Versions of the origin of man. Basic theories of human origin. Difficulties of the standard model Absence of dark matter particles
For many, this news came as a shock, because Darwin's theory was completely debunked. Every year more and more scientists speak against evolution.
Any sane person should have this information: The theory that we are taught in school actually has no scientific or logical basis.
The person who put forward the theory of evolution is the English amateur naturalist Charles Robert Darwin. Darwin was never really trained in biology, but had only an amateur interest in nature and animals.
Most people consider Darwin's theory (Darwinism) to be a scientific fact. In fact, this theory, refuted by modern science, nothing more than a 19th century fairy tale.
From the inception of this theory to the present day, developing fields of science such as biochemistry, microbiology, genetics, paleontology and anatomy have shown that Darwinism is just a figment of the imagination.
Modern science, while proving the inconsistency of Darwin's theory, simultaneously reveals the real reason for the origin of life - creation. All living beings were created (!!!) at the genetic level in a perfect form and did not undergo any evolution.
Microscope
The study of cell structure became possible with the invention of the electron microscope. In Darwin's time, a cell could be studied only superficially using a primitive microscope.
Darwin, while refining his theory, was influenced by the evolutionary biologists who came before him, especially the French biologist Lamarck. According to Lamarck, living beings pass on from generation to generation the characteristics they acquired during life, and thus evolve.
For example, giraffes evolved from a species of gazelle-like animal whose necks elongated on their own because they were forced to forage for leaves from tall trees.
However, both Lamarck and Darwin were wrong. Because at that time, the study of living organisms was carried out using primitive technology and to an insufficient extent. At that time there were not even names for such fields of science as genetics and biochemistry. The theory relied only on the power of imagination.
Darwin himself understood that there was much that was unresolved in his theory. He admits this in his book Difficulties of Theory. These difficulties lay in the complex organs of living organisms that could not appear by chance (for example, the eye), as well as fossil remains. Darwin hoped that these difficulties would be overcome through the process of new discoveries.
DNA completely ruined the theory
While Darwin was monitoring responses to his “scientific theory,” the Australian botanist G. Mendel discovered the law of heredity in 1865. However, Mendel's discoveries were not heard until the end of the century and only gained significance in early 1900 with the discovery of genetics. During these same years, the structure of genes and chromosomes was discovered.
And the discovery in 1950 of DNA, which stores genetic information, subjected the theory to complete collapse. Because the structure of living organisms turned out to be much more complex than Darwin believed, and the inconsistency of the mechanism of evolution came to light.
As a result of all these discoveries, Darwin's theory had to be relegated to the dusty shelves of history. However, some circles insisted on the need to update the theory and tried by any means to put it on a scientific platform. It was clear that all these efforts had more ideological purpose than scientific concern.
Modern scientists have refuted Darwin's theory but that evolution is a constant process. The result of numerous experiments and experiments states that speciation occurs under the influence of dramatically changing environmental conditions, and Darwin's theory of mutation and natural selection can only describe the evolution of species by 8%.
The scientists' work shows that Darwinian natural selection may not be the source of new species on Earth at all, and they are confident that they will be able to convince most scientists of this as a result of future experimental and modeling work.
Exercise 1. The task includes 60 questions, each of them has 4 possible answers. For each question, select only one answer that you consider the most complete and correct. Enter the index of the selected answer into the answer matrix.
1. Embryology is a science that studies:
1. Fossil remains of organisms;
2. Causes of mutations;
3. Laws of heredity;
4. Embryonic development of organisms.
Answer: 4
2. Type of nutrition of green plants:
Answer: 4
3. Photosynthesis is the process:
1. air supply;
2. light absorption;
3. release of oxygen;
4. water evaporation.
Answer: 1
4. Plant respiration occurs:
1. in the light;
2. in the dark;
3. at high humidity;
4. Constantly.
Answer: 4
5. Primary meristems include:
1. cambium;
2. phellogen;
3. growth cone cells;
4. cork.
Answer: 3
6. By its origin, the kidney is:
1. embryonic shoot;
2. shortened shoot;
3. phyllodes;
4. leaf primordium.
Answer: 1
7. Which plant flower is zygomorphic?
1. clover;
2. tulip;
3. radishes;
4. apple trees.
Answer: 1
8. Agar-agar is obtained from representatives of the departments:
1. brown;
2. red;
3. diatoms;
4. charoves.
Answer: 2
9. Fungi form mycorrhizae using:
1. dispute;
2. fruiting bodies;
3. hymenophora;
4. hyphae.
Answer: 4
10. The components of lichen are:
1. mushrooms and algae;
2. only mushrooms;
3. only algae;
4. fungi, algae and bacteria.
Answer: 1
11. The asexual generation of higher plants is called:
1. prothallus;
2. pre-teen;
3. sporophyte;
4. leaf stem.
Answer: 3
12. What theory was formulated by the German scientists M. Schleiden and T. Schwann:
1. Evolution;
2. Chromosomal;
3. Cellular;
4. ontogeny.
Answer: 3
13. Carbon dioxide is used as a carbon source in the reactions:
1. Protein biosynthesis;
2. Photosynthesis;
3. Lipid synthesis;
4. Synthesis of nucleic acids.
Answer: 2
14. The storage carbohydrate in an animal cell is:
1. Starch;
2. Glycogen;
3. Chitin;
4. cellulose.
Answer: 2
15. The plant cell wall contains:
1. lipids;
2. cellulose;
3. chitin;
4. starch.
Answer: 2
16. Viruses:
1. have a cellular structure;
2. capable of dividing or budding;
3. form a chitin capsid;
4. contain either DNA or RNA.
Answer: 4
17. Attachment of the spindle filaments to the chromosome occurs in:
1. Interphase;
2. Prophase;
3.Metaphase;
4. Anaphase.
Answer: 3
18. Chromosome doubling promotes:
1. The occurrence of mutations;
2. Modification variability;
3. The emergence of new gene combinations;
4. Transfer of hereditary information to daughter cells.
Answer: 4
19. Mitosis in a multicellular organism forms the basis of:
1. Gametogenesis;
2. Growth and development;
3. Metabolism;
4. Self-regulation processes.
Answer: 2
20. What stage of embryonic development of animals is a two-layer embryo consisting of ectoderm and endoderm:
1. Gastrula;
2. Blastulu;
3. Neyrulu;
4. Organogenesis.
Answer: 1
21. In birds, unlike reptiles:
1. unstable body temperature;
2. cover of horny substance;
3. constant body temperature;
4. development of the embryo in the egg.
Answer: 3
22. A two-chambered heart has:
1. Skullless;
2. Cartilaginous and bony fish;
3. Amphibians;
4. Birds and mammals.
Answer: 2
23. Findings of fossil remains of Archeopteryx indicate a relationship:
1. Amphibians and reptiles;
2. Reptiles and birds;
3. Reptiles and mammals;
4. Birds and mammals.
Answer: 2
24. The skin plays the most significant role in breathing:
1. Aquatic reptiles;
2. Cartilaginous and bony fish;
3. Amphibians;
4. Mammals.
Answer: 3
25. Air sacs are part of the respiratory system:
1. Birds;
2. Amphibians;
3. Reptiles;
4. Mammals.
Answer: 1
26. During the evolution of invertebrates, circulatory organs first appear in:
1. Annelids;
2. Shellfish;
3. Arthropods;
4. Roundworms.
Answer: 1
27. The complexity of the circulatory system of mammals compared to reptiles is evidenced by:
1. Three-chambered heart;
2. Four-chambered heart;
3. The appearance of an incomplete septum in the ventricle of the heart;
4. The appearance of two atria in the heart.
Answer: 2
28. In connection with feeding on rough plant food, the horse:
1. The teeth are sharp with thicker enamel on the front side of the incisors;
2. Incisors are wide and long, molars with a large chewing surface;
3. The most developed canines and four molars;
4. The teeth are of the same type, sharply cusped.
Answer: 2
29. What are individuals called that form one type of gametes and do not produce splitting characteristics in the offspring:
1. mutant;
2. heterotic;
3. heterozygous;
4. homozygous.
Answer: 3
30. With dihybrid crossing and independent inheritance of traits in parents with genotypes AABb and aabb, a split in the offspring is observed in the ratio:
1. 9:3:3:1;
2. 1:1:1:1;
3. 3:1;
4. 1:1.
Answer: 4
31. Choose the formulation of the law of homological series discovered by N.I. Vavilov:
1. Segregation for each pair of genes occurs independently of other pairs of genes;
2. With a monohybrid cross in F2, the characteristics are split according to the phenotype 3:1;
3. Genes located on the same chromosome form one linkage group;
4. Genetically similar species and genera are characterized by similar series of hereditary variability.
Answer: 3
32. What example of the reproduction of organisms is characterized as sexual?
1. Budding in yeast;
2. Sporulation in mosses;
3. Regeneration in freshwater hydra;
4. Parthenogenesis in bees.
Answer: 4
33. What factor in human evolution has currently lost its importance?
1. Spatial isolation;
2. Hereditary variability;
3. Combinative variability;
4. Fluctuations in numbers as a result of migration processes.
Answer: 1
34. What method was used to establish the inheritance of color blindness in humans?
1. Hybridological;
2. Twin;
3. Genealogical;
4. Biochemical.
Answer: 3
35. What is the probability of having children with freckles in a married couple if the woman’s genotype is Aa and the man’s is aa (A is the presence of freckles)?
1. 0%;
2. 25%;
3. 50%;
4. 75%.
Answer: 3
36. How many types of gametes can be formed as a result of normal gametogenesis in an individual with the AaCc genotype:
1. One;
2. Two;
3. Three;
4. Four.
Answer: 4
37. Chromosome conjugation is the joining of two homologous chromosomes in the process:
1. Mitosis;
2. meiosis;
3. fertilization;
4. pollination.
Answer: 2
38. Selection, as a result of which individuals with an average manifestation of a trait are retained, and individuals with deviations from the norm are culled, is called:
1. Driving;
2. Methodical;
3. Spontaneous;
4. Stabilizing.
Answer: 4
39. The analyzer consists of:
1. A receptor that converts the energy of external stimulation into the energy of a nerve impulse;
2. A conductive link that transmits nerve impulses to the brain;
3. The area of the cerebral cortex in which the received information is analyzed;
4. Perceiving, conducting and central links.
Answer: 4
40. The main function of the kidneys in mammals and humans is to remove from the body:
1. proteins;
2. sugars;
3. metabolic products;
4. undigested residues.
Answer: 3
41. Bundles of long processes of neurons, covered with a connective tissue membrane and located outside the central nervous system, form:
1. nerves;
2. cerebellum;
3. spinal cord;
4. cerebral cortex.
Answer: 1
42. Gray matter in the brain and spinal cord is formed by:
1. Sensitive neurons;
2. The bodies of neurons and their short processes;
3. Long processes of neurons;
4. Motor neurons.
Answer: 2
43. Carbohydrates are deposited in the human body:
1. In the liver and muscles;
2. Subcutaneous tissue;
3. Pancreas;
4. Intestinal walls.
Answer: 1
44. The bones of the human skeleton are formed by tissue:
1. Epithelial;
2. Connecting;
3. Nervous;
4. Striated muscle.
Answer: 2
45. Evaporation of sweat and dilation of blood vessels located close to the surface of the skin leads to:
1. Increased blood pressure;
2. Increased body temperature;
3. Increases the speed of blood movement through the vessels;
4. Protect the body from overheating.
Answer: 4
46. In myopic people, the image is focused:
1. In front of the retina;
2. On the choroid;
3. On the tunica albuginea;
4. Behind the retina.
Answer: 1
47. In which part of the human brain is the center of digestion located?
1. Front;
2. Average;
3. Oblong;
4. Intermediate.
Answer: 3
48. The secretion of saliva, which occurs when the receptors of the oral cavity are irritated, is a reflex:
1. Conditional, requiring reinforcement;
2. Unconditional, inherited;
3. Arose during life;
4. Individual for each person.
Answer: 2
49. Aromorphosis is:
Answer: 3
50. The driving force of evolution, which increases the heterogeneity of individuals in a population, is:
1. Mutational variability;
2. Modification variability;
3. The struggle for existence;
4. Artificial selection.
Answer: 1
51. The decline in the number and range of the Amur tiger is an example:
1. Biological progress;
2. Biological regression;
3. Idiomatic adaptations;
4. Aromorphosis.
Answer: 2
52. The connections between organisms of different species in an ecosystem, on which their provision of organic matter and energy depends, are called:
1. Food;
2. Genetic;
3. Territorial;
4. Evolutionary.
Answer: 1
53. The negative consequences of creating dams and reservoirs on rivers include:
1. Reducing the number of predatory fish;
2. Enrichment of water with oxygen;
3. Disruption of spawning of migratory fish;
4. Decrease in water level.
Answer: 3
54. What example characterizes the adaptation of animals to seasonal changes in nature?
1. Sharks search for prey in the ocean;
2. Migration of migratory birds;
3. Night activity of bats;
4. Movement of mollusk shell valves.
Answer: 2
55. With long-term preservation of relatively constant environmental conditions in populations of the species:
1. The number of spontaneous mutations increases;
2. Stabilizing selection appears;
3. Driving selection appears;
4. Divergence processes are intensifying.
Answer: 2
56. The stability of biogeocenosis is determined by:
1. Patterns of heredity and variability;
2. Diversity of species composition;
3. Competition between microorganisms;
4. Population waves.
Answer: 2
57. Energy is stored in 36 ATP molecules in the process:
1. Glycolysis;
2. Preparatory stage of energy metabolism:
3. Fermentation;
4. Oxidation of one molecule of pyruvic acid.
Answer: 4
58. During protein biosynthesis, mRNA molecules carry hereditary information from:
1. Cytoplasm into the nucleus;
2. One cell to another;
3. Nuclei to mitochondria;
4. Nuclei to ribosomes.
Answer: 4
59. What bonds determine the primary structure of a protein molecule?
1. Hydrophobic between amino acid radicals;
2. Hydrogen between polypeptide strands;
3. Peptide between amino acids;
4. Hydrophilic.
Answer: 3
60. In emergency cases, the patient is administered a therapeutic serum that contains:
1. Weakened pathogens;
2. Substances released by microorganisms;
3. Ready-made antibodies against pathogens of this disease;
4. Dead pathogens.
Answer: 3
Task 2. You are offered test tasks with three possible answers out of six possible. Enter the correct answers into the matrix, placing the numbers in order.
1. Plants of the legume family can be recognized by the following characteristics:
1) flower of four-membered type;
2) inflorescence raceme;
3) flower of the five-membered type;
4) inflorescence basket;
5) fruit pod or pod;
6) bean fruit.
Answer: 2, 3, 6
2. What properties characterize modification variability?
1) has a mass character;
2) has an individual character;
3) not inherited;
4) inherited;
5) limited by the reaction norm;
6) the scope of variability has no limits.
Answer: 1, 3, 5
3. In ciliated worms, under the epithelial layer of the skin-muscular sac there are layers:
1) circular muscle fibers;
2) smooth muscle fibers;
3) striated muscle fibers;
4) mixed muscle fibers;
5) oblique muscle fibers;
6) longitudinal muscle fibers.
Answer: 1, 5, 6
4. Features characteristic of lichens:
1) represent an independent group of organisms;
2) occupy an intermediate position between plants and animals;
3) sensitive to environmental pollution;
4) undemanding to humidity, heat, soil fertility;
5) mycorrhiza-formers;
6) consist of identical cells.
Answer: 1, 3, 4
5. Self-regulation in the oak forest ecosystem occurs as a result of:
1) reduction in the number of trees when they are cut down;
2) soil mineralization by earthworms;
3) drying out of trees as a result of drought;
4) provision of squirrels with a harvest of acorns;
5) complete extermination of the wild boar population by wolves;
6) limitation of mouse population growth by predators.
Answer: 1, 3, 4
6. The main functions of the nucleus in a cell are:
1) synthesis of DNA molecules;
2) oxidation of organic substances with the release of energy;
3) synthesis of mRNA molecules;
4) absorption of substances from the environment by the cell;
5) the formation of organic substances from inorganic ones;
6) the formation of large and small ribosomal subunits.
Answer: 1, 3, 6
7. The similarities between mushrooms and animals are that:
1) they have a heterotrophic method of nutrition;
2) they have an autotrophic method of nutrition;
3) cells of fungi and some animals contain chitin;
4) their cells contain vacuoles with cell sap;
5) their cells lack chloroplasts;
6) their body consists of their tissues.
Answer: 1, 3, 5
8. The basis of biogenic migration of atoms in the biosphere is:
1) adaptation;
2) metabolism;
3) irritability;
4) growth and development;
5) reproduction;
6) historical development.
Answer: 2, 4, 5
9. What are the properties, structure and functions of polysaccharides in the cell?
1) perform a structural and storage function;
2) perform a catalytic and transport function;
3) consist of residues of monosaccharide molecules;
4) consist of residues of amino acid molecules;
5) dissolve in water;
6) do not dissolve in water.
Answer: 1, 3, 6
10. Biogeocenoses are characterized by:
1) branched power supply circuits;
2) simple food chains;
3) lack of species diversity;
4) the action of natural selection;
5) dependence on human activity;
6) steady state.
Answer: 1, 4, 6
11. Cells of eukaryotic organisms, as opposed to prokaryotes:
1) cytoplasm;
2) core covered with a shell;
3) DNA molecules;
4) mitochondria;
5) dense shell;
6) endoplasmic reticulum.
Answer: 2, 4, 6
12. Motor neurons;
1) perceive excitation from interneurons;
2) transmit excitement to the muscles;
3) transmit excitation to interneurons;
4) transmit excitation to the glands;
5) transmit excitation to sensory neurons;
6) perceive the excitation that occurs to the receptors.
Answer: 1, 2, 4
13. Which of the following examples relate to idioadaptations?
Answer: 2, 3, 5
14. Artificial selection, as opposed to natural:
1) is carried out by a person purposefully;
2) carried out by natural factors;
3) carried out quickly;
4) occurs among individuals of natural populations;
5) ends with the receipt of new cultural forms;
6) ends with the emergence of new species.
Answer: 1, 3, 5
15. The result of evolution is:
1) genetic drift;
2) variety of species;
3) mutational variability;
4) adaptability of organisms to environmental conditions;
5) increasing the organization of living beings;
6) struggle for existence.
Answer: 2, 4, 5
Task 3. You are offered test tasks in the form of judgments, with each of which you must either agree or reject.
- Flowering plants and ferns have seeds.
- The columnar leaf tissue has large intercellular spaces.
- Gametes in mosses are formed as a result of meiosis.
- The formation of organic substances from inorganic substances occurs during photosynthesis.
- Bacteria in nature act as producers.
- Blue-green algae belong to Eukaryotes.
- Euglena green is capable of changing its feeding pattern depending on environmental conditions.
- Scyphoid jellyfish have lost their polyp form.
- The white planaria does not have a circulatory or respiratory system.
- The pork tapeworm has a body length of 15 meters.
- The calcareous glands of some oligochaete worms serve as defense against predators.
- The heart of mollusks consists of 1 ventricle and 2 atria.
- Insects breathe through the lungs.
- Fish eyes have a lens.
- The heart of amphibians, like that of fish, is three-chambered.
- The movement of the hind limbs in birds is provided by more than 30 muscles.
- Unlike most mammals, humans are characterized by the presence of seven cervical vertebrae and two occipital condyles.
- A human tooth has 2 parts – the root and the crown.
- The ends of the bronchial tubes end in alveoli.
- The activity of the heart is a rhythmic alternation of two phases of the cardiac cycle: contraction of the atria and contraction of the ventricles.
- Plastic metabolism in the body is aimed at biological oxidation with the release of energy.
- The centers of conditioned reflexes are located in the medulla oblongata.
- The filtering surface of both human kidneys is about 5-6 m2.
- All hereditary diseases are associated with mutations in chromosomes.
- Genetic information in all living organisms is stored in the form of DNA.
Answer: Correct - 4, 7, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, 23
Task 4. You are offered test tasks that require matching.
1. Match the statement with the evidence for evolution that it corresponds to.
Statement:
A) human ontogenesis, like chimpanzees, begins with a zygote;
B) a bird’s wing and a mole’s paw are homologous organs;
C) three-toed individuals may appear in a herd of horses;
D) the mammalian embryo has gill slits;
E) all vertebrates in individual development go through the stages of blastula, gastrula and neurula;
E) most organisms have a cellular structure.
Evidence of evolution:
1) embryological;
2) comparative anatomical.
Answer: A-1, B-2, B-2, D-1, D-1, E-2
2. Establish a correspondence between the structural features and functions of plant tissue and their species.
Features of structure and function:
A) consist of cells tightly adjacent to each other;
B) have stomata, lentils;
B) formed by elongated cells communicating with each other;
D) provide protection for plant organs from adverse environmental influences;
D) carry out gas exchange and transpiration;
E) include vessels and sieve tubes.
Types of fabrics:
1) integumentary;
2) conductive.
Answer: A-1, B-1, B-2, D-1, D-1, E-2
3. Establish a correspondence between the characteristic of a plant and the family to which it belongs.
Signs:
A) the number of flower parts is a multiple of five;
B) the organs of most plants contain toxic substances;
C) fruits – pods or pods;
D) sepals and petals are located mutually perpendicular;
E) fruits - berry or capsule;
E) the number of flower parts is a multiple of four.
Families:
1) cruciferous;
2) nightshades.
Answer: A-2, B-2, B-1, D-1, D-2, E-1
4. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of human blood cells and their belonging to a certain group.
Characteristic:
A) do not have a permanent shape;
B) do not contain a kernel;
B) contain hemoglobin;
D) have the shape of a biconcave disk;
D) capable of active movement;
E) capable of phagocytosis.
Cell group:
1) red blood cells;
2) leukocytes.
Answer: A-2, B-1, B-1, D-1, D-2, E-2
5. Establish a correspondence between the external structure of plant fruits and seeds and their method of distribution.
Structure:
A) juicy pericarp;
B) dry pericarp;
B) the presence of hooks;
D) the presence of parachutes;
D) bright shell;
E) the presence of lionfish.
Distribution method:
1) by the wind;
2) animals.
Answer: A-2, B-1, B-2, D-1, D-2, E-1
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Today, there are different versions of the origin of man on Earth. These are scientific theories, alternative, and apocalyptic. Many people believe themselves to be descendants of angels or divine powers, contrary to convincing evidence from scientists and archaeologists. Authoritative historians reject this theory as mythology, preferring other versions.
General concepts
For a long time, man has been the subject of study of the sciences of spirit and nature. There is still a dialogue and exchange of information between sociology and natural science about the problem of being. At the moment, scientists have given a specific definition to man. This is a biosocial creature that combines intelligence and instincts. It should be noted that not only one person in the world is such a creature. A similar definition can be applied, with a stretch, to some representatives of the fauna on Earth. Modern science clearly separates biology and leading research institutes around the world are searching for the boundary between these components. This field of science is called sociobiology. She looks deep into the essence of a person, revealing his natural and humanitarian characteristics and preferences.
A holistic view of society is impossible without drawing on data from its social philosophy. Today, man is a creature that is interdisciplinary in nature. However, many people around the world are concerned about another question - its origin. Scientists and religious scholars on the planet have been trying to answer this question for thousands of years.
Human Origins: An Introduction
The question of the emergence of intelligent life beyond the Earth attracts the attention of leading scientists in various specialties. Some people agree that the origins of man and society are not worthy of study. Basically, this is the opinion of those who sincerely believe in supernatural forces. Based on this view of the origin of man, the individual was created by God. This version has been refuted by scientists for decades in a row. Regardless of which category of citizens each person considers himself to be, in any case, this question will always excite and intrigue. Recently, modern philosophers have begun to ask themselves and those around them: “Why were people created, and what is their purpose for being on Earth?” The answer to the second question will never be found. As for the appearance of intelligent creatures on the planet, it is quite possible to study this process. Today, the main theories of human origins are trying to answer this question, but none of them can provide a 100 percent guarantee of the correctness of their judgments. Currently, archaeological scientists and astrologers around the world are exploring various sources of the origin of life on the planet, be they chemical, biological or morphological. Unfortunately, at the moment, humanity has not even been able to determine in which century BC the first people appeared.
Darwin's theory
Currently, there are different versions of the origin of man. However, the most probable and closest to the truth is the theory of a British scientist named Charles Darwin. It was he who made an invaluable contribution to His theory is based on the definition of natural selection, which plays the role of the driving force of evolution. This is a natural scientific version of the origin of man and all life on the planet.
The foundation of Darwin's theory was formed by his observations of nature while traveling around the world. Development of the project began in 1837 and lasted more than 20 years. At the end of the 19th century, the Englishman was supported by another natural scientist, A. Wallace. Soon after his report in London, he admitted that it was Charles who inspired him. This is how a whole movement appeared - Darwinism. Followers of this movement agree that all types of fauna and flora on Earth are changeable and come from other, pre-existing species. Thus, the theory is based on the impermanence of all living things in nature. The reason for this is natural selection. Only the strongest forms survive on the planet, those that are able to adapt to current environmental conditions. Man is just such a creature. Thanks to evolution and the desire to survive, people began to develop their skills and knowledge.
Intervention theory
This version of human origins is based on the activities of foreign civilizations. It is believed that people are descendants of alien creatures that landed on Earth millions of years ago. This story of human origins has several endings. According to some, people appeared as a result of crossing aliens with their ancestors. Others believe that genetic engineering of higher forms of intelligence, which bred homo sapiens from the flask and their own DNA, is to blame. Some people are sure that humans arose as a result of an error in animal experiments.
On the other hand, a very interesting and probable version is about alien intervention in the evolutionary development of homo sapiens. It is no secret that archaeologists still find in various parts of the planet numerous drawings, records and other evidence that ancient people were helped by some kind of supernatural forces. This also applies to the Mayan Indians, who were allegedly enlightened by extraterrestrial creatures with wings on strange celestial chariots. There is also a theory that the entire life of humanity from origin to the peak of evolution proceeds according to a long-prescribed program laid down by an alien intelligence. There are also alternative versions about the relocation of earthlings from planets of such systems and constellations as Sirius, Scorpio, Libra, etc.
Evolutionary theory
Followers of this version believe that the appearance of humans on Earth is associated with the modification of primates. This theory is by far the most widespread and discussed. Based on it, humans descended from certain species of monkeys. Evolution began in time immemorial under the influence of natural selection and other external factors. The theory of evolution indeed has a number of interesting proofs and evidence, both archaeological, paleontological, genetic and psychological. On the other hand, each of these statements can be interpreted differently. The ambiguity of the facts is what does not make this version 100% correct.
Theory of creation
This branch is called “creationism”. His followers deny all major theories of human origins. It is believed that people were created by God, who is the highest level in the world. Man was created in his image from non-biological material.
The biblical version of the theory states that the first people were Adam and Eve. God created them from clay. In Egypt and many other countries, religion goes deep into ancient myths. The vast majority of skeptics consider this theory impossible, estimating its probability at billionths of a percent. The version of the creation of all living things by God does not require proof, it simply exists and has the right to do so. In support of this, we can cite similar examples from legends and myths of peoples from different parts of the Earth. These parallels cannot be ignored.
Theory of space anomalies
This is one of the most controversial and fantastic versions of anthropogenesis. Followers of the theory consider the appearance of man on Earth to be an accident. In their opinion, people became the fruit of an anomaly of parallel spaces. The forefathers of earthlings were representatives of the humanoid civilization, which are a mixture of Matter, Aura and Energy. The anomaly theory suggests that there are millions of planets in the Universe with similar biospheres that were created by a single information substance. Under favorable conditions, this leads to the emergence of life, that is, the humanoid mind. Otherwise, this theory is in many ways similar to the evolutionary one, with the exception of the statement about a certain program for the development of mankind.
Aquatic theory
This version of the origin of man on Earth is almost 100 years old. In the 1920s, the aquatic theory was first proposed by a famous marine biologist named Alistair Hardy, who was later supported by another respected scientist, the German Max Westenhoffer.
The version is based on the dominant factor that forced the great apes to reach a new stage of development. This is what forced the monkeys to exchange their aquatic lifestyle for land. This is how the hypothesis explains the lack of thick hair on the body. Thus, at the first stage of evolution, man moved from the hydropithecus stage, which appeared more than 12 million years ago, to homo erectus, and then sapiens. Today this version is practically not considered in science.
Alternative theories
One of the most fabulous versions of the origin of man on the planet is that the descendants of people were certain chiropteran creatures. In some religions they are called angels. It was these creatures that inhabited the entire Earth from time immemorial. Their appearance was similar to a harpy (a mixture of a bird and a human). The existence of such creatures is supported by numerous cave paintings. There is another theory according to which people in the early stages of development were real giants. According to some legends, such a giant was half-man, half-god, since one of their parents was an angel. Over time, higher powers stopped descending to Earth, and the giants disappeared.
Ancient myths
There are a huge number of legends and tales about the origin of man. In Ancient Greece, they believed that the ancestors of people were Deucalion and Pyrrha, who, by the will of the gods, survived the flood and created a new race from stone statues. The ancient Chinese believed that the first man was formless and came out of a clay ball.
The creator of people is the goddess Nuiva. She was a human and a dragon rolled into one. According to Turkish legend, people came out of the Black Mountain. In her cave there was a hole that resembled the appearance of a human body. Jets of rain washed clay into it. When the form was filled and warmed by the sun, the first man came out of it. His name is Ai-Atam. Myths about the origins of man from the Sioux Indians say that humans were created by the Rabbit Universe. The divine creature found a blood clot and began to play with it. Soon he began to roll on the ground and turned into guts. Then a heart and other organs appeared on the blood clot. As a result, the rabbit produced a full-fledged boy - the ancestor of the Sioux. According to ancient Mexicans, God created the image of man from pottery clay. But due to the fact that he overcooked the workpiece in the oven, the man turned out burnt, that is, black. Subsequent attempts got better over and over again, and people came out whiter. The Mongolian legend is one to one similar to the Turkish one. Man emerged from a clay mold. The only difference is that the hole was dug by God himself.
Stages of evolution
Despite the versions of the origin of man, all scientists agree that the stages of his development were identical. The first upright prototypes of people were Australopithecines, who communicated with each other using their hands and were no taller than 130 cm. The next stage of evolution produced Pithecanthropus. These creatures already knew how to use fire and adapt nature to their own needs (stones, skin, bones). Further, human evolution reached the paleoanthropus. At this time, the prototypes of people could already communicate with sounds and think collectively. The last stage of evolution before the appearance of neoanthropes. Outwardly, they were practically no different from modern people. They made tools, united into tribes, elected leaders, organized voting and rituals.
The ancestral home of humanity
Despite the fact that scientists and historians around the world are still arguing about theories of the origin of people, the exact place where the mind originated has still been established. This is the African continent. Many archaeologists believe that it is possible to narrow the location to the northeastern part of the mainland, although there is an opinion that the southern half dominates in this matter. On the other hand, there are people who are sure that humanity appeared in Asia (in India and adjacent countries). Conclusions that the first people inhabited Africa were made after numerous finds as a result of large-scale excavations. It is noted that at that time there were several types of human prototypes (races).
The strangest archaeological finds
Among the most interesting artifacts that can influence the idea of what the origin and development of man actually was were the skulls of ancient people with horns. Archaeological research was carried out in the Gobi Desert by a Belgian expedition in the mid-20th century.
On the former territory, images of flying people and objects heading to Earth from outside the solar system were repeatedly found. Several other ancient tribes have similar drawings. In 1927, as a result of excavations in the Caribbean Sea, a strange transparent skull similar to a crystal one was found. Numerous studies have not revealed the technology and material of manufacture. Descendants claim that their ancestors worshiped this skull as if it were a supreme deity.
Theory formulated and researched Pyotr Yakovlevich Galperin in the middle of the 20th century. It is based on the fact that the organization of external activities of schoolchildren, facilitating the transition of external actions into mental ones, is the basis for rational management of the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and abilities. According to this theory, the formation of mental actions goes through the following stages: First- creating student motivation; Second- drawing up a diagram of the so-called indicative basis of action;Third- performing real actions; Fourth- speaking aloud descriptions of the real action that is being performed, as a result of which there is no need to use indicative basis for action;Fifth- The action is accompanied by saying “to oneself”; Sixth- Complete refusal of verbal accompaniment of action, formation of mental action in a collapsed form - see interiorization. At each stage, the action is first performed in an expanded manner, and then gradually shortened, “collapsed.” EXAMPLE. “For example, someone needs to be trained not to make certain grammatical errors. Those grammatical rules for which mistakes are made are written down on the cards. They are organized on the card in the order in which they should be applied to the written phrase. First, the student is required to read the first rule aloud and apply it to the phrase, then the second rule is read aloud, and so on until the end of the card. At the second stage, when the rules are memorized, you can put the card aside, but you should still say the rules out loud. The next stage involves pronouncing the rules to yourself when applying them. Finally, at the final stage, a person is able to apply the rules without saying them out loud, or to himself, and without even realizing them - in a collapsed and submerged form.” Granovskaya R.M., Elements of practical psychology, St. Petersburg, “Svet”, 1997, p. 77-78. Practical significance theory of the gradual formation of mental actions P.Ya. Galperin lies in the fact that during the learning process, the formation of new actions occurs more easily, without memorizing new material (since it is acquired in the process through involuntary memorization), without using the trial and error method.
Petr Yakovlevich Galperin born October 2, 1902 in Tambov. His father, Yakov Abramovich, was a district doctor at that time, and later became a famous professor, neurosurgeon and otolaryngologist. It was he who instilled in his son a love of knowledge and an interest in psychology. Pyotr Yakovlevich's mother died in a car accident in 1917. Together with his future wife, Tamara Merzon, Pyotr Galperin studied at the medical faculty of the Medical Institute in Kharkov. After graduating from the institute, he worked at the Central Ukrainian Psychoneurological Institute, first as a psychoneurologist, and then as a psychologist.
In 1936 P.Ya. Galperin defended his Ph.D. thesis On the psychological difference between human tools and animal auxiliaries. This work was already a full-fledged scientific work, reflecting the prevailing views of the scientist. In it, Galperin expressed the idea of the uneven development of various forms of thinking, and also expressed a position about the qualitative difference in the relationship between thinking and practical activity at different stages of ontogenesis (individual development). Citing as an example the differences between human and animal behavior, P.Ya. Halperin showed in this work his views on the subject and main task of psychology. In his opinion, in the life of a person, unlike an animal, situations that are changeable and urgent prevail, activities in which cannot be carried out through stereotypical forms of behavior. Under these conditions, the main life task becomes adequate orientation of significant elements of the field of action and their essential interrelations. Based on this, Halperin concluded that mental activity is essentially an orienting activity. Then the main task of psychology is the need to study the laws, structure and conditions of orientation activity, the features of its formation and changes at various stages of human development. This understanding of the subject of general psychology changes the idea of mental processes - perception, thinking, memory, which are considered as special forms of orientation activity. Halperin identifies 2 main planes, which are the field for the deployment of mental, ideal actions: the plane of the external and internal state of the subject. Thus, the understanding of not only external, but also internal processes is subject to change. Thus, emotions are considered by P.Ya. Galperin as orientation in situations that are personally or vitally significant for a person and require non-intellectual solutions. Will is also considered from the standpoint of indicative activity. According to Galperin, this is orientation in specific problem situations when, on the one hand, a rational and emotional assessment of the situation collides, and on the other, public assessment and socially approved forms of behavior derived from it.
In 1943, Pyotr Yakovlevich, at the invitation of the famous psychologist Rubinstein, moved to Moscow, where he began working as an assistant professor at the department of Moscow State University. At this time, he began to develop his own theory, which finally took shape by the early 1950s. It arose as an attempt to theoretically solve practical problems that arise for all teachers. They are to teach students how to solve logical, mathematical and other tasks faster and easier. A significant event in this regard was the meeting on psychology held in Moscow in 1953, at which Galperin made a report on the formation of mental actions. In his speech, he expressed the idea that mental actions are the result of the transformation of external material actions into internal ones, the result of the transfer of external actions to the plane of perceptions, ideas and concepts. Over time, Galperin's ideas about the mechanisms of formation of mental actions and concepts and their main characteristics changed, and the theory developed. The first period - the period of formation of basic concepts - lasted until the 70s. XX century. At this time, Galperin identified 4 primary parameters of action: the level of execution, the measure of generalization, the completeness of actually performed operations and the measure of mastery. The level of execution of an action implies the features of its formation. It begins in external material form, and through the external speech level and the level of speech to oneself it passes into the internal plane. Generalization of an action is the selection from the diverse properties of its object exactly those that are needed to perform the action. The completeness of the operations performed consists of expanding or reducing the action. To expand an action means to show all its operations in their interrelation. As the action progresses, operations are curtailed either deliberately or spontaneously. With spontaneous reduction, the student does not understand why one or another operation can be skipped, and conscious reduction is used for the purpose of simplification. The level of mastery of an action is a very important and significant parameter; without sufficient mastery of an earlier form of action, one cannot move on to the next one; on the other hand, stopping too long at an earlier form makes it much more difficult to comprehend the next form. All of the above properties of a mental action determine its quality, which is higher, the higher the level of generalization, reduction and mastery of each action. On the basis of the main, primary parameters, secondary ones are formed as a result of their combination: rationality and consciousness. The reasonableness of the mental action of Halperin’s theory presupposes the orientation of the action towards essential properties, implies its deployment and flexibility. Consciousness presupposes the student’s ability to give a complete and correct verbal expression of an action in the process of its implementation. The student's vocalization of the action is a very important characteristic, because serves as a sign of arbitrariness of action. By the end of the 1960s. The scheme for the formation of mental actions, presented in the 1953 report, turned into a detailed theory of the origin of specific mental processes and phenomena. It was confirmed in numerous experiments performed under the leadership of Pyotr Yakovlevich.
In 1965 he defended his doctoral dissertation Main results of research on the problemFormation of mental actions and concepts , in which the most general provisions of the theory were presented. Such a detailed consideration of problems that are essentially the main problems of the psychology of learning could not but affect the career of Pyotr Yakovlevich Galperin. In 1971, he became the head of the department of developmental psychology, and in 1983, he became a consulting professor for this department. In the 1970-1980s. there is a more detailed consideration of this theory. At this time, new parameters of mental actions appear: generalization and criticality. The degree of generalization characterizes the range of options for conditions in which an action can be successfully implemented. Criticality is an assessment of the compliance of the prerequisites for action with objective reality. During the same period, a number of works appeared demonstrating the application of the theory of the origin of mental processes to the solution of some problems of modern psychology.
In 1976, Galperin’s article was published On the question of human instincts. In it, he revealed the specifics of the mental activity of animals in comparison with humans, its fundamental features. He paid special attention to the essential division of categories biological And organic. P.Ya. Halperin showed that the most important characteristic of man as a biological species is the absence of biological predetermination in the methods and forms of needs. The greater the evolutionary weakening of the instinctive attitude towards the world, the greater the demands placed on the content and nature of orientation activity.
Main work - Introduction to Psychology, which became the result of his scientific work, was published in 1976. It is known that he was preparing the next edition of this book, but did not have time to finish it. He died on March 25, 1988. The name of Pyotr Yakovlevich Galperin is known primarily in connection with the theory he created of the gradual formation of mental actions and concepts. But his creativity is not limited only to the framework of this theory. He also worked on the development of the theory of attention and the doctrine of linguistic consciousness, studied the problems of instincts in humans, the problems of the relationship between the psyche and the brain. The scientist applied a completely new approach to the classic problem of the relationship between learning and mental development and to the question of the formation of creative thinking.
This is an exceptionally successful descriptive theory of the world of elementary particles. Based on it, you can make calculations, often very accurate, and compare them with thousands (!) of completely different experimental results. With the exception of a few cases that can be counted on one hand, the agreement between the Standard Model and experience is remarkably good.
Still, the Standard Model has its difficulties. Many of them are related to the fact that this theory describes a lot, but does not explain where it came from, does not allow it to be derived from deeper principles.
Origin of the Higgs Mechanism
The Higgs mechanism of electroweak symmetry is a key element of the Standard Model, which very successfully describes the world of elementary particles. However, the Standard Model does not provide any explanation for why Why In general, there is a Higgs field and why it has such a property - to form a vacuum condensate.
Hierarchy problem
In the quantum theory of elementary particles, it turns out that the vacuum is not an absolute void, but a non-stop seething sea of virtual particles. These virtual particles of various varieties appear for a short moment and then disappear. However, if there is some real particle nearby, then they seem to envelop it and change its properties. All the particles that make up our world, and even those particles that are born at colliders, are already particles “wrapped” in a virtual fur coat. Masses, charges and all other characteristics of the observed particles are characteristics not of the original, but of the wrapped particles.
Theorists account for this phenomenon using a special mathematical procedure called renormalization. For all particles of the Standard Model, it works well, although it was not easy to prove (for this, in 1999, G. "t Hooft and M. Veltman were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics). However, in the case of the Higgs boson, a problem arises: the influence of virtual particles turned out to be theoretical calculations, it changed the mass of the boson abnormally strong and unrecognizably. In the simplest version, if the initial mass of the Higgs boson was, say, 100 GeV, then after being wrapped in a fur coat of virtual particles it increased trillions of times, and such a particle could no longer play the role of the Higgs. boson.
Relatively speaking, from a theoretical point of view, the Standard Model, when left to its own devices, tends to “fly away” to an energy scale that is many orders of magnitude larger than the real scale of electroweak phenomena (about 200 GeV). There is no limiting factor within the Standard Model that stops the growth of the Higgs boson mass due to virtual particles. This difficulty is called problem of hierarchy- the theory was formulated to work on one scale, but it “prefers to live” on a much larger energy scale. (The word “hierarchy” is understood here as an extremely strong imbalance of energy scales.)
There are two points of view on this problem. The first possibility is this: the Higgs boson initially had abnormal properties, and only after it acquired a virtual fur coat, all abnormalities were very precisely compensated. To physicists, such fine tuning seems extremely unnatural.
The second way out is this. If there are any other particles in nature, then their - in virtual form - influence on the Higgs boson compensates for each other. The most important thing here is that in many models of physics outside the Standard Model (including some non-minimal variants of the Higgs mechanism, as well as supersymmetric theories) this compensation no need to adjust, it appears by itself as it should, simply by constructing a theory. These are the theories that attract theorists the most.
The LEP paradox
Let us accept the point of view that with increasing energy, the Standard Model actually turns into some kind of broader theory, which solves the problem of hierarchies. In most specific examples, it turns out that this New Physics should fully come into its own at an energy of about 1 TeV, that is, modern colliders are about to discover new particles or forces. But if so, New Physics should begin to be felt at much smaller energy scales, on the order of 100 GeV - after all, it “turns on” not abruptly, but gradually, with increasing energy.
The problem, however, is that neither the LEP electron-positron collider (total collision energy of almost 200 GeV) nor the Tevatron proton-antiproton collider (total collision energy of 2 TeV, which gives a typical parton collision energy of several hundred GeV) have yet discovered no significant deviation from the Standard Model. This same problem is called the “LEP paradox”: despite the high accuracy of the LEP data and despite the fact that New Physics should be “around the corner,” the LEP did not see any hint of it. However, in the last year of operation, Tevatron presented several results at once that required explanation, but the matter has not yet reached the real discovery of physics beyond the Standard Model.
Fermion masses
Another mysterious feature of the Standard Model is the very large spread of masses of fundamental fermions, that is, quarks and leptons (see Fig. 2). The masses of the top quark and electron differ by hundreds of thousands of times, and if we take into account neutrinos, then by a trillion times! Since the fermion masses in the Standard Model arise due to the Higgs mechanism, it turns out that the dimensionless coefficients in the interaction of the Higgs field with fermions are also scattered over a very wide range.
From the point of view of the entire experience of theoretical physics, this situation also looks abnormal. Physicists are trying to understand whether there might be some mechanism that naturally leads to such a scatter. The standard model will not help here, but in some non-standard theories a similar hierarchy of masses may arise.
Neutrino
The Standard Model, as originally constructed, requires that neutrinos be strictly massless. However, it has been experimentally proven that neutrinos have mass, albeit very small. In addition, neutrinos mix very actively with each other, constantly flowing from one type to another. All this suggests that the masses and mixing of neutrinos occurs not due to the Higgs mechanism, but due to a phenomenon of some other nature. Again, there are no such phenomena in the Standard Model, but among the various variants of the New Physics there are plenty of such mechanisms.
No dark matter particles
In astrophysics it is now generally accepted that in the Universe, in addition to ordinary matter in the form of stars, planets, gas and dust clouds, black holes, neutrinos, etc., there are also particles of a completely different nature, which we do not see in any range of electromagnetic waves. These are dark matter particles, about which nothing is currently known, except for the fact that they move at low speeds and practically do not interact with radiation and ordinary matter. There is not a single particle in the Standard Model that fits this role. However, candidate dark matter particles are found among theories outside the Standard Model.
Predominance of matter over antimatter
Apparently, the observable part of the Universe consists almost entirely of matter - there are no individual planets, stars, galaxies made of antimatter. Such an imbalance of matter over antimatter must have arisen dynamically at the very early stages of the evolution of the Universe. However, calculations have shown that the Standard Model is incapable of generating the desired imbalance. In fact, the very existence of the world as we see it speaks to the insufficiency of the Standard Model.
