War of 1812 Tsar. Church of the Life-Giving Trinity on Sparrow Hills. Russian Imperial Army

Russia's war for freedom and independence against the aggression of France and its allies.

It was a consequence of deep political contradictions between the France of Emperor Napoleon I Bonaparte, which sought European dominance, and the Russian Empire, which opposed its political and territorial claims.

On the French side, the war was of a coalition nature. Only Confederation of the Rhine placed 150 thousand people in Napoleonic army. Eight army corps were composed of foreign contingents. IN Great Army There were about 72 thousand Poles, over 36 thousand Prussians, about 31 thousand Austrians, and a significant number of representatives of other European states. The total strength of the French army was about 1200 thousand people. More than half of it was intended for the invasion of Russia.

By June 1, 1812, Napoleonic invasion forces included the Imperial Guard, 12 infantry corps, cavalry reserve (4 corps), artillery and engineering parks - a total of 678 thousand people and about 2.8 thousand guns.

Napoleon I used the Duchy of Warsaw as a springboard for the attack. His strategic plan was to quickly defeat the main forces of the Russian army in a general battle, capture Moscow and impose Russian Empire peace treaty on French terms. The enemy invasion forces were deployed in 2 echelons. The 1st echelon consisted of 3 groups (total 444 thousand people, 940 guns), located between the Neman and Vistula rivers. The 1st group (left wing troops, 218 thousand people, 527 guns) under the direct command of Napoleon I concentrated on the line Elbing (now Elblag), Thorn (now Torun) for an offensive through Kovno (now Kaunas) to Vilna (now Vilnius) . The 2nd group (general E. Beauharnais; 82 thousand people, 208 guns) was intended to attack in the zone between Grodno and Kovno with the aim of separating the Russian 1st and 2nd Western armies. The 3rd group (under the command of the brother of Napoleon I - J. Bonaparte; troops of the right wing, 78 thousand people, 159 guns) had the task of moving from Warsaw to Grodno to pull back the Russian 2nd Western Army to facilitate the offensive of the main forces . These troops were supposed to encircle and destroy piece by piece the Russian 1st and 2nd Western armies with sweeping blows. On the left wing, the invasion of the 1st group of troops was supported by the Prussian corps (32 thousand people) of Marshal J. MacDonald. On the right wing, the invasion of the 3rd group of troops was supported by the Austrian corps (34 thousand people) of Field Marshal K. Schwarzenberg. In the rear, between the Vistula and Oder rivers, there remained the troops of the 2nd echelon (170 thousand people, 432 guns) and the reserve (the corps of Marshal P. Augereau and other troops).

After a series of anti-Napoleonic wars, the Russian Empire remained in international isolation by the beginning of the Patriotic War, also experiencing financial and economic difficulties. In the two pre-war years, its expenses for the needs of the army amounted to more than half of the state budget. Russian troops on the western borders had about 220 thousand people and 942 guns. They were deployed in 3 groups: the 1st Ignite Army (infantry general; 6 infantry, 2 cavalry and 1 Cossack corps; about 128 thousand people, 558 guns) constituted the main forces and was located between Rossieny (now Raseiniai, Lithuania) and Lida; The 2nd Western Army (infantry general; 2 infantry, 1 cavalry corps and 9 Cossack regiments; about 49 thousand people, 216 guns) concentrated between the Neman and Bug rivers; The 3rd Western Army (cavalry general A.P. Tormasov; 3 infantry, 1 cavalry corps and 9 Cossack regiments; 43 thousand people, 168 guns) was stationed in the Lutsk area. Located in the Riga area separate building(18.5 thousand people) Lieutenant General I. N. Essen. The nearest reserves (the corps of Lieutenant General P.I. Meller-Zakomelsky and Lieutenant General F.F. Ertel) were located in the areas of the cities of Toropets and Mozyr. In the south, in Podolia, the Danube Army (about 30 thousand people) of Admiral P.V. Chichagov was concentrated. The leadership of all armies was carried out by the emperor, who was with his main apartment at the 1st Western Army. The commander-in-chief was not appointed, but Barclay de Tolly, being the Minister of War, had the right to give orders on behalf of the emperor. The Russian armies stretched out on a front stretching over 600 km, and the main forces of the enemy - 300 km. This put Russian troops in a difficult position. By the beginning of the enemy invasion, Alexander I accepted the plan proposed by his military adviser, the Prussian general K. Fuhl. According to his plan, the 1st Western Army, having retreated from the border, was supposed to take refuge in a fortified camp, and the 2nd Western Army would go to the flank and rear of the enemy.

According to the nature of military events in the Patriotic War, 2 periods are distinguished. 1st period - from the invasion of French troops on June 12 (24) to October 5 (17) - includes defensive actions, the flank Tarutino march-maneuver Russian troops, their preparation for the offensive and guerrilla operations on enemy communications. 2nd period - from the transition of the Russian army to a counteroffensive on October 6 (18) to the defeat of the enemy and the complete liberation of Russian land on December 14 (26).

The pretext for the attack on the Russian Empire was Alexander I’s alleged violation of the main, in the opinion of Napoleon I, provision - “to be in an eternal alliance with France and in the war with England,” which manifested itself in the sabotage of the continental blockade by the Russian Empire. On June 10 (22), Napoleon I, through the ambassador in St. Petersburg J. A. Lauriston, officially declared war on Russia, and on June 12 (24), the French army began crossing the Neman across 4 bridges (near Kovno and other cities). Having received news of the invasion of French troops, Alexander I attempted to resolve the conflict peacefully, calling on the French emperor to “withdraw his troops from Russian territory.” However, Napoleon I rejected this proposal.

Under pressure from superior enemy forces, the 1st and 2nd Western armies began to retreat into the interior of the country. The 1st Western Army left Vilna and retreated to the Drissa camp (near the city of Drissa, now Verhnedvinsk, Belarus), increasing the gap with the 2nd Western Army to 200 km. The main enemy forces rushed into it on June 26 (July 8), occupying Minsk and creating the threat of defeating the Russian armies one by one. The 1st and 2nd Western Armies, intending to unite, retreated in converging directions: the 1st Western Army from Drissa through Polotsk to Vitebsk (to cover the St. Petersburg direction, the corps of Lieutenant General, from November General of Infantry P.Kh. Wittgenstein), and the 2nd Western Army from Slonim to Nesvizh, Bobruisk, Mstislavl.

The war shook up the entire Russian society: peasants, merchants, commoners. By mid-summer, self-defense units began to spontaneously form in the occupied territory to protect their villages from French raids. foragers and marauders (see Looting). Having assessed the significance, the Russian military command took measures to expand and organize it. For this purpose, army partisan detachments were created in the 1st and 2nd Western armies on the basis of regular troops. In addition, according to the manifesto of Emperor Alexander I of July 6 (18), recruitment was carried out in Central Russia and the Volga region. civil uprising. He led its creation, acquisition, financing and supply Special department. Made a significant contribution to the fight against foreign invaders Orthodox Church, which called on the people to protect their state and religious shrines, collecting about 2.5 million rubles for the needs of the Russian army (from the church treasury and as a result of donations from parishioners).

On July 8 (20), the French occupied Mogilev and did not allow the Russian armies to unite in the Orsha region. Only thanks to persistent rearguard battles and maneuver did the Russian armies unite near Smolensk on July 22 (August 3). By this time, Wittgenstein’s corps had retreated to a line north of Polotsk and, having pinned down the enemy’s forces, weakened his main group. The 3rd Western Army, after the battles on July 15 (27) near Kobrin, and on July 31 (August 12) near Gorodechnaya (now both cities are in the Brest region, Belarus), where it inflicted great damage on the enemy, defended itself on the river. Styr.

The beginning of the war upset the strategic plan of Napoleon I. The Grand Army lost up to 150 thousand people killed, wounded, sick and deserters. Its combat effectiveness and discipline began to decline, and the pace of the offensive slowed down. On July 17 (29), Napoleon I was forced to give the order to stop his army for 7-8 days in the area from Velizh to Mogilev to rest and await the arrival of reserves and rear forces. Submitting to the will of Alexander I, who demanded active action, the military council of the 1st and 2nd Western armies decided to take advantage of the dispersed position of the enemy and break the front of his main forces with a counterattack in the direction of Rudnya and Porechye (now the city of Demidov). On July 26 (August 7), Russian troops launched a counteroffensive, but due to poor organization and lack of coordination, it did not bring the expected results. Napoleon I used the battles that ensued near Rudnya and Porechye to suddenly transport his troops across the Dnieper, threatening to capture Smolensk. The troops of the 1st and 2nd Western armies began to retreat to Smolensk in order to reach the Moscow road before the enemy. During the Battle of Smolensk in 1812, the Russian armies, through active defense and skillful maneuver of reserves, managed to avoid a general battle imposed by Napoleon I in unfavorable conditions and on the night of August 6 (18) retreat to Dorogobuzh. The enemy continued to advance on Moscow.

The duration of the retreat caused grumbling among the soldiers and officers of the Russian army, general discontent in Russian society. The departure from Smolensk exacerbated hostile relations between P. I. Bagration and M. B. Barclay de Tolly. This forced Alexander I to establish the post of commander-in-chief of all active Russian armies and appoint to it the infantry general (from August 19 (31) Field Marshal General) M. I. Kutuzov, the head of the St. Petersburg and Moscow militias. Kutuzov arrived in the army on August 17 (29) and took over the main command.

Having found a position near Tsarev Zaymishcha (now a village in the Vyazemsky district of the Smolensk region), where Barclay de Tolly on August 19 (31) intended to give the enemy a battle that was unfavorable and the army’s forces were insufficient, Kutuzov withdrew his troops to several crossings to the east and stopped in front of Mozhaisk, near the village Borodino, on a field that made it possible to position troops advantageously and block the Old and New Smolensk roads. The arriving reserves under the command of the general from infantry, the Moscow and Smolensk militias made it possible to increase the forces of the Russian army to 132 thousand people and 624 guns. Napoleon I had a force of about 135 thousand people and 587 guns. Neither side achieved its goals: Napoleon I was unable to defeat the Russian army, Kutuzov was unable to block the path of the Great Army to Moscow. The Napoleonic army, having lost about 50 thousand people (according to French data, over 30 thousand people) and most of the cavalry, turned out to be seriously weakened. Kutuzov, having received information about the losses of the Russian army (44 thousand people), refused to continue the battle and gave the order to retreat.

By retreating to Moscow, he hoped to partially make up for the losses suffered and fight a new battle. But the position chosen by cavalry general L.L. Bennigsen near the walls of Moscow turned out to be extremely unfavorable. Considering that the first actions of the partisans showed high efficiency, Kutuzov ordered to take them under the control of the Main Staff of the army, entrusting their leadership to the duty general of staff, General-L. P. P. Konovnitsyna. At a military council in the village of Fili (now within the boundaries of Moscow) on September 1 (13), Kutuzov ordered to leave Moscow without a fight. Most of the population left the city along with the troops. On the very first day the French entered Moscow, fires began, lasting until September 8 (20) and devastating the city. While the French were in Moscow, partisan detachments surrounded the city in an almost continuous mobile ring, not allowing enemy foragers to move further than 15-30 km from it. The most active were the actions of the army partisan detachments, I. S. Dorokhov, A. N. Seslavin and A. S. Figner.

Leaving Moscow, Russian troops retreated along the Ryazan road. After walking 30 km, they crossed the Moscow River and turned west. Then, with a forced march, they crossed to the Tula road and on September 6 (18) concentrated in the Podolsk area. After 3 days they were already on the Kaluga road and on September 9 (21) they stopped at a camp near the village of Krasnaya Pakhra (since July 1, 2012, within Moscow). Having completed 2 more transitions, Russian troops concentrated on September 21 (October 3) near the village of Tarutino (now a village in the Zhukovsky district of the Kaluga region). As a result of a skillfully organized and executed marching maneuver, they broke away from the enemy and took up an advantageous position for a counterattack.

The active participation of the population in the partisan movement turned the war from a confrontation between regular armies into a people's war. The main forces of the Great Army and all its communications from Moscow to Smolensk were under the threat of attacks from Russian troops. The French lost their freedom of maneuver and activity. The routes to the provinces south of Moscow that were not devastated by the war were closed to them. The “small war” launched by Kutuzov further complicated the enemy’s position. Bold operations of army and peasant partisan detachments disrupted the supply of French troops. Realizing the critical situation, Napoleon I sent General J. Lauriston to the headquarters of the Russian commander-in-chief with peace proposals addressed to Alexander I. Kutuzov rejected them, saying that the war was just beginning and would not stop until the enemy was completely expelled from Russia.

The Russian army located in the Tarutino camp reliably covered the south of the country: Kaluga with military reserves concentrated there, Tula and Bryansk with weapons and foundries. At the same time, reliable communications were ensured with the 3rd Western and Danube armies. In the Tarutino camp, the troops were reorganized, re-equipped (their number was increased to 120 thousand people), and supplied with weapons, ammunition and food. There was now 2 times more artillery than the enemy, and 3.5 times more cavalry. The provincial militia numbered 100 thousand people. They covered Moscow in a semicircle along the line Klin, Kolomna, Aleksin. Under Tarutin, M.I. Kutuzov developed a plan for encircling and defeating the Great Army in the area between the Western Dvina and Dnieper rivers with the main forces of the active army, the Danube Army of P.V. Chichagov and the corps of P.H. Wittgenstein.

The first blow was struck on October 6 (18) against the vanguard of the French army on the Chernishnya River (Battle of Tarutino 1812). The troops of Marshal I. Murat lost 2.5 thousand killed and 2 thousand prisoners in this battle. Napoleon I was forced to leave Moscow on October 7 (19), and advanced detachments of Russian troops entered it on October 10 (22). The French lost about 5 thousand people and began to retreat along the Old Smolensk Road, which they had destroyed. The Tarutino battle and the battle of Maloyaroslavets marked a radical turning point in the war. The strategic initiative finally passed into the hands of the Russian command. Fighting From that time on, Russian troops and partisans acquired an active character and included such methods of armed struggle as parallel pursuit and encirclement of enemy troops. The persecution was carried out in several directions: a detachment of Major General P.V. Golenishchev-Kutuzov operated north of the Smolensk road; along the Smolensk road - the Cossack regiments of the cavalry general; south of the Smolensk road - the vanguard of M. A. Miloradovich and the main forces of the Russian army. Having overtaken the enemy's rearguard near Vyazma, Russian troops defeated him on October 22 (November 3) - the French lost about 8.5 thousand people killed, wounded and captured, then in battles near Dorogobuzh, near Dukhovshchina, near the village of Lyakhovo (now Glinsky district of Smolensk region) - more than 10 thousand people.

The surviving part of Napoleon's army retreated to Smolensk, but there were no food supplies or reserves there. Napoleon I hastily began to withdraw his troops further. But in the battles near Krasnoye and then near Molodechno, Russian troops defeated the French. Scattered enemy units retreated to the river along the road to Borisov. The 3rd Western Army was approaching there to join the corps of P.H. Wittgenstein. Her troops occupied Minsk on November 4 (16), and on November 9 (21), P. V. Chichagov’s army approached Borisov and, after a battle with the detachment of General Ya. Kh. Dombrovsky, occupied the city and the right bank of the Berezina. Wittgenstein's corps, after a stubborn battle with the French corps of Marshal L. Saint-Cyr, captured Polotsk on October 8 (20). Having crossed the Western Dvina, Russian troops occupied Lepel (now Vitebsk region, Belarus) and defeated the French at Chashniki. With the approach of Russian troops to the Berezina, a “sack” was formed in the Borisov area, in which the retreating French troops were surrounded. However, Wittgenstein's indecision and Chichagov's mistakes made it possible for Napoleon I to prepare a crossing across the Berezina and avoid the complete destruction of his army. Having reached Smorgon (now Grodno region, Belarus), on November 23 (December 5), Napoleon I left for Paris, and the remnants of his army were almost completely destroyed.

On December 14 (26), Russian troops occupied Bialystok and Brest-Litovsk (now Brest), completing the liberation of the territory of the Russian Empire. On December 21, 1812 (January 2, 1813), M.I. Kutuzov, in an order to the army, congratulated the troops on expelling the enemy from the country and called on “to complete the defeat of the enemy on his own fields.”

The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 preserved the independence of Russia, and the defeat of the Great Army not only dealt a crushing blow to the military power of Napoleonic France, but also played a decisive role in the liberation of a number of European states from French expansion, strengthened the liberation struggle of the Spanish people, etc. As a result of the Russian army in 1813 -14 and the liberation struggle of the peoples of Europe collapsed Napoleonic Empire. The victory in the Patriotic War was at the same time used to strengthen autocracy both in the Russian Empire and in Europe. Alexander I headed the Holy Alliance created by European monarchs, whose activities were aimed at suppressing revolutionary, republican and liberation movement in Europe. The Napoleonic army lost over 500 thousand people in Russia, all the cavalry and almost all the artillery (only the corps of J. MacDonald and K. Schwarzenberg survived); Russian troops - about 300 thousand people.

Patriotic War 1812 is distinguished by its large spatial scope, tension, and variety of strategic and tactical forms of armed struggle. The military art of Napoleon I, which surpassed that of all the armies of Europe at that time, collapsed in a clash with the Russian army. Russian strategy surpassed Napoleonic strategy, designed for a short-term campaign. M.I. Kutuzov skillfully used the popular nature of the war and, taking into account political and strategic factors, implemented his plan to fight the Napoleonic army. The experience of the Patriotic War contributed to the consolidation of column and loose formation tactics in the actions of troops, increasing the role of aimed fire, improving the interaction of infantry, cavalry and artillery; The form of organization of military formations - divisions and corps - was firmly established. The reserve became an integral part of the battle formation, and the role of artillery in battle increased.

The Patriotic War of 1812 occupies an important place in the history of Russia. She demonstrated the unity of all classes in the fight against foreigners. aggression, was the most important factor in the formation of Russian self-awareness. people. Under the influence of the victory over Napoleon I, the ideology of the Decembrists began to take shape. The experience of the war was summarized in the works of domestic and foreign military historians; the patriotism of the Russian people and army inspired the creativity of Russian writers, artists, and composers. The victory in the Patriotic War was associated with the construction of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow and numerous churches throughout the Russian Empire; military trophies were kept in the Kazan Cathedral. The events of the Patriotic War are captured in numerous monuments on the Borodino field, in Maloyaroslavets and Tarutino, reflected in triumphal arches in Moscow and St. Petersburg, paintings of the Winter Palace, the panorama “Battle of Borodino” in Moscow, etc. A huge amount of memoir literature has been preserved about the Patriotic War.

Additional literature:

Akhsharumov D.I. Description of the War of 1812. St. Petersburg, 1819;

Buturlin D.P. The history of Emperor Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812. 2nd ed. St. Petersburg, 1837-1838. Part 1-2;

Okunev N.A. Discourse on the great military actions, battles and battles that took place during the invasion of Russia in 1812. 2nd ed. St. Petersburg, 1841;

Mikhailovsky-Danilevsky A.I. Description of the Patriotic War of 1812. 3rd ed. St. Petersburg, 1843;

Bogdanovich M.I. History of the Patriotic War of 1812 according to reliable sources. St. Petersburg, 1859-1860. T. 1-3;

Patriotic War of 1812: Materials of the Military Scientific Archive. Dept. 1-2. St. Petersburg, 1900-1914. [Vol. 1-22];

Patriotic War and Russian society, 1812-1912. M., 1911-1912. T. 1-7;

Great Patriotic War: 1812 St. Petersburg, 1912;

Zhilin P.A. Counter-offensive of the Russian army in 1812. 2nd ed. M., 1953;

aka. The death of Napoleonic army in Russia. 2nd ed. M., 1974;

aka. Patriotic War of 1812. 3rd ed. M., 1988;

M.I. Kutuzov: [Documents and materials]. M., 1954-1955. T. 4. Parts 1-2;

1812: Sat. articles. M., 1962;

Babkin V.I. People's militia in the Patriotic War of 1812. M., 1962;

Beskrovny L.G. Patriotic War of 1812. M., 1962;

Korneychik E.I. Belarusian people in the Patriotic War of 1812, Minsk, 1962;

Sirotkin V.G. Duel of two diplomacy: Russia and France in 1801-1812. M., 1966;

aka. Alexander the First and Napoleon: a duel on the eve of the war. M., 2012;

Tartakovsky A.G. 1812 and Russian memoirs: Experience in source study. M., 1980;

Abalikhin B.S., Dunaevsky V.A. 1812 at the crossroads of the opinions of Soviet historians, 1917-1987. M., 1990;

1812. Memoirs of soldiers of the Russian army: From the collection of the Department of Written Sources of the State Historical Museum. M., 1991;

Tarle E.V. Napoleon's invasion of Russia, 1812. M., 1992;

aka. 1812: El. works. M., 1994;

1812 in the memoirs of contemporaries. M., 1995;

Gulyaev Yu.N., Soglaev V.T. Field Marshal Kutuzov: [Historical and biographical sketch]. M., 1995;

Russian archive: History of the Fatherland in evidence and documents of the 18th-20th centuries. M., 1996. Issue. 7;

Kircheisen F. Napoleon I: In 2 vols. M., 1997;

Chandler D. Napoleon's military campaigns: The triumph and tragedy of the conqueror. M., 1999;

Sokolov O.V. Napoleon's army. St. Petersburg, 1999;

Shein I.A. The War of 1812 in Russian historiography. M., 2002.

The outbreak of the Patriotic War of 1812 was caused by Napoleon's desire for world domination. In Europe, only Russia and England maintained their independence. Despite the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia continued to oppose the expansion of Napoleonic aggression. Napoleon was especially irritated by her systematic violation of the continental blockade. Since 1810, both sides, realizing the inevitability of a new clash, were preparing for war. Napoleon flooded the Duchy of Warsaw with his troops and created military warehouses there. The threat of invasion looms over Russia's borders. In turn, the Russian government increased the number of troops in the western provinces.

Napoleon became the aggressor

He began military operations and invaded Russian territory. In this regard, for the Russian people the war became a liberation and Patriotic war, since not only the regular army, but also the broad masses of the people took part in it.

Balance of power

In preparation for the war against Russia, Napoleon gathered a significant army - up to 678 thousand soldiers. These were perfectly armed and trained troops, seasoned in previous wars. They were led by a galaxy of brilliant marshals and generals - L. Davout, L. Berthier, M. Ney, I. Murat and others. They were commanded by the most famous commander of that time - Napoleon Bonaparte. The weak point of his army was its motley national composition. The aggressive plans of the French emperor were deeply alien to the German and Spanish, Polish and Portuguese, Austrian and Italian soldiers.

Active preparations for the war that Russia had been waging since 1810 brought results. She managed to create modern armed forces for that time, powerful artillery, which, as it turned out during the war, was superior to the French. The troops were led by talented military leaders - M. I. Kutuzov, M. B. Barclay de Tolly, P. I. Bagration, A. P. Ermolov, N. N. Raevsky, M. A. Miloradovich and others. They were distinguished by extensive military experience and personal courage. The advantage of the Russian army was determined by the patriotic enthusiasm of all segments of the population, large human resources, food and fodder reserves.

However, on initial stage During the war, the French army outnumbered the Russian one. The first echelon of troops that entered Russia numbered 450 thousand people, while the Russians on the western border were about 210 thousand people, divided into three armies. The 1st - under the command of M.B. Barclay de Tolly - covered the St. Petersburg direction, the 2nd - led by P.I. Bagration - defended the center of Russia, the 3rd - under General A.P. Tormasov - was located in the southern direction .

Plans of the parties

Napoleon planned to seize a significant part of Russian territory up to Moscow and sign a new treaty with Alexander to subjugate Russia. Napoleon's strategic plan was based on his military experience acquired during the wars in Europe. He intended to prevent the dispersed Russian forces from uniting and deciding the outcome of the war in one or more border battles.

Even on the eve of the war, the Russian emperor and his entourage decided not to make any compromises with Napoleon. If the clash was successful, they intended to transfer military operations to the territory Western Europe. In case of defeat, Alexander was ready to retreat to Siberia (all the way to Kamchatka, according to him) to continue the fight from there. Russia had several strategic military plans. One of them was developed by the Prussian General Fuhl. It provided for the concentration of most of the Russian army in a fortified camp near the city of Drissa on the Western Dvina. According to Fuhl, this gave an advantage in the first border battle. The project remained unrealized, since the position on Drissa was unfavorable and the fortifications were weak. In addition, the balance of forces forced Russian command At first, choose a strategy of active defense. As the course of the war showed, this was the most correct decision.

Stages of the war

The history of the Patriotic War of 1812 is divided into two stages. First: from June 12 to mid-October - the retreat of the Russian army with rearguard battles in order to lure the enemy deep into Russian territory and disrupt his strategic plan. Second: from mid-October to December 25 - a counter-offensive of the Russian army with the goal of completely expelling the enemy from Russia.

Start of the war

On the morning of June 12, 1812, French troops crossed the Neman and invaded Russia by forced march.

The 1st and 2nd Russian armies retreated, avoiding a general battle. They fought stubborn rearguard battles with individual units of the French, exhausting and weakening the enemy, inflicting significant losses on him.

The Russian troops faced two main tasks - to eliminate disunity (not to allow themselves to be defeated individually) and to establish unity of command in the army. The first task was solved on July 22, when the 1st and 2nd armies united near Smolensk. Thus, Napoleon's original plan was thwarted. On August 8, Alexander appointed M.I. Kutuzov Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army. This meant solving the second problem. M.I. Kutuzov took command of the combined Russian forces on August 17. He did not change his retreat tactics. However, the army and the whole country expected a decisive battle from him. Therefore, he gave the order to look for a position for a general battle. She was found near the village of Borodino, 124 km from Moscow.

battle of Borodino

M.I. Kutuzov chose defensive tactics and deployed his troops in accordance with this. The left flank was defended by the army of P.I. Bagration, covered by artificial earthen fortifications - flushes. In the center there was an earthen mound where the artillery and troops of General N.N. Raevsky were located. The army of M.B. Barclay de Tolly was on the right flank.

Napoleon adhered to offensive tactics. He intended to break through the defenses of the Russian army on the flanks, encircle it and completely defeat it.

The balance of forces was almost equal: the French had 130 thousand people with 587 guns, the Russians had 110 thousand regular forces, about 40 thousand militias and Cossacks with 640 guns.

Early in the morning of August 26, the French launched an offensive on the left flank. The fight for flushes lasted until 12 noon. Both sides suffered huge losses. General P.I. Bagration was seriously wounded. (He died from his wounds a few days later.) Taking the flushes did not bring any particular advantages to the French, since they were unable to break through the left flank. The Russians retreated in an organized manner and took up a position near the Semenovsky ravine.

At the same time, the situation in the center, where Napoleon directed the main attack, became more complicated. To help the troops of General N.N. Raevsky, M.I. Kutuzov ordered the Cossacks of M.I. Platov and the cavalry corps of F.P. Uvarov to carry out a raid behind French lines. The sabotage, which was not very successful in itself, forced Napoleon to interrupt the assault on the battery for almost 2 hours. This allowed M.I. Kutuzov to bring fresh forces to the center. The battery of N.N. Raevsky changed hands several times and was captured by the French only at 16:00.

The capture of Russian fortifications did not mean Napoleon's victory. On the contrary, the offensive impulse of the French army dried up. She needed fresh forces, but Napoleon did not dare to use his last reserve - the imperial guard. The battle, which lasted more than 12 hours, gradually subsided. The losses on both sides were enormous. Borodino was a moral and political victory for the Russians: the combat potential of the Russian army was preserved, while Napoleonic's was significantly weakened. Far from France, in the vast Russian expanses, it was difficult to restore it.

From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets

After Borodino, Russian troops began to retreat to Moscow. Napoleon followed, but did not strive for a new battle. On September 1, a military council of the Russian command took place in the village of Fili. M.I. Kutuzov, contrary to the general opinion of the generals, decided to leave Moscow. The French army entered it on September 2, 1812.

M.I. Kutuzov, withdrawing troops from Moscow, carried out the original plan - Tarutinsky march maneuver. Retreating from Moscow along the Ryazan road, the army turned sharply to the south and in the Krasnaya Pakhra area reached the old Kaluga road. This maneuver, firstly, prevented the French from seizing the Kaluga and Tula provinces, where ammunition and food were collected. Secondly, M.I. Kutuzov managed to break away from Napoleon’s army. He set up a camp in Tarutino, where the Russian troops rested and were replenished with fresh regular units, militia, weapons and food supplies.

The occupation of Moscow did not benefit Napoleon. Abandoned by the inhabitants (an unprecedented case in history), it burned in the fire. There was no food or other supplies in it. The French army was completely demoralized and turned into a bunch of robbers and marauders. Its decomposition was so strong that Napoleon had only two options - either immediately make peace or begin a retreat. But all the peace proposals of the French emperor were unconditionally rejected by M. I. Kutuzov and Alexander I.

On October 7, the French left Moscow. Napoleon still hoped to defeat the Russians or at least break into the unravaged southern regions, since the issue of providing the army with food and fodder was very acute. He moved his troops to Kaluga. On October 12, another bloody battle took place near the town of Maloyaroslavets. Once again, neither side achieved a decisive victory. However, the French were stopped and forced to retreat along the Smolensk road they had destroyed.

Expulsion of Napoleon from Russia

The retreat of the French army looked like a disorderly flight. He was accelerated by the unfolding partisan movement and Russian offensive actions.

The patriotic upsurge began literally immediately after Napoleon entered Russia. Robbery and looting French. The Russian soldiers provoked resistance from local residents. But this was not the main thing - the Russian people could not put up with the presence of invaders on their native land. Names go down in history ordinary people(G. M. Kurin, E. V. Chetvertakov, V. Kozhina), who organized partisan detachments. “Flying detachments” of regular army soldiers led by career officers (A.S. Figner, D.V. Davydov, A.N. Seslavin, etc.) were also sent to the French rear.

At the final stage of the war, M.I. Kutuzov chose the tactics of parallel pursuit. He took care of every Russian soldier and understood that the enemy’s forces were melting every day. The final defeat of Napoleon was planned near the city of Borisov. For this purpose, troops were brought up from the south and north-west. Serious damage was inflicted on the French near the city of Krasny in early November, when more than half of the 50 thousand people of the retreating army were captured or died in battle. Fearing encirclement, Napoleon hastened to transport his troops across the Berezina River on November 14-17. The battle at the crossing completed the defeat of the French army. Napoleon abandoned her and secretly left for Paris. The order of M.I. Kutuzov on the army of December 21 and the Tsar's Manifesto of December 25, 1812 marked the end of the Patriotic War.

The meaning of war

Patriotic War of 1812 - greatest event in Russian history. During its course, heroism, courage, patriotism and selfless love of all layers of society and especially ordinary people for their Motherland were clearly demonstrated. However, the war caused significant damage to the Russian economy, which was estimated at 1 billion rubles. During the hostilities, about 300 thousand people died. Many western regions were devastated. All this had a huge impact on further internal development Russia.

Causes and nature of the war. The outbreak of the Patriotic War of 1812 was caused by Napoleon's desire for world domination. In Europe, only Russia and England maintained their independence. Despite the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia continued to oppose the expansion of Napoleonic aggression. Napoleon was especially irritated by her systematic violation of the continental blockade. Since 1810, both sides, realizing the inevitability of a new clash, were preparing for war. Napoleon flooded the Duchy of Warsaw with his troops and created military warehouses there. The threat of invasion looms over Russia's borders. In turn, the Russian government increased the number of troops in the western provinces.

Napoleon became the aggressor. He began military operations and invaded Russian territory. In this regard, for the Russian people the war became a liberation and Patriotic war, since not only the regular army, but also the broad masses of the people took part in it.

Correlation of forces. In preparation for the war against Russia, Napoleon gathered a significant army - up to 678 thousand soldiers. These were perfectly armed and trained troops, seasoned in previous wars. They were led by a galaxy of brilliant marshals and generals - L. Davout, L. Berthier, M. Ney, I. Murat and others. They were commanded by the most famous commander of that time - Napoleon Bonaparte. The weak point of his army was its motley national composition. The aggressive plans of the French emperor were deeply alien to the German and Spanish, Polish and Portuguese, Austrian and Italian soldiers.

However, at the initial stage of the war, the French army outnumbered the Russian one. The first echelon of troops that entered Russia numbered 450 thousand people, while the Russians on the western border were about 210 thousand people, divided into three armies. The 1st - under the command of M.B. Barclay de Tolly - covered the St. Petersburg direction, the 2nd - led by P.I. Bagration - defended the center of Russia, the 3rd - under General A.P. Tormasov - was located in the southern direction .

Plans of the parties. Napoleon planned to seize a significant part of Russian territory up to Moscow and sign a new treaty with Alexander to subjugate Russia. Napoleon's strategic plan was based on his military experience acquired during the wars in Europe. He intended to prevent the dispersed Russian forces from uniting and deciding the outcome of the war in one or more border battles.

Even on the eve of the war, the Russian emperor and his entourage decided not to make any compromises with Napoleon. If the clash was successful, they intended to transfer hostilities to the territory of Western Europe. In case of defeat, Alexander was ready to retreat to Siberia (all the way to Kamchatka, according to him) to continue the fight from there. Russia had several strategic military plans. One of them was developed by the Prussian General Fuhl. It provided for the concentration of most of the Russian army in a fortified camp near the city of Drissa on the Western Dvina. According to Fuhl, this gave an advantage in the first border battle. The project remained unrealized, since the position on Drissa was unfavorable and the fortifications were weak. In addition, the balance of forces forced the Russian command to initially choose a strategy of active defense. As the course of the war showed, this was the most correct decision.

Stages of war. The history of the Patriotic War of 1812 is divided into two stages. First: from June 12 to mid-October - the retreat of the Russian army with rearguard battles in order to lure the enemy deep into Russian territory and disrupt his strategic plan. Second: from mid-October to December 25 - a counter-offensive of the Russian army with the goal of completely expelling the enemy from Russia.

The beginning of the war. On the morning of June 12, 1812, French troops crossed the Neman and invaded Russia by forced march.

battle of Borodino. M.I. Kutuzov chose defensive tactics and deployed his troops in accordance with this. The left flank was defended by the army of P.I. Bagration, covered by artificial earthen fortifications - flushes. In the center there was an earthen mound where the artillery and troops of General N.N. Raevsky were located. The army of M.B. Barclay de Tolly was on the right flank.

Napoleon adhered to offensive tactics. He intended to break through the defenses of the Russian army on the flanks, encircle it and completely defeat it.

The balance of forces was almost equal: the French had 130 thousand people with 587 guns, the Russians had 110 thousand regular forces, about 40 thousand militias and Cossacks with 640 guns.

From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets. After Borodino, Russian troops began to retreat to Moscow. Napoleon followed, but did not strive for a new battle. On September 1, a military council of the Russian command took place in the village of Fili. M.I. Kutuzov, contrary to the general opinion of the generals, decided to leave Moscow. The French army entered it on September 2, 1812.

M.I. Kutuzov, withdrawing troops from Moscow, carried out an original plan - the Tarutino march-maneuver. Retreating from Moscow along the Ryazan road, the army turned sharply to the south and in the Krasnaya Pakhra area reached the old Kaluga road. This maneuver, firstly, prevented the French from seizing the Kaluga and Tula provinces, where ammunition and food were collected. Secondly, M.I. Kutuzov managed to break away from Napoleon’s army. He set up a camp in Tarutino, where the Russian troops rested and were replenished with fresh regular units, militia, weapons and food supplies.

Expulsion of Napoleon from Russia. The retreat of the French army looked like a disorderly flight. It was accelerated by the unfolding partisan movement and the offensive actions of the Russians.

The patriotic upsurge began literally immediately after Napoleon entered Russia. Robbery and looting French. The Russian soldiers provoked resistance from local residents. But this was not the main thing - the Russian people could not put up with the presence of invaders on their native land. History includes the names of ordinary people (G. M. Kurin, E. V. Chetvertakov, V. Kozhina) who organized partisan detachments. “Flying detachments” of regular army soldiers led by career officers (A.S. Figner, D.V. Davydov, A.N. Seslavin, etc.) were also sent to the French rear.

The meaning of war. The Patriotic War of 1812 is the greatest event in Russian history. During its course, heroism, courage, patriotism and selfless love of all layers of society and especially ordinary people for their Motherland were clearly demonstrated. However, the war caused significant damage to the Russian economy, which was estimated at 1 billion rubles. During the hostilities, about 300 thousand people died. Many western regions were devastated. All this had a huge impact on the further internal development of Russia.

46. Internal policy of Russia 1812 – 1825. Decembrist movement

The Patriotic War of 1812, the reasons for which were Napoleon’s desire to dominate the whole world by capturing all states, became a significant milestone in the history of our country. At that time, of all the European countries, only Russia and England continued to maintain independence. Napoleon felt particular irritation towards to the Russian state, which continues to oppose the expansion of its aggression and systematically violate

Entering into confrontation with the French, Russia acted as the intercessor of the monarchical states of Europe.

They had been preparing for war since 1810. Russia and France understood that military action was inevitable.

The French emperor sent troops to create weapons depots there. Russia felt threatened and began to increase the size of the army in the western provinces.

The Patriotic War of 1812 began with Napoleon's invasion on June 12. The 600,000-strong French army crossed the Neman.

Together with that Russian government developed a plan to resist the invaders. It was created by the theoretician Ful. According to the plan, the entire Russian army was composed of three parts. Bagration, Tormasov, and Barclay de Tolly were chosen as commanders. According to Fuhl's assumption, the Russian troops were supposed to retreat to fortified positions systematically and, having united, repulse the onslaught of the French. However, the Patriotic War of 1812 began to develop differently. The Russian army was retreating, and Napoleon was approaching Moscow. Despite Russian resistance, the French soon found themselves close to the capital.

The situation that began to develop required immediate action. Kutuzov took over the post of commander-in-chief of the Russian troops on August 20.

The general battle took place on August 26 near the village of Battle). This battle was the bloodiest one-day battle in the entire history of the country. There was no winner in this battle. But there were no losers either. However, after assessing the situation, Kutuzov decides to retreat after the battle. It was decided to give up Moscow without a fight. All residents were removed from the capital, and the city itself was burned.

On September 2, Napoleonic soldiers entered Moscow. The French commander-in-chief assumed that the Muscovites would bring him the keys to the city. But the city was burned, all the barns with ammunition and provisions burned down.

The next battle took place near Maloyaroslavets. There were fierce battles, during which the French army wavered. Napoleon had to retreat along the same road along which he came (along Old Smolenskaya).

The next battles took place near Krasnoye, Vyazma, near the crossing of the Berezina. Russian army drove the French out of her land. Thus, the Napoleonic invasion of Russia ended.

The Patriotic War of 1812 ended on December 23, about which Alexander 1 signed a manifesto. However, the Napoleonic campaign continued. The battles continued until 1814.

Patriotic War of 1812. Results

Military operations at that time began in Russia. This war caused a surge in the national consciousness of the Russian people. Absolutely the entire population, regardless of age, took part in the battle with Napoleon.

Victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 confirmed Russian heroism and courage. This battle gave birth to the stories of great people: Kutuzov, Raevsky, Bagration, Tormasov and others whose names will forever be remembered in history. The war with the Napoleonic army was the clearest example self-sacrifice of the people in the name of saving their homeland.

The fire of European wars increasingly engulfed Europe. IN early XIX century, Russia was also involved in this struggle. The result of this intervention was the unsuccessful foreign wars with Napoleon and the Patriotic War of 1812.

Causes of the war

After the defeat of the Fourth Anti-French Coalition by Napoleon on June 25, 1807, the Treaty of Tilsit was concluded between France and Russia. The conclusion of peace forced Russia to join the participants in the continental blockade of England. However, neither country was going to comply with the terms of the treaty.

The main causes of the War of 1812:

The Peace of Tilsit was economically unprofitable for Russia, so the government of Alexander I decided to trade with England through neutral countries.
The policy pursued by Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte towards Prussia was to the detriment of Russian interests; French troops concentrated on the border with Russia, also contrary to the provisions of the Tilsit Treaty.
After Alexander I did not agree to give his consent to the marriage of his sister Anna Pavlovna with Napoleon, relations between Russia and France deteriorated sharply.

At the end of 1811, the bulk of the Russian army was deployed against the war with Turkey. By May 1812, thanks to the genius of M.I. Kutuzov, the military conflict was resolved. Türkiye curtailed its military expansion in the East, and Serbia gained independence.

Start of the war

By the beginning of the Great Patriotic War of 1812-1814, Napoleon managed to concentrate up to 645 thousand troops on the border with Russia. His army included Prussian, Spanish, Italian, Dutch and Polish units.

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The Russian troops, despite all the objections of the generals, were divided into three armies and located far from each other. The first army under the command of Barclay de Tolly numbered 127 thousand people, the second army, led by Bagration, had 49 thousand bayonets and sabers. And finally, in the third army of General Tormasov, there were about 45 thousand soldiers.

Napoleon decided to immediately take advantage of the mistake Russian Emperor, namely, with a sudden blow, to defeat the two main armies of Barclay de Toll and Bagration in border battles, preventing them from uniting and moving at an accelerated march to defenseless Moscow.

At five in the morning on June 12, 1821, the French army (about 647 thousand) began to cross the Russian border.

Rice. 1. Crossing of Napoleonic troops across the Neman.

The numerical superiority of the French army allowed Napoleon to immediately take the military initiative into his own hands. The Russian army did not yet have a universal conscription and the army was replenished from outdated recruitment kits. Alexander I, who was in Polotsk, issued a Manifesto on July 6, 1812 calling for the collection of a general people's militia. As a result of the timely implementation of such domestic policy Alexander I, different layers began to rapidly flock into the ranks of the militia Russian population. Nobles were allowed to arm their serfs and join the ranks of the regular army with them. The war immediately began to be called “Patriotic”. The manifesto also regulated the partisan movement.

Progress of military operations. Main events

The strategic situation required the immediate merging of the two Russian armies into a single whole under a common command. Napoleon’s task was the opposite - to prevent the union Russian forces and defeat them as quickly as possible in two or three border battles.

The following table shows the course of the main chronological events of the Patriotic War of 1812:

*date*	*Event*	*Content*
June 12, 1812	Invasion of Napoleon's troops into the Russian Empire	Napoleon seized the initiative from the very beginning, taking advantage of serious miscalculations of Alexander I and his General Staff.
June 27-28, 1812	Clashes near the town of Mir	The rearguard of the Russian army, consisting mainly of Platov’s Cossacks, collided with the vanguard of Napoleonic forces near the town of Mir. For two days, Platov’s cavalry units constantly pestered Poniatowski’s Polish lancers with small skirmishes. Denis Davydov, who fought as part of a hussar squadron, also took part in these battles.
July 11, 1812	Battle of Saltanovka	Bagration and the 2nd Army decide to cross the Dnieper. To gain time, General Raevsky was instructed to draw the French units of Marshal Davout into the oncoming battle. Raevsky completed the task assigned to him.
July 25-28, 1812	Battle near Vitebsk	The first major battle of Russian troops with French units under the command of Napoleon. Barclay de Tolly defended himself in Vitebsk to the last, as he was waiting for the approach of Bagration’s troops. However, Bagration was unable to get through to Vitebsk. Both Russian armies continued to retreat without connecting with each other.
July 27, 1812	Battle of Kovrin	The first major victory of Russian troops in the Patriotic War. Troops led by Tormasov inflicted a crushing defeat on Klengel's Saxon brigade. Klengel himself was captured during the battle.
July 29-August 1, 1812	Battle of Klyastitsy	Russian troops under the command of General Wittgenstein pushed back the French army of Marshal Oudinot from St. Petersburg during three days of bloody battles.
August 16-18, 1812	Battle for Smolensk	The two Russian armies managed to unite, despite the obstacles imposed by Napoleon. Two commanders, Bagration and Barclay de Tolly, made a decision on the defense of Smolensk. After the most stubborn battles, the Russian units left the city in an organized manner.
August 18, 1812	Kutuzov arrived in the village of Tsarevo-Zaimishche	Kutuzov was appointed the new commander of the retreating Russian army.
August 19, 1812	Battle at Valutina Mountain	The battle of the rearguard of the Russian army covering the withdrawal of the main forces with the troops of Napoleon Bonaparte. Russian troops not only repulsed numerous French attacks, but also moved forward
August 24-26	battle of Borodino	Kutuzov was forced to give a general battle to the French, since the most experienced commander wanted to preserve the main forces of the army for subsequent battles. The largest battle of the Patriotic War of 1812 lasted two days, and neither side achieved an advantage in the battle. During the two-day battles, the French managed to take Bagration's flushes, and Bagration himself was mortally wounded. On the morning of August 27, 1812, Kutuzov decided to retreat further. Russian and French losses were terrible. Napoleon's army lost approximately 37.8 thousand people, the Russian army 44-45 thousand.
September 13, 1812	Council in Fili	In a simple peasant hut in the village of Fili, the fate of the capital was decided. Never supported by the majority of the generals, Kutuzov decides to leave Moscow.
September 14-October 20, 1812	Occupation of Moscow by the French	After the Battle of Borodino, Napoleon was waiting for envoys from Alexander I with requests for peace and the mayor of Moscow with the keys to the city. Without waiting for the keys and envoys, the French entered the deserted capital of Russia. The occupiers immediately began looting and numerous fires broke out in the city.
October 18, 1812	Tarutino fight	Having occupied Moscow, the French put themselves in a difficult position - they could not calmly leave the capital to provide themselves with provisions and fodder. The widespread partisan movement constrained all movements of the French army. Meanwhile, the Russian army, on the contrary, was restoring strength in the camp near Tarutino. Near the Tarutino camp, the Russian army unexpectedly attacked Murat's positions and overthrew the French.
October 24, 1812	Battle of Maloyaroslavets	After leaving Moscow, the French rushed towards Kaluga and Tula. Kaluga had large food supplies, and Tula was the center of Russian arms factories. The Russian army, led by Kutuzov, blocked the path to the Kaluga road for French troops. During fierce battle Maloyaroslavets changed hands seven times. Eventually the French were forced to retreat and begin to retreat back to the Russian borders along the old Smolensk road.
November 9, 1812	Battle of Lyakhov	The French brigade of Augereau was attacked by the combined forces of partisans under the command of Denis Davydov and the regular cavalry of Orlov-Denisov. As a result of the battle, most of the French died in battle. Augereau himself was captured.
November 15, 1812	Battle of Krasny	Taking advantage of the stretched nature of the retreating French army, Kutuzov decided to strike the flanks of the invaders near the village of Krasny near Smolensk.
November 26-29, 1812	Crossing at the Berezina	Napoleon, despite the desperate situation, managed to transport his most combat-ready units. However, no more than 25 thousand combat-ready soldiers remained from the once “Great Army”. Napoleon himself, having crossed the Berezina, left the location of his troops and departed for Paris.

Rice. 2. Crossing of French troops across the Berezina. Januariy Zlatopolsky...

Napoleon's invasion caused enormous damage to the Russian Empire - many cities were burned, tens of thousands of villages were reduced to ashes. But a common misfortune brings people together. An unprecedented scale of patriotism united the central provinces; tens of thousands of peasants signed up for the militia, went into the forest, becoming partisans. Not only men, but also women fought the French, one of them was Vasilisa Kozhina.

The defeat of France and the results of the War of 1812

After the victory over Napoleon, Russia continued its liberation European countries from the yoke of the French invaders. In 1813, a military alliance was concluded between Prussia and Russia. The first stage of the foreign campaigns of Russian troops against Napoleon ended in failure due to the sudden death of Kutuzov and the lack of coordination in the actions of the allies.

However, France was extremely exhausted by continuous wars and asked for peace. However, Napoleon lost the fight on the diplomatic front. Another coalition of powers grew up against France: Russia, Prussia, England, Austria and Sweden.
In October 1813, the famous Battle of Leipzig took place. At the beginning of 1814, Russian troops and allies entered PARIS. Napoleon was deposed and at the beginning of 1814 exiled to the island of Elba.

Rice. 3. Entry of Russians and allied forces in Paris. HELL. Kivshenko.

In 1814, a Congress was held in Vienna, where the victorious countries discussed questions about the post-war structure of Europe.
In June 1815, Napoleon fled the island of Elba and retook the French throne, but after just 100 days of rule, the French were defeated at the Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon was exiled to Saint Helena.

Summing up the results of the Patriotic War of 1812, it should be noted that the influence it had on the leading people of Russian society was limitless. Many great works were written by great writers and poets based on this war. The post-war world order was short-lived, although Vienna Congress gave Europe several years of peaceful life. Russia acted as the savior of occupied Europe, however historical meaning Western historians tend to underestimate the Patriotic War.

What have we learned?

The beginning of the 19th century in the history of Russia, studied in grade 4, was marked by a bloody war with Napoleon. A detailed report and table “Patriotic War of 1812” tells briefly about the Patriotic War of 1812, what the nature of this war was, the main periods of military operations.