5.7. The rise of Catholicism. Beresteyskaya (Brest) Church Union After the Union of Lublin, the Polish-Catholic expansion into Ukrainian lands sharply intensified. Orthodox church brotherhoods strongly opposed Catholic propaganda, which subsequently

Belarusian People's Republic

• Bulak-Balakhovich Stanislav
  commander of the Belarusian People's Army
• Vasilkovsky Oleg
  Head of the BNR diplomatic mission in the Baltic States
• Genyush Larisa
  "a bird without a nest" - poetess, keeper of the BPR archive
• Duzh-Dushevsky Claudius
  national flag design
• Kondratovich Kyprian
  Minister of Defense of the BNR
• Lastovsky Vaclav
  Prime Minister of the BNR, Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR
• Lutskevich Anton
  Sergeant of the Rada of the Minister of BNR
• Lutskevich Ivan
  cultural trader of Belarus
• Lyosik Yazep
  Chairman of the Rada of the BPR, Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR
• Skirmunt Roman
  elite of the Empire and Prime Minister of the BNR

Grand Dukes of Lithuania

• Mindovg (1248-1263)
  King of the Prussians and Litvins
• Voyshelk (1264-1267)
  son of Mindovg, who annexed Nalshany and Diavoltva
• Schwarn (1267-1269)
  son-in-law of Mindovg and son of the king of Russia
• Viten (1295 - 1316)
  "invent a coat of arms for yourself and for the whole princedom of Lithuania: a knight of a zbroyna on a horse with a sword"
• Gediminas (1316-1341)
  in. prince who united Lithuania and the Principality of Polotsk
• Olgerd (1345-1377)
  in. prince who gathered all Belarusian lands into a single state
• Jagiello (1377-1381)
  in. Prince of Lithuania and King of Poland. Union of Krevo
• (1381-1382)
  "Oath of Keistut" and the first mention of the oral Old Belarusian language
• Vytautas (1392-1430)
  and the beginning of the "Golden Age" ON
• Svidrigailo (1430-1432)
  rebellious prince who broke the union with Poland
• Henry of Valois (1575-1586)
  first elected king and c. prince
• Stefan Batory (1575-1586)
  liberator of Polotsk from Ivan the Terrible and patron of the Jesuits
• Zhigimont III Vase (1587-1632)
  king of the swedes, ready, wends
• Stanislav II August (1764-1795)
  last king and in. prince
• Jagiellons
  nine Slavic kings

Zhigimont III Vase
King of Poland, c. Prince of Lithuania, King of the Swedes, Goths, Wends

Sigismundus Tertius Dei gratia rex Poloniae, magnus dux Lithuaniae, Russiae, Prussiae, Masoviae, Samogitiae, Livoniaeque, necnon Suecorum, Gothorum Vandalorumque haereditarius rex.

Sigismund III Vasa (June 20, 1566 - April 30, 1632) - King of Poland and Grand Duke Lithuanian (1587-1632), King of Sweden (1592-1599) - son of the Swedish king Johan III Vasa and Katherine Jagiellonka (daughter of Bona Sforza - wife of Sigismund I the Old, daughter of the Duke of Milan Gian Galeazzo Sforza).

In Sweden, the Vasa dynasty ruled from 1523-1654. The king's title is Med Guds Nade, Sveriges, Gotes och Vendes Konung (By God's Grace King of the Swedes, Goths and Wends). In the Commonwealth, Vasa ruled from 1587 to 1668. The name of the dynasty comes from the coat of arms Vase (vase, risvase, stormvase - knitting, fascine) in the family coat of arms.

Already in the position of the great hetman of Lithuania, Khodkevich fought in 1611-1618 with the Moscow kingdom. Participated in the siege of the Moscow Kremlin and helped to hold it after the capture, fought with the militia of Minin-Pozharsky, liberated the Smolensk province from Moscow troops.

War with the Moscow kingdom 1609-1618. Capture of Moscow

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Stefan Batory died. On December 20, this became known in Moscow. Recent experience has shown how important it was for Moscow to elect a king in Poland. Therefore, Boris Godunov and other boyars decided to nominate Tsar Fedor (1557-1598) and actively participate in the election campaign.

On January 20, 1587, an embassy was sent to Poland, headed by the Duma nobleman Elizar Rzhevsky. The royal letter said: “You would be glad, gentlemen, secular and spiritual, having spoken among yourself and with all the earth, about the good of Christianity, our salary to yourself and our sovereign to the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania would have wanted these two states to be under our royal hand in communal love, union and completion; but we don’t want to violate your rights and liberties in anything, we also want to add more than before in all ranks and estates and want to give our salaries.” It was said about the future location of the king of the Polish and Russian Tsar Fedor that he would alternately rule in Poland, then in Lithuania, then in Moscow. In Poland and Lithuania, however, the plenipotentiaries will continue to rule and communicate with foreign ambassadors on minor matters. With important matters, the ambassadors should arrive in Moscow to Tsar Fedor, and together with them two glad pans from Poland and Lithuania.

Alas, Boris Godunov repeated the mistake of Ivan the Terrible. The Poles and Lithuania did not need promises, even if they were quite real, but cash "grandmothers", and, moreover, immediately.

At night, the governor of Troksky, Jan Glebovich, and the crown steward, Prince Vasily Pronsky, secretly appeared at the Moscow ambassadors and directly demanded money to bribe the gentlemen. The ambassadors answered that they had no order about this, and that there was no treasury with them.

Finally, at the second congress of the Sejm, the happy lords, already in broad daylight, publicly declared to the ambassadors: “Will the sovereign give them 200 thousand rubles for quick defense? Without which it is impossible to talk about the election of Theodore. The ambassadors replied that the sovereign of the state does not buy, but if he is elected, the ambassadors will borrow and give to the lords up to 60 thousand Polish gold pieces. The pans objected that this was not enough. The ambassadors increased the amount to 100 thousand, but the pans did not agree to this either. They said: “The tsar promised to give land to the gentry on the Don and Donets; but in such empty places, what profit will they have? Yes, far away for them to go there. We have a lot of such and our own lands beyond Kiev. Aren't you ashamed to write about such lands in articles! Will the sovereign give our people lands in the Muscovite state, in Smolensk and the cities of Seversk? The ambassadors answered: “Whose service reaches our sovereign, the sovereign is free to grant him a fiefdom in the Muscovite state.”

Let me emphasize once again: the pans spoke all this publicly and on behalf of the “Polish Republic”. The matter ended, as in previous times: the Moscow boyars and pans did not agree on the price of the Polish crown.

Tsar Fedor's competitors were Archduke Maximilian of Austria and Crown Prince Sigismund, son of the Swedish King John III.

Here it is necessary to say a few words about the Swedish Vaza dynasty. By the beginning of the XVI century. Sweden was in a dynastic (Kalmar) union with Denmark. Both kingdoms were ruled by the Danish king Christian II. In 1521, the Swedish knight Gustav Vasa revolted against King Christian II. The Danish troops were defeated, and in 1523 the Rigsdag (parliament) elected Gustav Vasa as king of Sweden. The new king terminated the union. Soon the Danish aristocracy overthrew Christian II from the Danish throne. The new Danish king Fredrik I recognized Gustav Vasa as king of Sweden. On this, the Kalmar Union finally ceased to exist.

Gustav Vasa was in dire need of funds and tried to fix things at the expense of the church. This brought him into conflict with the bishops and Rome. In Sweden, Lutheran priests were given freedom to preach. The first to accept the new religion were the citizens of Stockholm - since 1525, worship began to be conducted here in Swedish, and a year later, Olaus Petri translated the Gospel from Latin into Swedish. In 1527, at the Rigsdag in Westeros, the king, supported primarily by the nobility, insisted on the secularization of church property.

The church councils of 1536-1537 officially adopted the Reformation. In 1539 a new church structure was introduced. The king became head of the church. The church administration was in charge of the royal superintendent with the right to appoint and dismiss clerics and audit church institutions, including bishoprics. Bishops were retained, but their power was limited to councils-consistories.

The Reformation helped to strengthen the independence of the Swedish state in the form of a centralized estate monarchy.

Gustav Vasa managed to strengthen not only the Swedish state, but also the royal power. However, having done much to centralize royal power, Gustav, faithful to the medieval tradition, divided the kingdom into four parts, giving them into the possession of his sons Eric, John, Magnus and Charles. After the death of Gustav in 1560, his eldest son began to rule under the name of Eric XIV, and the three younger brothers remained semi-independent rulers with rights not defined by law in relation to the king.

Soon, Eric came into conflict with his brother John (Johan), Duke of Finland, and most of the Swedish aristocracy. On September 29, 1568, an uprising broke out in Stockholm. Eric was dethroned, declared insane, and imprisoned. His brother John (Juhan) III ascended the throne.

The new king was married to Catherine (1526-1583), daughter of Sigismund I the Old. Thus, the prince Sigismund had a relationship with the Jagiellons through the female line. However, he went down in history as Sigismund Vasa.

On August 9 (19), 1587, a group of pans - supporters of Jan Zamoyski - proclaimed Sigismund king. The rival Zborowski clan, in turn, declared Archduke Maximilian king. It is curious that the Lithuanian lords did not participate in the election of both "kings", but sent their representatives to the Russian ambassadors and directly demanded that Tsar Fedor declare his conversion to Catholicism and that they should immediately be given 100 thousand rubles in cash to begin with. The ambassadors said that the answer to this had already been given, and there would be no other answer.

Both newly elected kings hurried to bring into Poland a "limited contingent" of their troops. Maximilian with the Austrians laid siege to Krakow, but the assault was repulsed. Meanwhile, Sigismund was already marching from the north with the Swedish army. The population of the capital chose to open the gates to the Swedes. Sigismund peacefully occupied Krakow and was immediately crowned there (December 27, 1587). I note that, when taking the oath, Sigismund III repeated all the obligations of previous kings in relation to dissidents.

Meanwhile, the crown hetman Jan Zamoyski with his supporters gave battle to Maximilian at Bychik in Silesia. The Austrians were defeated, and the Archduke himself was taken prisoner. At the beginning of 1590, the Poles released Maximilian with the obligation to no longer claim the Polish crown. His brother, the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, vouched for him.

But, unlike the former kings of Poland, Sigismund was a fanatical Catholic. His beliefs were influenced by his mother, a staunch Catholic, and the reformation in Sweden.

Having ascended the throne, Sigismund III immediately began to persecute dissidents (that is, non-Catholics). In 1577 the famous Jesuit Peter Skarga published a book On the Unity of the Church of God and on the Greek Apostasy from This Unity. The first two parts of the book were devoted to dogmatic and historical research on the division of the church, the third part contained denunciations of the Russian clergy and specific recommendations to the Polish authorities in the fight against Orthodoxy. It is curious that in his book Skarga calls all Orthodox subjects of the Commonwealth simply "Russians".

Skarga proposed to introduce a union, for which only three things are needed: firstly, that the Metropolitan of Kyiv should receive a blessing not from the patriarch, but from the pope; secondly, that every Russian in all articles of faith should agree with the Roman Church; and, thirdly, that every Russian recognize the supreme authority of Rome. As for the church rites, they remain the same. Skarga reprinted this book in 1590 with a dedication to King Sigismund III. Moreover, both Skarga and other Jesuits pointed to the union as "a transitional state necessary for Russians stubborn in their faith."

In the book of Skarga and in other writings of the Jesuits, decisive action by the secular authorities against the Russians was proposed as a means of introducing the union.

Sigismund III firmly supported the idea of ​​the union. Orthodox churches in the Commonwealth were organizationally weakened. A number of Orthodox hierarchs succumbed to the promises of the king and the Catholic Church.

On June 24, 1594, an Orthodox church council was convened in Brest, which was supposed to resolve the issue of union with the Catholic Church. The supporters of the union, by hook or by crook, managed to adopt the act of the union on December 2, 1594. The union split the Russian population of the Commonwealth into two unequal parts. The majority of Russians, including gentry and magnates, refused to accept the union.

On May 29, 1596, Sigismund III issued a manifesto for his Orthodox subjects about the completed union of churches, and he took full responsibility in this matter: our Greek faiths were brought into their original and ancient unity with the universal Roman Church under the obedience of one spiritual shepherd. Bishops [Uniates who traveled to the pope. - A.Sh.] brought from Rome nothing new and contrary to your salvation, no changes in your ancient church rites: all the dogmas and rites of your Orthodox Church are preserved inviolably, in accordance with the decrees of the holy apostolic councils and with the ancient teaching of the holy Greek fathers, whose names you glorify and holidays celebrate."

Persecution of Russians who remained faithful to Orthodoxy began everywhere. Orthodox priests were expelled, and the churches were handed over to the Uniates.

Orthodox gentry, headed by Prince K.K. Ostrozhsky and the Protestants, led by the Vilna governor Kryshtof Radziwill, decided to fight the union in the old legal way - through the diets. But the Catholic majority, with the strong support of the king at the diets of 1596 and 1597, frustrated all attempts by the dissidents to abolish the union. As a result, the conflict between the Uniates and the Orthodox was added to the already existing inter-confessional strife. And in general, Sigismund was a man from another world, alien not only to his Russian subjects, but also to the Polish pans. He wore a wedge beard, like his contemporary, the cruel and suspicious Spanish King Philip, from whom Sigismund took an example in many ways. Instead of the simple caftan and high boots worn by Bathory and other Polish kings, Sigismund dressed in refined Western clothes, stockings and shoes.

In November 1592, the Swedish king John III died. Sigismund III took a year off from the Sejm in order to settle his hereditary affairs. He was crowned the Swedish crown in Uppsala. After spending several months in Sweden, Sigismund went to Poland, entrusting the administration of the country to the regent - his uncle Charles of Südermanland (1530-1611)

At home, Sigismund was clearly not popular. The marriage of Sigismund to a Catholic, an Austrian princess, added fuel to the fire. With the departure of Sigismund to Poland, power in Sweden gradually began to pass to his uncle, Duke Karl of Südermanland. In 1594, he was officially declared the ruler of the state.

In response, Sigismund gathered Polish troops and began hostilities with Sweden. He landed directly on the territory of Sweden, but in 1597 he was utterly defeated at the battle of Stongebro. At the same time, hostilities began in Estonia, which continued until 1608 with varying success.

Sigismund III managed to quarrel with the Zaporozhye Cossacks. At the Diet of 1590, the king demanded that the number of Cossacks be limited to six thousand people, that they be subordinated to the crown hetman, that the sale of gunpowder, lead and weapons to the common people in Kievan land be prohibited, etc.

The first great Cossack uprising was the answer. It was headed by the Orthodox gentry Christoph Kosinsky. On December 19, 1591, the Cossacks took the Belotserkovsky castle. Following the White Church, the rebels occupied Tripoli, and a little later - Pereyaslav (on the left bank of the Dnieper). In June 1592, the Cossacks besieged Kyiv, but they could not take it.

On January 23, 1593, near the town of Pyatka, near the town of Chudnov, Kosinsky's Cossacks met with the Polish army under the command of Konstantin Ostrozhsky. The battle lasted a whole week and ended with the signing of a peace agreement.

But soon the fighting resumed. The Seim of 1593 decided to "consider the Cossacks as enemies of the fatherland." At the end of the summer of the same year, at peace negotiations in the city of Cherkassy, ​​Kosinsky was treacherously killed by a servant of Prince Alexander Vishnevetsky. Nevertheless, at the conclusion of peace, the pans had to make concessions to the Cossacks.

But the death of Kosinsky was not the end, but the beginning of the Cossack wars. On October 5, 1594, the Cossacks of Severin Nalivaiko, together with the Bratslav townspeople, attacked the gentry, who had gathered in Bratslav, and killed her. The story of Severin Nalivaiko is similar to the story of Bogdan Khmelnitsky. His father had a farm in Gusyatyn near the town of Ostrog. Pole Pan Kalinowski decided to buy land from old Nalivaiko. Having been refused, the Pole beat the old man to death. His son became a Cossack artilleryman (gunner), and then an ataman. Needless to say, Severin remembered his father, and Pan Kalinovsky became one of the first victims of the uprising.

In November 1594, the rebels took the cities of Bar and Vinnitsa. In Volhynia, the rebel army in the spring of 1595 was divided into two parts. One, led by Nalivaiko, moved west, to Lutsk, and then turned to the northeast, to Mogilev, and the other part, led by foreman Grigory Loboda, went southeast in the direction of Cherkassy.

In the summer of 1595, the Nalivaiko rebels controlled all of Little Russia, with the exception of Minsk, where hetman Kryshtof Radziwill settled.

Loboda's detachment acted rather sluggishly. Loboda in the spring of 1595 entered into negotiations with the Poles and was virtually inactive.

Soon Radziwill received reinforcements and managed to drive Nalivaiko out of Mogilev. The Cossacks, in perfect order, made a return march through Rogachev and Turov to Volyn.

In March 1596, the detachments of Nalivaiko and Loboda united. Soon Loboda was removed from command, and Matvey Shaula took his place. On March 23, hetman Stanislav Zolkiewski attacked the rebels near the Red Stone tract. Both sides suffered heavy losses, Shaule's hand was torn off by a cannonball, and Nalivaiko himself was wounded. At night, the rebels withdrew to Tripoli, and then to Kiev. Zholkevsky, due to heavy losses, did not dare to pursue them, but retreated to the White Church. There, the hetman wrote a letter to the Sejm, in which he urgently asked for help, arguing that all the land "turned out."

In May 1596, Zholkevsky, having received reinforcements, laid siege to the rebel camp in the Solonitsa tract, not far from Luben. The Cossacks fortified the camp from three sides with wagons placed in four or five rows, surrounded it with a moat and a high rampart. On the fourth side, an impenetrable swamp adjoined the camp. Log cabins filled with earth were built in several places of the camp, and the Cossacks placed about 30 cannons on them.

Zholkevsky, who had 5,000 zholners alone, not counting the gentry detachments and magnate teams, did not dare to storm. He understood that he was dealing with people, in his own words, courageous, who made the decision “in their position” to fight to the death. And instead of an assault, the Poles bribed several traitors, who, on the night of May 24, seized Nalivaika and Shaula and handed them over to the Poles. They also let the Poles into the camp. A terrible massacre began, the pans and zholners killed everyone who came to hand. Eyewitness I. Velsky wrote that "for a mile or more, the corpse lay on the corpse, for in total there were up to ten thousand of them in the camp with the mob and their wives."

Nalivaiko was brought to Warsaw, where, after long weeks of torture, he was executed on April 11, 1597.

Thus ended the 16th century. Poland and Lithuania entered under Sigismund III into a new era. Sigismund managed to quarrel to death with the Swedes, and in a few years he will quarrel the Poles with Russia for many centuries, if not forever.

Inside the country, the king declared war on the Orthodox Church and the Cossacks. If earlier there were disputes between Russians, Lithuanians and Poles for various privileges, now the question was different - to be or not to be the Orthodox faith, the Russian language and the Russian people in general. They had three options left: to die, become Polonized, or break the neck of the Commonwealth.

One of the decrees of Sigismund III, Poland received a new coat of arms. Along the edges it is framed by the coats of arms of the lands that were part of the Commonwealth. Among them are Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Lithuania. But this is understandable. But then come Sweden, Russia, and not in pieces, but in their entirety, Pomerania, Prussia, Moldavia, Wallachia, etc. I'm afraid that now some educated liberal will stand up for poor Poland: they say, you never know some king at the end of the 16th century claimed something. Like, Zhirinovsky also wanted to wash his boots in the Indian Ocean, but is this a reason to blame Russia for aggressiveness?

I answer. An example with Zhirinovsky is a juggling of cards, everything is clear with him. But the claims of Sigismund became the ideology of panism for more than 500 years. So, Poland was to become the strongest state not only in Europe, but in the whole world.

Notes

The date is according to the Julian, and in brackets - according to the Gregorian calendar.

King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from December 27, 1587, King of Sweden from November 27, 1592 to July 1599, grandson of Gustav Vaz and Sigismund the Old, son of the Swedish king Johan III and Catherine Jagiellon.

Born June 20, 1566 in Gripsholm Castle, where his mother Katerina Jagiellonka accompanied her husband, Johan, who was imprisoned by her brother Eric XIV.

As a descendant of the Jagiellons through the female line, the 21-year-old Prince Sigismund was elected King of Poland in 1587, thanks to the efforts of his aunt Anna Jagiellonka and Jan Zamoyski. By inviting the last Jagiellon and the heir to the Swedish crown to the throne, the Polish side hoped to settle territorial problems with Sweden and receive disputed lands in the north of the country.

Soon after the coronation, Sigismund opposed his rival, Archduke Maximilian of Austria; the latter was defeated near Bichina and taken prisoner (1588), but released under the agreement of 1589, according to which he renounced any claims to the Polish throne. Sigismund did not like the Poles either by his appearance or character; the hostility towards him intensified even more when, having left for Revel (1589) to meet with his father, he secretly entered into negotiations with Ernest, Duke of Austria, and under certain conditions was ready to renounce the Polish crown in his favor. The young king did not favor the powerful Zamoyski either. The first cause of contention between them was Estonia, which Sigismund promised to annex to Poland in the treaty clauses, but did not fulfill the promise. The result of this was the inquisitorial diet against the king (1592) and the weakening of royal power. The place of Zamoyski, who expected to rule the king, was taken by the Jesuits.

Sigismund set as his main task the strengthening of Catholicism in Poland, the destruction of Protestantism and the suppression of Orthodoxy; under him, the Union of Brest took place. Along with these tasks, Sigismund was guided only by dynastic interests.

The weakening of the power of the king

In inner life In Poland, the reign of Sigismund is the beginning of the era of the decomposition of the state. The biggest events were Zebrzydowski's rokosh and the approval of the beginning of unanimity at the diets.

The main reason for Zebrzydowski's rebellion was Sigismund's systematic attempts to establish absolutism, which, however, were constantly rejected by the diets. Sigismund sought to limit the rights of the diets, to transform the former posts into ranks dependent on the king, and to organize Polish power with the help of majorates, the possession of which would give a vote in the senate. With all his aspirations for absolutism, Sigismund, however, himself contributed to the triumph of the principle of unanimity at the diets, which radically undermined the possibility of reforms. When Zamoyski at the Sejm of 1589 proposed that the decisions of the Sejm be decided by a majority of votes, the king himself opposed this project, and put Opalinsky's opposition against Zamoyski. Governmental anarchy, established under Sigismund, found a theoretical justification in the theory of "golden freedom".

Fight for Sweden

In (1592), Sigismund marries the daughter of the Archduke Charles of Austria, the granddaughter of Emperor Ferdinand I, Anna, who gave birth in 1596 to the future king, Vladislav.

After the death of his father Johan III (1592), Sigismund went to Sweden and was crowned the Swedish crown (1594), but upon returning to Poland he was forced to appoint his uncle Karl, Duke of Södermanland, as regent of Sweden, who, supporting Protestantism, gained the favor of the people and clearly aspired to the throne.

In 1596 Sigismund moved the capital from Krakow to Warsaw.

During his second stay in Sweden (1598), Sigismund alienated many supporters: he was finally removed from the throne (1599), and his uncle was declared king of Sweden at the Diet in Norrköping, in 1604, under the name of Charles IX. Sigismund did not want to give up his rights to the Swedish throne and involved Poland in 60 years of unsuccessful wars with Sweden for her.

After the death of Anna's first wife in 1598, Sigismund in 1605 marries her sister Constance, who in 1609 gave birth to a son named Jan Casimir.

Wars with Russia

Nurturing plans for expansion to the east, Sigismund supported False Dmitry I, concluding a secret treaty with him. Upon accession to Moscow, the impostor promised to give Chernigov-Seversk land to Poland. After the death of False Dmitry I, Sigismund led the siege of Smolensk in 1609.

Polish troops under the command of Zholkiewski occupied Moscow in 1610. The Russian boyars decided to elect the son of Sigismund III, Prince Vladislav, to the throne of Moscow. After the liberation of Moscow by the zemstvo militia in 1612, the war continued until 1618, when a truce was concluded in Deulin, according to which Smolensk, Chernigov and Seversk lands remained behind Poland.

Sigismund III Vase

Polish King Sigismund III was born in 1566 in Sweden. His mother was the sister of the latter Polish king from the Jagiellon family of Sigismund II and the wife of the Swedish king Johan III. Since Sigismund II had no children, his nephew could claim the Polish throne. In 1587, after the death of Stefan Batory, he was elected king of Poland. In 1592, after the death of his father, he received the opportunity to take the Swedish throne. But his uncle Charles was ahead of him, who turned the Protestants against him and in 1599 finally deprived him of the right to be the Swedish king. There is information in diplomatic documents that in 1598 Sigismund III put forward his candidacy for the Russian throne. Therefore, his relationship with Tsar Boris was very strained.

"Vase" One of the largest and most expensive warships of the Swedish Navy, "Vase" was to become its flagship. Named after the Vasa dynasty of Swedish kings that reigned at that time, it was launched in the summer of 1628. The most active participation in the construction

Vase for sweets and fruits. Paris. 1850