed countries and much lower in countries with low per capita income.
Mankind entered the 20th century, already having an idea about the urban boom, about the painful consequences of the concentration of the population in large cities, about their pathology.
It seemed to many that the clearly manifested shortcomings of large cities did not leave them a chance for the future. A. Babel spoke about the inevitable future death of big cities. G. Wells predicted their disappearance (or, as he put it, "dispersal")1.
At the same time, the rate of urbanization in developing countries is currently much higher than in developed ones. In 2000-2005
the average annual urban population growth in low- and middle-income countries was 3.8% and 3.1%, respectively, compared with 0.1% in developed countries.
It should also be taken into account that in developing countries, where the population is higher, these percentages correspond to a larger number of people.
As a result, by 2005, the vast majority—nearly three-quarters—of the world's 2.5 billion city dwellers lived in developing countries.
Urbanization has covered all countries of the world. This process in different social and geographical conditions is also manifested in different “geographical clothes”1.
At the same time, the main patterns of urbanization are general character. In its course, the process of formation of an urban environment with specific properties takes place.
The proportion of urban dwellers in the total population of low- and middle-income countries has risen rapidly from 22% in 1960 to 22% in 1960.
up to 39% in 2005; it is expected that by 2015 it will exceed 50%. An approximate indicator of the contribution of cities to GDP is the total share in GDP of industrial and service products (mainly produced in cities). Based on this indicator, cities in developing countries already play a more important economic role than rural, mostly agricultural areas, as, on average, more than half of the GDP of developing countries is produced in industry and services. True, while this is not true for all countries of the world.
Despite the fact that the rapid growth of cities is observed in almost all countries of the world, the levels of urbanization in different geographical regions are very different.
While most countries Latin America as urbanized as the countries of Europe (74% of the population lives in cities), the countries of South Asia, East Asia and Central Africa remain predominantly agricultural.
Most of the world's most populated cities are located in developing countries.
The table lists cities with a population of more than 7 million (2005 data). Note that many of them are in Asian countries where the population is large and per capita income is low (China, India, Indonesia).
These cities have a high concentration of the poor. These cities are particularly vulnerable to complex social and environmental problems, including air pollution.
Airborne particulate matter (PM) air pollutants are smoke, soot, dust and liquid droplets produced by the combustion of fuels and present in the air. The level of HF pollution, usually measured in micrograms per cubic meter, is one of the most important indicators of the quality of the air people breathe.
According to the air quality standards developed by the World Health Organization, this figure should not exceed 90 micrograms per cubic meter. meter. In fact, in many cities this indicator is many times exceeded (Appendix: Table No. 1).
High levels of HF air pollution adversely affect human health.
It provokes diseases of the respiratory system, exacerbates cardiovascular and other diseases. Worldwide, this factor was responsible for at least 500,000 premature deaths in 2005, as well as 4-5 million new cases of bronchitis. The risk to the health of citizens in developing countries such as China and India is especially high. According to some estimates, air quality in many Chinese cities is so poor that the economic losses caused by increased morbidity and mortality of urban residents throughout the country amount to about 5% of GDP.
According to other estimates made for 18 cities in Eastern and Central Europe, reducing the content of dust and soot in the air of these cities to the maximum allowable standards set by the European Union would annually save 18,000 lives and receive 1.2 billion.
dollars of income by reducing the incidence and associated losses of working time.
The degree of air pollution depends on the level of technology development in the country and measures of state pollution control, mainly in the energy sector.
The use of less “dirty” fossil fuels (such as natural gas and low-sulphur coal), their more efficient and complete combustion, the increasing use of “clean”, renewable energy sources (water, solar, wind, ground heat) are some of the main ways to combat air pollution that do not require restrictions on economic growth. Compare these data with HF levels in the largest cities of these countries (Appendix - Table No. 1).
Note that coal is considered one of the dirtiest sources of energy, although a lot depends on its quality and how it is burned. Nuclear energy is the cleanest in many respects, but there is a serious problem with the safe disposal of radioactive waste and the risk of radioactive contamination in the event of an accident. Sources with the least environmental impact, such as solar energy, are not shown as they still account for a small share of the world's electricity generation.
Another important source of HF emissions into the atmosphere of cities is the combustion of fuel in internal combustion engines of cars.
This is especially harmful to human health, as pollutants are emitted almost at ground level. Cars are much more abundant in developed countries, where in 2006 there were 559 cars per 1,000 people, compared with 8 per 1,000 in low-income countries and 91 per 1,000 people in middle-income countries.
However, the rapid growth in the number of cars in developing countries is causing severe air pollution, as they are mostly concentrated in a few large cities, many are in poor condition, and there is little or no control of exhaust emissions.
According to World Bank estimates, demand for gasoline in developing countries is growing 1.2 to 1.9 times faster than per capita income.
If for countries undergoing industrialization and urbanization, the typical growth rate of per capita income is 6-8% per year, an annual increase in fuel consumption for cars by 10-15% is quite possible. For 10 years (1994-2004) in Moscow, an annual increase in the number of passenger cars by an average of 10% was registered, and for four years (2000-2004) the annual increase was 17.5%.
In the absence of effective measures to combat exhaust air pollution, such dynamics will certainly lead to serious consequences for the health of citizens.
Patterns of urbanization in developing countries
The "Third World" is becoming increasingly urbanized, the scene of an ongoing "urban revolution". This largely determines the most important areas of socio-economic progress in developing countries.
In 1950, the share of townspeople in their total population was 19%-20%, and by 1990 it had grown to 38%-40%. By the year 2000, this figure will reach 45% or even more. In 2000
in 65 developing countries, more than 2/3 of the total population will be urban, and in the 15 most industrialized countries, the level of urbanization will exceed 80%.
The processes of urbanization are taking place differently in developed countries, where industrial development was accompanied by the growth of cities, while modern post-industrial trends manifested themselves in a slowdown and even some outflow of the population from cities to the suburban area, where the ecological situation and living conditions are more favorable.
This process is called suburbanization. The most urbanized countries, where the urban population is more than 4/5 of the inhabitants, include the UK, Germany, Japan, Russia, the USA, France, Turkey, and Israel.
Cities, concentrating the population, production, management, cultural and scientific achievements, become cells of world economic ties.
Their functions are varied. There are cities that have industrial, transport, trade, distribution and non-economic (administrative, scientific, cultural, etc.) functions. Most often there are cities that combine industrial, commercial, transport and administrative functions. There are also highly specialized centers: industrial (Detroit), transport (Suez), political and administrative (Bonn, Canberra), scientific and university (Cambridge, Heidelberg), resort (Nice, Brighton), religious (Mecca, Lourdes), as well as military bases (Gibraltar)1.
The growth of modern cities, especially large ones, occurs mainly due to the increase in non-productive functions, since most jobs are created in these sectors of activity, and migration flows from rural areas determine the composition of the urban population with a characteristic predominance of people of working age.
Local natives, such as those in London, Paris or Calcutta, make up less than half of the city's population.
Most large cities have a rather variegated ethnic and religious structure, which leads to settlements already within the largest city (for example, Chinatowns are known in New York, the Brighton area, inhabited by immigrants from the former Soviet Union during the second half of the 20th century, the Harlem area where predominantly black Americans live, etc.
and sometimes creates additional sociocultural problems associated with interethnic communication and religious tolerance.
In developing countries, urbanization occurs according to the "center-periphery" type. The less developed regions and their cities act as inland colonies of the leading regions and their centers (a kind of "internal colonialism").
Such a view of urbanization in developing countries is associated with the concept of "economic dualism", which comes from the existence of "traditional" and "modern" sectors.
1. The concept of urbanization
In this regard, 3 situations are considered: a) the city pumps out various resources for development from the surrounding territories; b) the city is "indifferent" to neighboring districts; c) the city imposes on them one or another structure of development1.
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The characteristic feature of the city is urban concentration, i.e. dense to excess concentration of extremely diverse objects and areas of application of activities in an extremely limited area (in the area of half-hour accessibility for public transport). This dramatically increases the diversity of areas of application of labor, ways of spending leisure time. There is a lack of freedom in the countryside to choose a way of life and occupation. Urban concentration is a concentration of diversity and interaction; By the very course of urban life, activities concentrated in the city are encouraged to close interaction, and people - to constant communication and upholding common interests. Action gives rise to opposition, various forms of alienation of the city crowd from each other are growing in the urban population in proportion to the population density in urban areas, the frequency of deviant forms of behavior (alcoholism, squatting) and street crime is increasing.
In close proximity are located separately gravitating to the city, but poorly compatible with each other objects, enterprises and industries. The growth of diversity in the urban area ensures the growth of the wealth of urban residents, and it determines the “production of risks” in the urban area, increasing the anisotropy of urban space on the gradient “center (diversity and wealth, the elements of which diffuse to the outskirts) - periphery” (area of increased risk concentration, extending to the city center, primarily along highways).
The city tends to concentric expansion, depressing its development, primarily the center. It causes the alternation of periods of stagnation and radical restructuring of the planning structure. “Waves” of transformation of the urban landscape run from the city center to the periphery every 20…40 years. This caused the emergence of a dynamic city concentration, dinapolis, capable of expanding without urban planning difficulties - thanks to growth in one direction, which does not interfere with the development of either the city itself or its center (K. Doxiadis). The idea is attractive, but unrealistic - a city is not an independent unit, but a node with a specific purpose and functions in the network of cities in a given territory, and the “linear growth” of cities means destabilization of the entire network (it is possible only with complete urbanization of the territory, at the stage of megalopolises).
A successfully developing city is characterized by proportionate growth(primarily its spatial parts), the appearance of disproportions and contradictions hinders development. Example: in the process of growth, the area of the largest agglomerations of the RSFSR in the period from 1950 to 1995 each maintains a strictly defined relationship between the “core” (central city) and the periphery (rings of satellites) of each agglomeration.
The city is a combination of three main subsystems: population, economic base and life support sphere. The natural environment of the city included in the last one. It includes natural complex, the elements of which (the ecosystems of natural areas of the city) are directly involved in optimizing the living environment of citizens. ecological situation in the city creates the interaction of the population, urban economy with the natural environment of the city and elements (heavily modified) of natural systems within it - natural and green areas (lawns, squares, parks, boulevards, front gardens, flower beds, etc.).
The growth of cities and the urbanization of the territory are so natural that they can be described by mathematical models. So the density of the city network and the average distance between neighboring nodes of the network is directly proportional not so much to the density as to the economic activity of the population (intensity of trade, transport and other contacts). For example, the Upper Oka principalities were spared by the Tatar cavalry due to the rugged terrain and high forest cover, unlike their neighbors, they were not depopulated, but the economy was destroyed - and some of the cities ceased to exist. Disappearing cities have always been located between remaining, never next to each other, so that no area was left unserved, only the intensity of service was reduced.
The “rank-size” rule ” (F. Auerbach, 1930) shows what is the proportion of large, medium and small cities needed to serve a given territory. With continuous urbanization of the territory (region, region, country, entire planet - the pattern is universal and in different cases differs only in numerical coefficients) size and population cities i -th rank is proportional to the size of the largest city in the given territory U 0 , referred to the dimensional rank of the city U i with proportionality factor ln U 0 .
Rank - a serial number in the descending order of the population of the city. The steeper the hyperbole passes, given by the “rank-size” rule, the higher the degree of development of the city network in a given territory. The lack or excess of a certain category of cities compared to the “ideal norm” given by the “rank-size” rule means incompleteness of urbanization territories and accelerated growth(or, on the contrary, a halt in development) of cities of the missing (or “excessive”) category in the near future. In the “sample” of cities globe the proportion of megacities (cities with a population of more than 1 million people) is significantly lower than predicted; for all cities on the Earth, the “rank-size” rule determines a steeper hyperbole than is observed only in a sample of the 20 largest megacities of the planet - U (i )= U 0 * lnU 0 / i and U (i )= U 0 * lnU 0 /( i + lnU 0 ) respectively. In the near future, we should expect the outpacing growth of megacities compared to smaller cities, especially in the “third world”. Extrapolation based on the “rank-size” rule allows you to get the figure of a stable population of the Earth after the end of growth and the completion of the demographic transition in all countries ( 13 billion) and the size of the world's largest city ( 42 million residents, S.P. Kapitsa).
Cristaller Rules (1933) describe the optimal placement structure cities - central places and the settlements they serve on the territory where, on the one hand, urbanization is completely completed, on the other hand, the location of cities is not complicated by agglomeration processes. The main function of cities of central places (CM) - service (administrative, market, provision of services, etc.) - settlements of the urban district included in the system of this city.
The main function of cities of the opposite category specialized centers - the production of strictly defined products that are in demand far beyond the boundaries of the corresponding system of cities, and not only on its territory. The more extensive the national network of cities, the higher the capacity of the internal market, the more levels in the hierarchy of CM cities and the more scattering of cities around them - specialized centers (SCs). Spatial distribution of SC does not obey According to the rules of Christaller, they form clusters outside the ordered network of central places, but usually near the centers of agglomerations, along economic and transport lines.
The "correct" system of city-central places and the settlements served by them takes on the form of a hexagonal grid. Center spots are in the center of the hexes, and serviced settlements are on the edges or in the corners. This achieves the maximum density of “packing” of all serviced settlements around the central places, minimizing the distances between them, and maximizing the availability of central places.
A specific option for placing settlements in a hexagonal “service field” of central places is determined by the dominant function of the latter and, accordingly, by which service option is optimized in space. If the market (commercial and industrial) structure of the system “the central place is the settlement of the urban district” is subject to optimization, then the served settlements are located at the corners of the hexagon ( A ). This maximizes the freedom of choice of the central place by each subordinate settlement - any of the 3 neighboring ones, and the number of settlements oriented to this market - 6.
When optimizing the transport structure of the territory ( B ) settlements are placed on the edges of the hex, so that the distance to the 2 nearest centers is minimized, but the freedom of choice is reduced. When optimizing the predominantly administrative structure ( IN ) the freedom to choose a central place for the inhabitants of the settlements disappears altogether, since they are all located inside the hexagon, but the differentiation of powers and division of space between neighboring centers reaches the greatest extent.
Option A optimal for rapid economic development of the territory; B - for ease of management, IN - to preserve the initial biodiversity of the region, since the settlements are concentrated around “their” central places, the periphery and the junction of different regions remain underdeveloped, creating a reserve of intact natural areas on the far periphery of the region.
Deviations from the ideal Christaller model are investigated by Lesh. They are associated with the incomplete completion of urbanization processes, the lack of uniform coverage by the network of cities, or (the opposite effect) the beginning of the agglomeration process. The latter is accompanied center shift And reorientation of settlements to the central place that leads among the neighbors in terms of development speed. It is transformed into the center of an agglomeration, orienting the territorial ties of its neighbors “on itself”.
In Lesch's model, the growth of the city-central place occurs in a stellate pattern, along the rays of the main highways and turns out to be sharply uneven - in some rays, the urbanized strips are more developed and stretch further than in others. Therefore, the placement of subordinate settlements in each hex is strictly sectorial, and not uniform, as in the Christaller model. Another option - as you move from the CM to the periphery of the serviced territory, there is a gradual transition from uniform to sectorial distribution of subordinate settlements).
Sectors are set along the lines of city development and differ sharply in the concentration of subordinate settlements, the development of the urbanized structure and, accordingly, the specialization of the economy.
For example, in the Moscow region, the eastern and northeastern sectors are characterized by strong urbanization and predominantly industrial development. Southwestern and Western are predominantly agricultural. In Lesch's model, the serviced settlements are unevenly distributed in the space around the central places, and in sectors, the more urbanized sectors alternate with the less urbanized ones.
When one of the central places in the neighboring regions is so leading in its development that it becomes the center of an agglomeration, in the neighboring regions the network of settlements and the CM experiences center shift effect. They seem to be attracted to the growing agglomeration (and become “closer” due to the development of transport routes in this direction), the subsequent growth of these cities also turns out to be oriented towards this agglomeration.
Territorial limits for the growth of cities and agglomerations
With an area larger than 500 km2, it is impossible to provide reasonable costs for labor travel using public transport. The Metropolitan raises this threshold to 800 km2. The area suitable for urban development - 70.6 million / km 2 (square with a side of 5300 km), suitable for life for climatic reasons - 146 million km 2 (square with a side of 8400 km), already built up by cities - 28, 1 million km 2 (a square with a side of 2000 km).
Therefore, urbanization proceeds not so much in the form of growth, but in the form of city multiplication, connecting cities with agglomeration into more complex systems - supporting frame of settlement (OKR), metropolitan areas and urbanized stripes. ROC is formed at the moment when independently growing agglomerations come into contact, and their centers are connected by polyhighways so firmly that emplosion effect, that is, the “rapprochement” of interacting centers due to the reduction of the travel time between them.
As a result, the process of urbanization changes direction in all agglomerations that are part of the ROC - the growth of each in breadth is replaced by the predominant growth of agglomerations towards each other, along the highways connecting the centers. Backbone effect - accelerated development of mainline territories in the ROC while lagging behind the development of the rest).
Consecutive stages of ROC formation:
I.Center (“point concentration”) - an increase in the number and size of large cities.
II.Agglomeration : a large city becomes the core of an agglomeration and forms a galaxy of satellites around itself.
III.Regionalization + implosion : economic convergence of interacting centers based on the improvement of transport. “Larger cities benefit more from improvements in communications over time. As a result, the connection between them is carried out faster, and they seem to be approaching each other” (P. Hugget. Geography: synthesis of modern knowledge. M .: Mir publishing house, 1979).
Then comes the turn of regionalization - ? sustainable “division of labor” between agglomerations united in ROCs.
The opportunity to save on transportation between ROC centers (due to the emplosion effect) brings them even closer and forces them to expand towards each other (the effect of center shift is measured by the formula of O.D. Kudryavtsev K = l f / vSN , l f - the sum of the actual distances between the nodes in the ROC, S - total area of agglomeration, N - the number of cities in its composition).
If the nodes of the ROC are so concentrated that the effect of the displacement of centers causes direct contact and connection of neighboring megacities, a megalopolis is formed if backbone effect- there is a continuous urbanized band (a chain of cities) between neighboring nodes of the OKD.
The immediate cause of the environmental problems of cities is the fact that “at any moment the diversity” of ways of applying labor and places of leisure outweighs the planning and environmental shortcomings of cities in the minds of citizens” (O.N. Yanitsky). They delegate this risk to the next generations, while anticipating this risk in advance is the task of the previous generation. It should be carried out at the design and planning stage).
