The structure of sociological knowledge includes. Structure of sociological knowledge
Question 1. The role of sociology in the system of social sciences.
The connection of sociology with other social sciences can be characterized in two ways. On the one hand, undoubtedly, sociology uses information obtained within other disciplines: for example, economic growth indicators (information from economists), birth and death data (from demographers), etc. However, on the other hand, it should be noted that sociology enriches other sciences with the conclusions obtained as a result of sociological research. For example, sociologists can analyze the social consequences of economic growth or draw conclusions about the social causes and consequences of low fertility, supplementing economic and demographic information.
Thus, sociology is an integrating, interdisciplinary science, which contains the foundations of knowledge of a number of natural, social and humanitarian disciplines. At the same time, it is undoubtedly connected and influenced by natural sciences: mathematics, demographic, economic and social statistics, computer science, which complement it in the process of studying all spheres of society, enrich its tools and thereby contribute to the emergence of independent areas in sociology, such as sociogeography, sociomedicine, sociobiology, etc. These are new scientific directions that appeared at the intersection of sociology and other sciences, contributing to the explanation and forecasting of events and processes in the social environment.
Sociology, like many sciences, was isolated from philosophy. And even after sociology, represented by O. Comte and E. Durkheim, proclaimed its independence from philosophy as a true science of society, philosophy continued to play a significant role in sociological research. Social philosophy is a branch of philosophy devoted to understanding the qualitative originality of society in its difference from nature. It analyzes the problems of the meaning and purpose of the existence of society. Social philosophy and sociology have a very wide area of coincidence of the object of study. Their difference is more clearly manifested in the subject of research. The subject area of socio-philosophical studies is the study of social life, primarily from the point of view of solving worldview problems, the central place among which is occupied by life-meaning problems. To an even greater extent, the difference between sociology and social philosophy is found in the method of studying the social. The independent development of sociology is precisely due to the fact that it began to actively master quantitative methods in the analysis of social processes using complex mathematical procedures, including probability theory, the collection and analysis of empirical data, the establishment of statistical patterns, and developed certain procedures for empirical research. At the same time, sociology relied on the achievements of statistics, demography, psychology and other disciplines that study society and man.
Question 2. Object and subject of sociology.
Sociology (from Latin society and Greek - word, concept, doctrine) is the science of the laws of formation, functioning and development of society, social relations and social communities.
The object of sociological knowledge is society. The object of sociological science is social reality. M. Weber defined the conscious interaction of people as a special distinguishing feature of this reality: "waiting for waiting for waiting." A person with sufficient confidence expects what other people expect from him and are ready to respond to his actions in the way he expects.
M.Weber wrote that the subject of sociology is social actions, which it must understand and explain.
The subject of study of sociology is special, specific laws and patterns.
The object of sociology is social reality, which is studied by special methods in order to increase the level of stability of society. The subject is the angle from which social reality is studied (from the angle of functioning roles and statuses, groups and institutions, social relations and types of culture).
Question 3. Functions of sociology.
1. Cognitive function. This function is inherent in any science. It consists in obtaining new knowledge, information and patterns relating to the social life of society.
2. Prognostic function to predict tendencies and directions of development of social processes.
3. Organizational development of organizational measures for the implementation of sociological technology, its implementation and implementation.
4. Social design definition of the ways of designing the social process.
5. Managerial determination of the main directions for improving the efficiency of activities.
6. Instrumental determination of methods for studying social reality, determination of methods for collecting, processing and analyzing primary sociological information.
Question 4. The structure of sociological knowledge. social laws. The paradigm of sociological knowledge.
Structure of sociological knowledge is a set of empirical and theoretical material obtained as a result of collecting practical information, conducting research, sociological experiments, surveys, and studying public opinion. It is formed in the course of logical generalization and interpretation of the obtained experimental data. Its structure includes empirical data, middle-level theories and general theories.
The empirical basis of sociological knowledge includes grouped and generalized social facts. These include the characteristics of mass consciousness - opinions, assessments, judgments, beliefs; properties of mass behavior; individual events, states of social interaction
Special sociological theories reveal two main types of social ties: between the social system as a whole and a given sphere of public life. Special theories formulate only probabilistic statements, and their confirmation must be proved logically or factually.
General sociological theories- the result of combining special sociological theories and their conclusions.
social law- these are essential, stable, recurring relationships between social phenomena and processes, primarily in social activities people or their actions. Two groups of social laws should be distinguished.
First group These are the laws that have been in force throughout the history of the development of society.
Second group- these are laws that follow from the circumstances that have developed earlier and in which the leading trend in the development of society is manifested, due to the objective laws of its activity and development.
The essence of social laws lies in the fact that they determine the relationship between different individuals and communities, manifesting themselves in their activities. These are relations between peoples, nations, classes, socio-demographic and socio-professional groups, city and countryside, as well as between society and the labor collective, society and family, society and the individual. Laws differ in terms of their duration. General laws operate in all social systems (for example, the law of value and commodity-money relations). The effect of specific laws is limited to one or more social systems (for example, laws associated with the transition from one type of society to another or the period of primary accumulation of capital).
Can be distinguished five paradigms
1. paradigm of social facts. In it, social reality is viewed through the prism of social structures, institutions and their functions.
2. The paradigm of social definitions. Its origins lie in the work of the German sociologist Max Weber. Researchers working within this paradigm believe that social phenomena can be understood only on the basis of the meanings that people attach to actions, situations, and incentives when interacting with each other.
3. The paradigm of social behavior. The behavior of individuals in social space, understood as a system of social reinforcers (rewards - punishments), and social structures interactions that have developed in the process of exchange relations.
4. Psychological paradigm developed under the influence of the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud, who considered social life through the prism of the structure of the conflict "It - I - Super-I" within the individual and between him and society.
5. The paradigm of socio-economic determinism represented by the Marxist social concept (K. Marx, F. Engels, G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Lenin). In Marxist theory, social reality is considered as a set of social relations that develop in the process of joint life of people. Her focus is on socio-economic formations, the change of which is determined primarily by changes in the mode of production, as well as the prospects for the transformation of society on a communist basis.
Plan
Introduction
2. Structure of sociological knowledge and its levels
3. Functions of sociology
4. Methods of sociology
5. Place of sociology in the system of social sciences and humanities
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
In the mass consciousness, sociology is often associated with the conduct of population surveys and the study of public opinion. This is facilitated by numerous television programs, articles in newspapers and magazines, which provide the results of sociological studies that characterize the distribution of people's opinions regarding a particular event, data on the degree of voters' support for various political parties, about respondents' satisfaction or dissatisfaction with work, standard of living, government policy, etc. All this creates the image of sociology as an applied science that contributes to solving the most pressing problems of our social life.
IN last years sociology has won wide recognition and has taken a firm place among other sciences. It has proved its right to exist as an independent scientific discipline. And this is not accidental, because sociology studies a person and society at numerous points of their mutual contact. It illuminates the human experience, inviting us to explore aspects of the social world that we often ignore, overlook, or take for granted. By studying sociology, we can better understand how human society works, where power is concentrated, what feelings control our behavior, and how our society became what it is today. Sociology provides a unique opportunity to lift the veil that tightly hides the fundamental principles of social life, and thereby overcome the belief that things are always the way they seem to us. In other words, this science equips us with a special form of consciousness that helps to better understand those social forces that restrain or, on the contrary, free us. Therefore, in the words of P. Berger, sociology is “a liberating science. It clarifies inaccessible aspects of human life and opens a window into social world which we often overlook or misunderstand.
1. Object and subject of sociology
Sociology has been around for more than a century and a half. During this time, various trends, directions and schools took shape in it. Each of them has defined its own subject area and managed to achieve certain successes within its framework. However, at the present time, and indeed throughout the development of sociology, there was a complex process of deepening and defining its subject. What is the reason for this? The fact is that we live in an era of intense and profound changes, in an era of the formation of a new civilization and new relationships between people. Today, humanity is painfully looking for answers to many global questions: what is society? how does it function? where are we going? Answers to them should be only specific, only in essence, constructive. Moreover, a unified sociological knowledge is necessary, since we are talking about the fate of the entire civilization.
The subject of sociology must certainly be the theoretical understanding of the contradictory integrity of the modern world. The "drama" of this science lies in the fact that it must investigate and explain the nature of the state of mankind, it is for this purpose that it arose and exists today.
Its object is the society of the modern type. At the same time, a holistic study of an object (society) does not make it possible to cover all its properties, facets and relationships. Sooner or later, scientists need to focus on considering only its individual aspects, which constitute the subject of sociological science, i.e., the subject of sociology is everyday life ordinary people
The structure of sociological knowledge and its levels
So, due to the scope and depth of its subject, sociology began to develop simultaneously in many directions, which quickly developed into a new quality and turned either into independent scientific disciplines or into rather closed schools with their own methodological guidelines. As a result, sociological knowledge has acquired a fairly branched structure, in which some directions often intersect with others,
In all developed sciences, it is customary to differentiate knowledge on three grounds: by content, that is, by the specifics of the object being studied, by form (by methods and sources of obtaining), and by functions (purpose). In this sense, sociology can be divided into three main aspects:
2) formal;
3) functional.
From the point of view of what is being studied, they distinguish subject sociology, the object of which is society (in all its richness and diversity), and metasociology, which focuses on the study of sociological science itself (defining its specifics, place in the system of social and human sciences, developing research methods, revealing the patterns of the process of historical evolution, etc.).
Subject sociology, in turn, has three main levels:
1. General sociological theory (general sociology), dealing with the study of society as an integral system, identifying the most general laws of its functioning and development. Its methodological base is social philosophy.
2. Particular sociological theories (“theories of the middle rank”), represented in sociology by a whole series of special (branch) disciplines that study relatively large and independent fragments of social reality: economics, labor, politics, culture, religion, family, etc. Their theoretical and methodological basis - general sociological theory.
3. Specific sociological studies of various social phenomena and processes (“sociology”). Their immediate theoretical foundation is private sociological theories in the relevant research areas.
According to the level of scientific generalization, that is, according to the methods and sources of obtaining knowledge, it is customary to single out theoretical and empirical sociology.
Theoretical sociology is aimed at understanding the inner essence of social reality, that is, the laws that govern it. Empirical - for knowledge external manifestations this reality. In addition, theorists use theories and speculative conclusions as the basis for building their conceptual models. The concepts put forward by theoretical sociology differ a high degree abstraction. Empirical sociologists base their conclusions on facts, on the results of their research. The empirical level is the level of facts, opinions, personal data, their generalization and the formation of primary theories.
The nature of the knowledge they receive also differs. Theoretical sociology gives a causal explanation of facts on the basis of established laws, is engaged in predicting the possible course of events. Empirical - seeks to give the most accurate description of the collected data.
From the point of view of the intended purpose of the knowledge obtained, fundamental and applied sociology are distinguished.
Fundamental sociology is aimed at increasing scientific knowledge, applied sociology - at obtaining a practical result, solving a specific social problem. Fundamental science is engaged in the construction of global concepts that explain why the world works this way and not otherwise, while applied science is designed to solve specific problems, for example, to explain why voters in a given region preferred this particular candidate.
All these levels of sociological knowledge are closely intertwined and form a single science - sociology.
3. Functions of sociology
Sociology is connected with society by thousands of threads. This determines the many social functions it performs.
Epistemological - a function that any science performs. Sociology at all levels and in all its structural elements ensures the growth of new knowledge about various spheres of social life, and also reveals patterns and prospects for the further development of society. Sociology seeks to compose the most complete picture of social relations and processes in modern world. It can be knowledge about the main social problems of development modern society or information about the processes taking place in its various spheres, namely, changes in the social structure, family, national relations, etc. Obviously, without specific knowledge about the processes taking place within individual social communities, it is impossible to ensure effective management.
The applied function is manifested in the fact that a significant part of sociological research is focused on solving practical problems, on the fulfillment of a social order.
Within this function, there are:
A) The function of social control, the execution of which assumes that sociological research provides information for exercising control, relieving social tension and preventing crisis situations.
B) predictive function. We are talking about the development of scientifically based forecasts of the development of social processes in the future. When a sociologist studies a real problem and seeks to identify ways to solve it, he is naturally driven by a desire or need to show the perspective and the end result that lies behind it. Consequently, the sociologist predicts the course of development of the social process.
C) And finally, the function of social planning. The results of sociological research are used to create projects in various areas of public life. This concerns the development of targeted comprehensive programs for the development of certain spheres of public life, industries, regions, etc. Beginning in the 1970s, Soviet sociologists took an active part in the preparation of comprehensive plans social development enterprises, districts, cities, regions, regions.
ideological function. Research results can be used in the interests of any groups to achieve their own goals. They can serve as a means of manipulating people's behavior, as well as a tool for the formation of certain stereotypes of behavior, the creation of a system of values and social preferences. History shows that in most social revolutions and reforms it was precisely sociological concepts of one kind or another that were leading in social development. The sociological ideas of John Locke played an important role in the revolution of 1688 in the establishment of a liberal-democratic regime in England. The works of Francois Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau played a transformative role in France. For a long period, the ideology of Marxism was the leading intellectual trend in Russia. Racist ideology became the basis of Nazism and the Third Reich in Germany.
Enlightenment (educational) function. Sociology is a powerful tool for self-knowledge of society, a means of enlightenment and education of the masses. Sociological ideas, the results of research, made public, are able to make people and society take a fresh look at themselves, see themselves from the outside in the mirror of sociology and think about their own being.
So, sociology was formed quite recently. That is why the subject of its study has not yet been clearly defined and causes numerous disputes in professional circles. Nevertheless, the need for a new science is justified, since social structures and social relations are becoming more and more complicated and require scientific description and analysis to predict the development trends of both society as a whole and its individual elements.
Methods of sociology
Sociology uses not only abstract-theoretical methods typical of the social sciences (system-categorical analysis of an object), but also a set of concrete-empirical methods.
Observation: the study of society, public opinion, public sentiment, social processes in their natural state. Observation can be external, third-party, when the sociologist is not himself a participant in some social process, and internal, "on", when the sociologist himself becomes a member of the group under study or a subject of the social process.
Observation provides primary information, which can then be analyzed, evaluated, compared, etc.
Analysis of statistical materials: the study of documentation, reports, references, protocols, statistics, press materials, factual data, etc., that is, not the direct existence of a social object, but its reflection in primary (usually verbal) documentation. Using statistical materials, the sociologist reproduces the state of the object in the categories of sociology and identifies trends in the development of the object.
Interview: this is a study in the form of a given oral survey of the subjects of society in order to obtain a "sociological picture of the object." As social subjects, respondents for interviews are selected, as a rule, typical representatives of some social group, professional experts, well-known leaders. The results of the interview may be of individual and personal interest (an interview with a famous artist or athlete) or socio-typological (opinions of typical representatives of a certain group).
Questioning: this is a form of written survey of the subjects of society (groups, communities) in order to obtain an overall idea of the state and functioning of a social object. The questionnaire or questionnaire includes a series of open-ended (without a finite set of possible answers) or closed (with a finite set of possible answers) questions. Social modeling: it is associated with the study of a social object not in its natural, natural form, but in the form of functional, structural or attributive models. The model is a heuristic substitute for nature. As a rule, in social modeling, computers are used, information and mathematical models of the object. social experiment: this is the study of a social object in its natural or model form in controlled, artificial conditions.
There are other methods for obtaining sociological information, but they, as a rule, are modifications of those mentioned. In addition, it should be borne in mind that each of the methods has many variations. For example, there are such types of survey as selective, probing, group, correspondence, face-to-face, panel, one-time, press, direct, distributing, continuous, expert, etc. In each case, the researcher determines one or another method and its variants. At the same time, the complementarity of methods must be taken into account in order to avoid errors.
Each method of specific sociological research involves a set of necessary procedures, technologies, methods for both effective research and obtaining adequate results.
· Analysis - knowledge of an object based on the study of its parts, its components, constituents.
· Synthesis - knowledge of the integrity of the object by combining knowledge about its constituent parts, elements, subsystems. Synthesis, as it were, completes and continues the analysis, providing a holistic, systemic, integrative knowledge of the object as a whole.
· Experiment - the study of an object in artificial controlled conditions.
Extrapolation - knowledge of an object by transferring knowledge from one (studied) object to another.
Modeling is the study of an object not in its direct form, but on the basis of the study of its models.
Induction - obtaining a general conclusion from particular knowledge.
Deduction is the derivation of private knowledge about objects from general provisions, premises.
· System method- the study of an object as a system consisting of a composition (a set of components) and a structure (the way the components are connected).
Structure of sociological knowledge— ϶ᴛᴏ a certain orderliness of knowledge about society as a dynamically functioning and developing social system. It is worth noting that it appears as a set of interrelated ideas, concepts, views, theories about social processes at different levels.
Sociology is a complex structured branch scientific knowledge about general and specific trends and patterns of development and functioning, different in scale, significance, features and forms of manifestation of social systems.
We note the fact that in modern methodology - both in our country and abroad - scientific knowledge is usually understood hierarchically and represented as a "building" of sociological science, consisting of five floors (Fig. 1.1):
- top floor - ϶ᴛᴏ scientific picture of the world(philosophical premises);
- fourth - general theory, including categories of the most abstract level;
- the third is particular, or special, theories;
- the second floor is represented by empirical research;
- the lower floor is applied research.
The top four floors of the sociological "building" are occupied by fundamental sociology, and the last one is applied sociology. The top three floors theoretical sociology. The bottom two - empirical and applied research - are usually referred to as empirical knowledge.
The identified five levels and types of knowledge differ in two parameters - the degree of generalization (abstractness) of the concepts used at this level, and the degree of prevalence of knowledge at this level - in other words, the number of studies conducted or theories created.
Scientific picture of the world
The highest level of sociological knowledge associated with the scientific picture of the world (SCM) will not yet be properly sociological, but rather has a universal meaning for all sciences and is of a philosophical nature. NCM contains a set of the most general theoretical judgments about how the social reality is structured and what laws it obeys, in which society and individuals exist.
According to the degree of generalization, the scientific picture of the world will be the most abstract, and the most specific knowledge is applied, relating to one object and aimed at solving specific situation, problems, tasks.
Figure #1.1. Pyramid of levels and types of scientific sociological knowledge
Number of studies done or theories created
In terms of the prevalence of knowledge, the rarest is also the scientific picture of the world; there are only a few such pictures in every social science. According to researchers, five dominant pictures of the world and ways of knowing it have the greatest recognition and influence today: scholastic, mechanistic, statistical, systemic, diatropic.
As part of scholastic scientific picture of the world nature and society are interpreted as a kind of cipher that needs to be read and deciphered with the help of codes, the role of which is played by myths.
mechanistic NCM characterizes nature and society as a mechanism, a machine, all the details of which perform strictly designated functions for them.
From the position statistical NCM nature and society are considered as a balance of opposing forces (natural, economic, political, cultural, social, social and personal-individual, group)
Systemic scientific picture of the world will give an idea of nature and society as organized systems, subsystems consisting of elements that are constantly changing, but at the same time ensuring the integrity and vitality of all systems.
Diatropic NCM allows you to see the world in a multidimensional, polycentric, changeable way.
NCM in sociology is subject to changes, which are due to the development of scientific knowledge, the emergence of new directions, paradigms. Philosophy has a decisive influence on NCM. scientific pictures of the world are integrated into the culture of a certain era and civilization. The culture of each country will create its own philosophy, which leaves its mark on the development of sociology.
General sociological and particular theories of sociology
The picture of the world and general sociological theory have much in common. Both the first and second reveal the most essential features of social life and the fundamental laws of the development of society. At the same time, in NCM, fundamental knowledge is built into a strict system not differentiated, not explicitly, but in the general theory it acts as explicit knowledge. general theories more than NKM: perhaps about two dozen.
The next level of sociological knowledge is private (special) sociological theories, usually formalized and logically compact models of social processes relating to individual areas of life, social groups and institutions.
Empirical Research in Sociology
Empirical Research -϶ᴛᴏ large-scale research, ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ meeting the most stringent requirements of science and aimed at confirming a private theory. Their main goal is to contribute to the increment of new knowledge, the discovery of new patterns and the discovery of the unknown. social trends.
It should be noted that the main purpose of empirical research is not just to collect and process facts, but to provide a reliable test of the theory, its verification, to obtain representative (reliable, representative) information. It is worth noting that they contribute to the identification of existing contradictions in society and its structures, as well as trends in the development of social processes and phenomena, which is very important for the scientific understanding of social reality and the solution of social problems. Empirical research data serve as the basis for developing recommendations aimed at solving current and future problems of the social and political life of society, parties and movements, various social communities, groups and institutions.
Empirical knowledge of the phenomena of social life forms a special science - empirical sociology.
Applied Research in Sociology
Applied Research - small-scale, operational and non-representative studies carried out in a short time at one object (company, bank), designed to study a specific social problem and develop practical recommendations for its solution.
Do not forget that it is important to know the tools of applied sociology, its goals and objectives. If a sociologist, not knowing who he is, brings to the enterprise the methodology of fundamental research and studies, for example, the dynamics of value orientations, then he will not be understood. Because practical workers, who will act as customers, do not reason in these categories, they speak a completely different language. The applied scientist, unlike the academic scientist, faces completely different problems.
For applied scientists, academic scientists develop such standard questionnaires and standard tools, according to which experience is replicated in different enterprises. It is worth noting that it is used in many enterprises for the same purpose - to assess personal and business qualities. And no new knowledge is obtained for science, new knowledge is only for the administration.
Applied research - ϶ᴛᴏ research of local events. The purpose of applied research is not to describe social reality, but to change it.
Thousands of empirical studies have been carried out. The number of projects carried out at factories, banks, cities, microdistricts, etc. applied research is generally impossible to calculate. As a rule, they are not fixed anywhere, in science articles their results are not clothed, the only source of information about them is the reports stored in the archives of enterprises or firms.
Basic and applied research
Given the dependence on orientation, sociological research is divided into fundamental and applied. First purely implementation oriented scientific questions: what is known? (object) and how is it known? (method) Second are aimed at solving urgent social problems of a practical nature and answer the question: what is cognized for? Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that these theories differ not in the object or method, but in what goals and objectives the researcher sets for himself - cognitive or practical. If in this study the sociologist seeks mainly to develop new sociological knowledge, theory, then in this case we are talking about fundamental research, which studies society as a system. Unlike fundamental sociology, applied sociology acts as a set of problem-oriented studies aimed at solving specific social problems that arise in certain social subsystems, specific social communities and organizations.
At the same time, it is extremely important to emphasize that the division of sociology into fundamental and applied will be conditional. The content of both includes the solution of both scientific and practical problems, only the ratio of these problems in them is different. A sharp distinction or opposition between fundamental and applied research can hinder the development of sociology as a multifaceted science. Fundamental knowledge in science is a relatively small part of experimentally tested scientific theories and methodological principles, which scientists use as a guiding program.
It is worth noting that the rest of the knowledge is the result of ongoing empirical and applied research.
Fundamental science, which develops mainly within the walls of universities and academies of sciences, is usually called academic.
Sociological research is divided into theoretical and empirical. This division is connected with the levels of knowledge (theoretical and empirical) in sociology; the division of sociology into fundamental and applied sociology, with the orientation (function) of sociology on strictly scientific or practical tasks. Thus, empirical research can be carried out within the framework of both fundamental and applied sociology. If its goal is the construction of a theory, it belongs to fundamental (by orientation) sociology, and if it is the development practical advice, then it belongs to applied sociology. Research, being empirical in terms of the level of knowledge obtained, can be applied but the nature of the problem being solved is the transformation of reality. Material published on http: // site
The same applies to theoretical research (according to the level of knowledge). Therefore, applied research does not form a special level. These are the same theoretical and empirical studies (according to the level of knowledge), but with an applied orientation.
Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that it is impossible to establish a rigid boundary between theoretical and empirical sociology. Let us note that each of these levels of sociological knowledge complements the analysis of the studied social phenomena. For example, when studying social factors that contribute to the preservation and strengthening of a healthy lifestyle of the workforce, it is impossible to start an empirical study without the necessary theoretical knowledge, in particular, about what a lifestyle, a healthy lifestyle is. Here, it is extremely important to provide a theoretical explanation of such concepts as a full-fledged lifestyle, standard of living, quality of life, way of life, living space, vitality, and others, as well as what are the trends in the study of this problem in sociology, etc. Note that theoretical elaboration of all these questions will contribute to finding valuable empirical material. On the other hand, having received specific empirical knowledge about the social factors that contribute to the preservation and strengthening of a healthy lifestyle of the work collective, the researcher comes to conclusions not only of a local nature, but also beyond the scope of one team, of public importance, they can supplement and clarify the theoretical premises .
Thus, at the theoretical level, the categorical apparatus of science is formed. Here, generally general scientific methods of cognition (systemic, modeling, experiment, etc.) can be used, as well as general scientific principles of cognition (objectivity, historicism, causality, integrity, etc.)
At the empirical level, operations with facts are carried out: collection, systematization, analysis, etc.
Macrosociology and microsociology
There are also macro- and microsociology. Sociology as a science was formed and developed in Europe at first as a macro-sociological science, focusing its attention on the disclosure of the global laws of the development of society and the study of the relationship between large social groups and systems. Later came microsociology, which studies typical patterns of behavior, interpersonal relationships predominantly socio-psychological nature. Since then, the development of sociology has gone in two parallel directions.
Macrosociology focuses on the analysis of such concepts as "society", "social system", "social structure", "mass social processes", "civilization", "social institution", "culture", etc. Unlike macrosociology, microsociology studies specific issues related to the behavior of individuals, their actions, and motives that determine the interaction between them.
Microsociology is closely connected with the empirical (applied) level of sociological knowledge, and macrosociology with the theoretical. At the same time, both theoretical and empirical levels are present in both. Macrosociologists (K. Marx, G. Spencer, E. Durkheim, F. Note that tennis, P. Sorokin, etc.) were actively engaged in empirical research, and microsociologists substantiated a number of important sociological theories, including the theory of social exchange ( J. Homans, etc.), symbolic intentionalism (C. Cooley, J. G. Mead, J. Baldwin, etc.), ethnomethodology (G. Garfinkel, G. Sachs, etc.)
The convergence of micro- and macrosociology, currently observed in science, but in the opinion of many scientists, has a fruitful effect on the development of a qualitatively new level of sociological knowledge.
Sociological knowledge is structured in the world literature and on other grounds: according to the predominance of trends, schools, concepts, paradigms, etc. Among them stand out academic sociology, dialectical sociology, understanding sociology, phenomenological sociology, etc.
Thus, sociological knowledge is a complexly structured, multi-level, polysectoral field of scientific knowledge about complex social phenomena and processes, about the patterns of formation and development of large and small social groups and communities, and the social system as a whole. All levels of sociological knowledge organically interact with each other, forming a single and integral structure.
Structure of sociological knowledge – not just a collection of information, ideas and scientific concepts about social phenomena and processes. This is a certain ordering of knowledge about society as a dynamically functioning and developing social system. It appears as a system of interrelated ideas, concepts, views, ideals, theories about social processes at different levels, whether it is the life of individuals, social groups, society as a whole.
The components of the structure of sociological knowledge are:
knowledge of the social composition of the population of the country and the social structure of society . We are talking about classes, large and small social, professional and demographic groups, their place and interactions in the system of economic, social and political relations, as well as about nations, nationalities, other ethnic groups and their relations with each other;
· scientific ideas, theories related to the so-called political sociology. Here the attention of the sociologist is directed to understanding the real position of various social groups in society in the system of political relations and, above all, in the system of relations of power;
· scientific ideas and conclusions of sociologists about the activities of social institutions existing in society, such as the state, law, church, science, culture, institutions of marriage, family, etc.
In the structure of sociological knowledge, separate levels can be distinguished, based on the scale reflected in sociological views and theories of social phenomena. We are talking about the levels of sociological knowledge. In determining these levels, the ideas of R. Merton, an outstanding American sociologist, which combined in its scientific activity empirical and theoretical research.
1. In some cases, empiricism prevails, and theoretical ideas appear only in the formulation of problems of empirical research, its hypotheses, in the systematization of new facts, etc. This is the level of empirical sociological (or concrete sociological) research, the main scientific goal of which is the extraction of specific facts, their description, classification, interpretation.
2. In another case, relying on various specific sociological studies of a particular social institution, social phenomenon (education or religion, politics or culture), the sociologist sets the task of theoretically comprehending this social subsystem, understanding its internal and external connections and dependencies. These are sociological theories of the middle level playing in modern sociological science special role.
Sociological theories of the middle level are diverse.
In fact, all more or less significant social subsystems are described by the corresponding sociological theory. The sociology of the family, the sociology of work, the sociology of religion, the sociology of education are some of them.
In sociological theories of the middle level, an effective interaction of theoretical and empirical methods is established. They are closely connected both with concrete sociological research and with all-encompassing theoretical constructions.
3. The latter form highest level sociological knowledge – general sociological theories , exploring society as a single system, the interaction of its main organs. They actually border on socio-philosophical doctrines. The special significance of these theories is that they determine:
a) the general approach of a sociological researcher to the study and understanding of social phenomena;
b) direction of scientific research;
c) interpretation of empirical facts.
In other words, they permeate with a single theoretical vision both empirical research and analysis of social phenomena at the level of middle-level theory. This is achieved due to the fact that it is within the framework of general sociological doctrines that the theoretical model of social life as an integrity is described.
In modern sociology, there are several approaches that try to give a holistic description of social life. They are divided into two main groups: macrosociological and microsociological theories . Both those and others are trying to explain social life, but from fundamentally different positions.
Macrosociological theories proceed from the fact that only by understanding society as a whole, one can understand the individual. The macro-level of social life appears in these theories as decisive, defining. Among the leading macro sociological doctrines are functionalism (H. Spencer, E. Durkheim, T. Parsons, R. Merton, and others) and conflict theory (K. Marx, R. Dahrendorf, and others).
As for microsociological doctrines (exchange theory, symbolic interactionism, ethnomethodology), their focus is on everyday interpersonal interaction - interaction. Adherents of microsociological theories defend the idea that it is everyday interaction at the interpersonal level that is the fundamental basis of social life. The unity of theory and empiricism in general sociological theories is complex and predominantly mediated. First of all, we are talking about the wide use by these theories of the main conclusions, provisions, in particular, theories of the middle level, which, in turn, are based on a broad empirical basis.
So, modern sociology is a multi-level complex of theories, types of knowledge that are closely interconnected with each other and form a single integrity - modern sociological science.
TEST
Performed:
Student group 3902-21
Troitskaya Natalya Olegovna
«___________» __________
(date) (signature)
Checked: k.s. PhD, Associate Professor
Sinkovskaya Irina Georgievna
«__________» ___________
(date) (signature)
_________________
Krasnoyarsk 2016
Record book number 1539028
PART No. 1……………………………………………………………………………………...3
1. Sociology as a science. The Structure and Levels of Sociological Knowledge……………………………………………………………………….......3
2. Object, subject of sociology. Functions. The place of sociology in the system of other sciences. The concept of paradigm……………………………………..…....7
3. Society as an integral system: features systems approach(evolutionism, functionalism, determinism), individualistic theories.....…………….…………………………...11
4. Social institutions. Institutionalization of public life. Types, functions of social institutions……………………………........ 17
5. Social organization. Characteristics, functions of social organizations. Types, types of social organizations, their characteristics .............................................. ................................................. ..20
6. Social communities: definition, characteristics, types of mass communities and social groups……………………………...25
7. Sociology of personality. Socialization of the individual. Personality theories….....29
8. Deviant behavior: types of deviant behavior, causes, theories explaining the causes of deviation………………………….…….....33
9. Social structure and stratification. Types of strata: castes, classes, estates, slavery. The concept and types of social mobility………….39
10. Culture and society: definition of culture, types of cultures. The role of culture in social development: the theory of N.Ya. Danilevsky, Toynbee, Spengler……………………………………………………………………..46
11. Sociology of conflict. Types, types, forms, stages, forms of conflict regulation in the organization…………………………………...52
PART No. 2 (tables)………………………………………………………….…57
PART No. 3 Dictionary of sociological terms (Reference Appendix) ………………………………………………………………...62
Bibliographic list…………………………………………………..…66
Part #1
Sociology as a science. Structure and levels of sociological knowledge.
Sociology as a science
Sociology - the science of society(from lat. societas- society and gr. logos- knowledge, concept, doctrine) - the science of society or social science This term was introduced into science by the French scientist and philosopher of the New Age Auguste Comte (1798-1857), the founder of sociology as an independent science of society. Sociology was not limited to the problems of society as a whole, driving forces its development, etc. It concerned all aspects of the development of society, including the problems of the state, politics, law, economics, morality, art, religion, and other aspects of social development, which later became the subject of study of individual sciences.
With the development of society, it lost the role of a unified universal theory of society. Political science, jurisprudence, political economy, ethics, aesthetics and a number of other sciences separated from it. From now on, she herself developed as independent science. The subject of attention and study of sociology were the fundamental foundations for the development of society as an integral social organism.
Modern sociology is an independent science about society as an integral system, its subsystems and individual elements. Sociology also reveals and studies the laws of social development. It can be characterized as the science of the laws of functioning and development of social systems. Trends in sociology unite the ideas of the objective conditionality of the development of society by natural and social factors, as well as the natural nature of the historical process.
Sociology studies primarily the social sphere of human life: social structure, social institutions and relationships, social qualities of the individual, social behavior, public consciousness, etc. At the same time, the object of study can be both society in its integrity and systemicity, and its individual elements, for example, large and small social communities, personality, organizations and institutions, processes and phenomena, various spheres of people's life.
What distinguishes sociology from other social sciences? Only sociology studies society as an integral system. If economic, political, legal and other sciences study the patterns of processes within each of the spheres of life, then sociology tries to analyze and establish the corresponding patterns, which makes it possible to present society as a complex dynamic system consisting of a number of subsystems.
Sociology differs from other sciences not only in what it studies, but also in how it studies. Sociology is characterized by the study of society through the prism of human activity, determined by needs, interests, attitudes, value orientations, etc. The sociological approach allows not only to describe phenomena and processes, but also to explain them, to build models of human behavior and the development of society as a whole. An analysis of the dynamics of social processes makes it possible to establish trends in the development of society and develop recommendations for the purposeful management of social processes.
Structure of sociology
Sociology is a differentiated and structured system of knowledge. System - an ordered set of elements interconnected and forming a certain integrity. It is precisely in the clear structuring and integrity of the system of sociology that the internal institutionalization of science is manifested, characterizing it as independent. Sociology as a system includes the following elements:
1) social facts- scientifically substantiated knowledge obtained in the course of the study of any fragment of reality. Social facts are established through other elements of the system of sociology;
2) general and special sociological theories- systems of scientific sociological knowledge aimed at resolving the issue of the possibilities and limits of cognition of society in certain aspects and developing within certain theoretical and methodological areas;
3) branch sociological theories- systems of scientific sociological knowledge aimed at describing individual spheres of social life, substantiating the program of specific sociological research, providing interpretation of empirical data;
4) data collection and analysis methods– technologies for obtaining empirical material and its primary generalization.
However, in addition to the horizontal structure, systems of sociological knowledge are clearly differentiated into three independent levels.
1. Theoretical sociology(level fundamental research). The task is to consider society as an integral organism, to reveal the place and role of social ties in it, to formulate the basic principles of sociological knowledge, the main methodological approaches to the analysis of social phenomena.
At this level, the essence and nature of social phenomenon, its historical specificity, conjugation with various aspects of public life.
2. Special sociological theories. At this level, there are branches of social knowledge that have as their subject the study of relatively independent, specific subsystems of the social whole and social processes.
Types of special social theories:
1) theories that study the laws of development of individual social communities;
2) theories that reveal the laws and mechanisms of the functioning of communities in certain areas of public life;
3) theories that analyze individual elements of the social mechanism.
3. Social engineering. The level of practical implementation of scientific knowledge in order to design various technical means and improve existing technologies.
In addition to these levels, macro-, meso- and microsociology are distinguished in the structure of sociological knowledge.
As part of macrosociology society is studied as an integral system, as a single organism, complex, self-governing, self-regulating, consisting of many parts, elements. Macrosociology primarily studies: the structure of society (which elements make up the structure of early society and which elements of modern society), the nature of changes in society.
As part of meso-sociology groups of people (classes, nations, generations) existing in society are studied, as well as stable forms of life organization created by people, called institutions: the institution of marriage, family, church, education, state, etc.
At the level of microsociology, the goal is to understand the activities of an individual, motives, the nature of actions, incentives and obstacles.
However, these levels cannot be considered separately from each other as independently existing elements of social knowledge. On the contrary, these levels must be considered in close relationship, since understanding the overall social picture, social patterns is possible only on the basis of the behavior of individual subjects of society and interpersonal communication.
In turn, social forecasts about a particular development of social processes and phenomena, the behavior of members of society are possible only on the basis of the disclosure of universal social patterns.
Theoretical and empirical sociology are also distinguished in the structure of sociological knowledge. The specificity of theoretical sociology is that it relies on empirical research, but theoretical knowledge prevail over empirical ones, since it is theoretical knowledge that ultimately determines progress in any science and in sociology too. Theoretical sociology is a set of diverse concepts that develop aspects of the social development of society and give their interpretation.
empirical sociology is more of an applied nature and is aimed at solving urgent practical issues of public life.
Empirical sociology, unlike theoretical sociology, is not aimed at creating a comprehensive picture of social reality.
This problem is solved by theoretical sociology by creating universal sociological theories. There is no core in theoretical sociology that has remained stable since its founding.
There are many concepts and theories in theoretical sociology: the materialistic concept of the development of society by K. Marx is based on the priority of economic factors in the development of society (historical materialism); there are various concepts of stratification, industrial development of societies; convergence, etc.
However, it must be remembered that certain social theories are not confirmed in the course of the historical development of society. Some of them are not realized at this or that stage of social development, others do not stand the test of time.
The specificity of theoretical sociology is that it solves the problems of studying society on the basis of scientific methods knowledge of reality.
In each of these levels of knowledge, the subject of research is specified.
This allows us to consider sociology as a system of scientific knowledge.
The functioning of this system is aimed at obtaining scientific knowledge both about the entire social organism and about its individual elements that play a different role in the process of its existence.
Levels of sociological knowledge
Another hallmark of sociology as a science is its range of research methods. In sociology method- this is a way of constructing and substantiating sociological knowledge, a set of techniques, procedures and operations of empirical and theoretical knowledge of social reality.
There are three levels of methods for studying social phenomena and processes.
First level covers general scientific methods used in all humanitarian areas knowledge (dialectical, systemic, structural-functional).
Second level reflects the methods of related sociology of the humanities (normative, comparative, historical, etc.).
Methods of the first and second levels are based on the universal principles of knowledge. These include the principles of historicism, objectivism and consistency.
The principle of historicism involves the study of social phenomena in the context of historical development, their comparison with various historical events.
The principle of objectivism means the study of social phenomena in all their contradictions; It is unacceptable to study only positive or only negative facts. The principle of consistency implies the need to study social phenomena in an inseparable unity, to identify cause-and-effect relationships.
TO third level include methods that characterize applied sociology (survey, observation, analysis of documents, etc.).
Actually sociological methods of the third level are based on the use of a complex mathematical apparatus (probability theory, mathematical statistics).
Thus, sociology is a multidimensional and multilevel system of scientific knowledge, which consists of elements that concretize the general knowledge about the subject of science, research methods and ways of its design.
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