1.

The problem of periodization of modern history. Discussions about the problems of transforming traditional society into modern society in historical science. The theory of "modernization". The theory of "industrial society".

Features of Western civilization: dynamism, individualism, rationalism, high moral prestige of work and its results, the market as a way of functioning of the economy, the class structure of society, the presence of developed horizontal connections, a legal democratic state. Mercantilism and the policy of protectionism.

2. State and society of Western European countries in the 17th century

Creating a new picture of the world. Reformation processes in Europe and North America at the beginning of modern times and their influence on mass consciousness and ideology. The pattern of economic evolution of Western society and the accompanying breakdown of political institutions, the role of Protestant ethics in the formation of a new type of social relations in the West. Trends in the development of European culture. The culture of the European and American Enlightenment. Classicism. Formation of theories of “natural rights” of man, “social contract”, “popular sovereignty” and their impact on the social life of European countries and North America.

3. The beginning of the expansion of European civilization

The beginning of the expansion of European civilization. Great geographical discoveries, their significance and consequences. Changing directions of trade and economic relations in Europe and relocation of European trade centers. Formation of a new picture of the world. The beginning of the formation of an interdependent world and the transition from local civilizations to global ones.

4. Absolutism and the emergence of bourgeois social relations

The nature of Western European absolutism. Its features are in France, England and Spain. The social basis of absolutism. Patronizing policy towards the bourgeoisie. The formation of bourgeois social relations. Technical progress. The emergence of manufacture. Price revolution. Initial accumulation of capital.

1. Peculiarities Western civilization

Let's consider the main events and processes world history, occurring in Europe at the end of the 15th-17th centuries. This era is of exceptional importance for European history. Many historians call it “the time of the great breakthrough,” and for good reason. It was during this period that the foundations of the capitalist mode of production were laid, the level of productive forces increased significantly, the forms of organization of production changed, thanks to the introduction of technical innovations, labor productivity increased and the pace of economic development accelerated. This period also became a turning point in Europe's relations with other civilizations. If before this the West was a relatively closed region, then what happened in the XV-XVII centuries. The great geographical discoveries (for more details, see Chapter 5) expanded the boundaries of the Western world and broadened the horizons of Europeans. The development of trade relations deepened the process of formation of national markets, pan-European and global. In the XVI-XVII centuries. Europe became the birthplace of the first early bourgeois revolutions.

XVI-XVII centuries marked by the first scientific revolution, which laid the foundations of modern knowledge in the field of natural and exact sciences, in the field of humanitarian and political thought, philosophical views. During the Reformation of the 16th century. Not only did religious views collide in a mortal battle, but also a system of civil rights and freedoms was born and fundamental concepts were developed in this scale of values ​​- freedom of conscience.

The formation of capitalist relations in Holland, England and other European countries at this time led to the transformation of European history into world history. The involvement of various countries and continents in the world market contributed to the destruction of feudal forms of production, put forward new tasks and problems for the feudal states, which led to a change in forms government system- During this period, the era of absolute monarchies began.

Western civilization (European civilization, “West”) - the majority of the peoples of Europe living in this part of the world and moving beyond its borders to North America, Australia and some islands in the World Ocean.
History of the concept
There are different opinions regarding the time of birth of European civilization. Within the framework of the concept of Eurocentrism, European civilization was founded by the ancient Greeks; in another concept, the emergence of a new civilization dates back to approximately the 15th-16th centuries, when the Great Geographical Discoveries of Europeans began, capitalism arose in Northern Italy and the Netherlands, and the Reformation broke the religious foundations of society.
European civilization has gone through many stages of development, with the values, morals and aspirations of people, the institutions of society and the economy in different time and in different countries Ah, they differ to the point of opposites. Thus, the religious fanaticism of the end of the Middle Ages was replaced in the 20th century by the denial of religion and indifference to it, the policy of enslavement of other peoples and the military seizure of colonies was considered normal at the beginning of the 20th century, in the 21st century it is strongly condemned (having been replaced by neo-colonialism), absolute monarchies that were common in the past were transformed through revolutions and repeated reforms into decorative republics and monarchies, many years of hostility and wars between European states gave way to their unification into the European Union, etc. Therefore, in fact, it is difficult to identify the characteristic features of this civilization, but usually everyone understands what and who called the term "West".
Many features of European civilization were borrowed over time by other peoples; in particular, the Japanese were ahead of most European nations in scientific and technological progress and economic development. At the same time, significant differences in mentality between the “East” and the “West” remain to this day. Other East Asians at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries are also actively developing their economies, primarily industry.
Signs of modern Western civilization
Signs of European civilization: the accelerating development of science and technology, individualism, positivism, universal morality, various ideologies such as democracy, liberalism, nationalism, socialism, proposed in place of traditional values.
The most important parts of Western civilization can be considered Greek philosophy, Roman law and Christian tradition. However, in the modern Western world there has been a decisive rejection of Christian values, their replacement by the so-called. universal human values.
Vasiliev L. S. East and West in history (main parameters of the issue) // Alternative paths to civilization. M.: Logos, 2000.
The Western world or Western civilization is a set of cultural, political and economic characteristics that unite the countries of Western Europe and distinguish them from other countries of the world.
Basic information
The so-called Western countries currently include the countries of Western Europe and Central Europe, the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
However, the origins of Western civilization and its leading bearers were constantly transformed geographically, culturally, linguistically and religiously. The internal antagonism between the individual groups that make up modern Western culture is also significant. It is also important to realize the non-identity of the concepts Western and European, although these terms are interrelated.
During the Cold War in the USSR and the Warsaw Pact countries, Western usually meant capitalist countries. Japan was also included in this area.
Western civilization
Western civilization is a special type of civilization (culture) that historically arose in Western Europe and underwent last centuries specific process of social modernization.
Western civilization is a type of civilization that is associated with progressive development, constant changes in human life. It arose in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The first stage of its development, called “ancient civilization,” was marked by the emergence of the basic values ​​of the Western type of society: private property relations, market-oriented private production; the first example of democracy - democracy, albeit limited; republican form of government. The foundations of a civil society were laid, ensuring individual rights and freedom, as well as a system of sociocultural principles that contributed to the mobilization of creative potential and the flourishing of the individual.
The next stage in the development of Western civilization is associated with Europe and Christianity. The Reformation gave birth to a new direction in Christianity - Protestantism, which became the spiritual basis of Western civilization. The main value of this civilization, on which all others were based, is individual freedom of choice in all spheres of life. This was directly related to the formation of a special European personality type that appeared during the Renaissance. “The individual becomes tragically responsible not only for approaching and moving away from the Highest, but also for the choice of what he, the individual, considers to be the Highest. He is responsible... not only for himself, but also to himself.”
Rationality has become the most important independent value of the West (M. Weber). Public consciousness is rational, free from religious dogma in solving practical issues, pragmatic, but the sphere of application of Christian values ​​is public morality, not only in personal life, but also in business ethics.
During the era of geographical discoveries and colonial wars, Europe spread its type of development to other regions of the world. For the first time, humanity, as a result of the worldwide spread of values ​​and institutions of Western origin (XVI-XIX centuries), was truly united within the framework of a world-wide system of connections. By the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. these values ​​and institutions became dominant on the planet and continued to determine the main features of the appearance of the Earth in our century until very recently.
The main content of the civilizational process in the 20th century. constitutes a tendency towards the historical formation of the structures of a universal world civilization. Processes that took place in the 20th century. in the West, acquired a global character, directly affecting all peoples, all other civilizations that were forced to seek an answer to the historical challenge of the West. This challenge was perceived in the concrete form of reality as an imperative for modernization. In such a situation, the question of the relationship between modernization and Westernization has become central for the vast majority of humanity in the non-Western world. Consequently, the analysis of the processes occurring in the area of ​​Western civilization is crucial for understanding the civilizational development of both humanity as a whole and its various components in the 20th century.
It is known that intercivilizational dialogue between the West and the East has always occurred. Writing came to the Greeks from the East, the first Greek philosophers studied with the Eastern sages, and the Greeks, as a result of the campaigns of Alexander the Great, influenced the East. Christianity was born in the East, which became the spiritual basis of Western civilization. B-XX centuries The process of mutual influence and mutual enrichment is especially intense various types development while preserving the civilizational characteristics of each community. The historical process is multivariate. Countries of Asia, Africa, Latin America were strongly influenced by Western civilization during the colonial empires. The European model became a reference point both for colonial countries and for populations that were not colonized but were also subject to Western influence. In the 19th century, Western-oriented reforms unfolded in the countries of the East, although most countries continued to adhere to established traditions. In the first half of the 20th century. attempts at deep reforms continued (China, India), but the beginning of the modernization of these societies coincided with the growing crisis of Western civilization, which complicated the process of introducing this type of society. After the Second World War, the process began on a larger scale, and the countries of the East, with the goal of accelerated development and industrialization, sought to preserve their fundamental civilizational values, choosing different paths of modernization.
However, not only the East is mastering Western values, but also the West is adopting Eastern values. Changes are taking place in public consciousness - the authority of the family and collectivism are strengthening, attempts are being made to spiritualize Western commercialism, and interest in Eastern philosophy, ethical and aesthetic teachings of the East is increasing. The process of mutual enrichment of countries and peoples is underway.
Considering the stages of development of Western civilization until the 20th century, we see that its main values ​​are interconnected and interdependent, but their relationship is very contradictory. The type of modern society that was originally formed in the West was created not simply on the basis of the predominance of certain aspects of existential * contradictions, but on the basis of the unconditional dominance of man over nature, the individualistic principle over public interests, the innovative side of culture over the traditional. These contradictions have been and remain the main sources of human development. But in order for a contradiction of this type to fulfill its function and persist, both sides must be quite strongly expressed. Excessive predominance of one side to the detriment of the other ultimately leads to the drying up of the source of development and the strengthening of destructive tendencies (as a result of increasing imbalances in the process of development of the civilizational system). This is the deepest basis of the civilizational crisis of the 20th century.
The formation of modern society in the West meant the establishment of capitalism, and, as a consequence, the alienation of man from the products of his activity, the transformation of the latter into a force dominating over man and hostile to him. The individual found himself face to face with the whole world, limitless and threatening. To be able to act, he must somehow get rid of this situation. There are two possible ways here: either a person builds anew, on the basis of his own choice, relationships with the world around him, restoring unity with other people and nature and at the same time preserving and developing his own individuality (without encroaching on the freedom and individuality of others), or he is looking for a way out of the situation on the way to escape from freedom. In the second case, due to a feeling of loneliness and helplessness, a desire arises to renounce one’s individuality and thereby merge with the surrounding world. Refusing the gift of free will, he is simultaneously freed from the “burden” of responsibility for his own choice.
The temptation to escape from freedom turned out to be especially strong in the 20th century. At its core, this was a crisis of that new European personality type that was mentioned earlier. The crisis was most fully manifested in the loss of the meaning of existence by Westerners. “Loss of meaning” means the collapse of that system of orientation of a person in the world (both in the reality around him and in his own soul), which developed at the previous stages historical development. Over the long centuries of the existence of European civilization, at the center of this system was, undoubtedly, faith in God in its Christian variety.
The search for the lost meaning of life constitutes the main content of the spiritual life of the West in the 20th century. At the beginning of this century, the global crisis of the West became a reality and actually continued throughout its first half. How close Western civilization was to destruction was already shown by the first World War. This war and the associated social revolutions of 1917–1918. can be considered the first stage in the development of Western civilization in the 20th century.
The First World War was a qualitatively new grandiose clash compared to all those armed conflicts that humanity had previously known. First of all, the scale of the war was unprecedented - 38 states were involved in it, where the vast majority of the world's population lived. The nature of the armed struggle became completely new - for the first time, the entire adult male population of the warring countries was mobilized, and this is more than 70 million people. For the first time, the latest technological advances were used for the mass extermination of people. For the first time, weapons of mass destruction—poisonous gases—were widely used. For the first time, the entire power of the military machine was directed against not only enemy armies, but also against civilians.
In all the warring countries, democracy was curtailed, the scope of market relations was narrowed, and the state actively intervened in the area of ​​production and distribution. Labor conscription and a card system were introduced, and measures of non-economic coercion were used. For the first time, an occupation regime was established in territories occupied by foreign armies. In terms of the number of casualties, the war was also unparalleled: 9.4 million people were killed or died from wounds, millions became disabled. The scale of violations of fundamental human rights was unprecedented. They far surpassed everything that was known to the world community at that time.

Western society entered into new stage of its development. Barracks psychology has become widespread not only in the army, but also in society. Massive destruction and extermination of people showed that human life has lost its intrinsic value. The ideals and values ​​of Western civilization were being destroyed before our eyes. Political forces were born that proposed the implementation of alternatives to the Western path, Western civilization: fascism and communism, which have different social support and different values, but equally reject the market, democracy, and individualism.
Fascism was a reflection and generation of the main contradictions of the Western path: nationalism, brought to the point of racism, and the idea of ​​social equality; the idea of ​​a technocratic state and totalitarianism. Fascism did not set as its goal the complete destruction of Western civilization; it was intended to use realistically and historically proven mechanisms. That is why it turned out to be so dangerous for the West and the whole world (by the early 40s, only its “islands” remained of Western civilization: England, Canada, the USA). In the mass consciousness, the priority of collectivist values ​​and the blocking of individualist values ​​were asserted. During the existence of fascism, certain changes occurred in the public consciousness: Hitler and his circle had irrationalism, which is not typical for the rational psychology of the West; the idea of ​​the coming of a messiah capable of saving the country, a charismatic attitude towards fascist leaders, i.e. there was a mythologization of social life.
However, even in an era of deep crisis, there was a line for the development and renewal of Western civilization, for finding ways to mitigate its inherent contradictions. In the 1930s, three democratic alternatives were put forward.
The first option is " new course» American President Roosevelt. The essence of his proposals was as follows; the state must redistribute part of the national income in favor of the poor, insure society against hunger, unemployment, poverty, and also regulate economic processes so that society does not turn into a toy of the market element.
Second option - popular fronts(NF), created in France and Spain as a special version of the democratic alternative. The main specificity of these organizations was that in response to the threat of fascism they were based on the cooperation of qualitatively different forces. Their programs included many profound reforms of a democratic and social nature. Such programs began to be implemented by the NF that came to power in France and Spain (1936). In France, the implementation of programs at the first stage led to the deepening of democracy and a significant expansion of the rights of citizens (in Spain it was not possible to fully implement the initial program, since Civil War). The main activities of the NF programs were basically similar to those carried out within the framework of Roosevelt’s “New Deal” and the Scandinavian model.
The third option is the Scandinavian social democratic model of development. In 1938, the central union of trade unions and the Swedish employers' association signed an agreement according to which the main provisions of collective agreements were established through negotiations between them. The state acted as a guarantor. After the creation of such a mechanism in Sweden, there were no major strikes or lockouts (mass layoffs) for several decades. The success of the reformist course of Swedish social democracy received a great response in the world and was significant for the entire Western civilization as a whole, demonstrating the possibility of successful functioning of society on the principles of social reformism. Despite some differences from Roosevelt’s “new course,” the Scandinavian model of overcoming the crisis was united with him in the main thing: the growth of state intervention in the socio-economic sphere was accompanied not by the curtailment of democracy, but by its further development and the expansion of citizens’ rights.
The Second World War, in which 61 states with a population of 1,700 million people participated, i.e. 3/4 of all humanity turned out to be an even more terrible test for the world than the first. It lasted 6 years and one day and claimed more than 50 million lives. The main result of many years of bloodshed was the victory of the democratic forces of the anti-Hitler coalition.
Europe emerged from the Second World War weakened. The third stage of its development has begun. Two states began to dominate the international arena: the United States of America and Soviet Union. The Geneva League of Nations, having failed to live up to expectations, was now replaced by the United Nations, headquartered in New York. The rule of the great colonial empires in Africa and Asia collapsed. In Eastern Europe, where the troops were stationed Soviet army, satellite states were created. The United States expanded its political, economic, and military ties with Western Europe through the implementation of the Marshall Plan (1947) and the creation of NATO (1949). In 1955, the USSR and other socialist countries created their own military-political union - the Warsaw Pact. Growing misunderstanding and mutual distrust between the two superpowers eventually led to the Cold War.
The defeat of fascism in the Second World War through the efforts of the USSR and democratic countries opened the way for the renewal of Western civilization. In difficult conditions (Cold War, arms race, confrontation) it acquired a new look: forms of private property changed (collective forms began to prevail: joint-stock, cooperative, etc.); The middle strata (medium and small owners) became more powerful, interested in the stability of society, democracy and the protection of the individual, i.e. the social base for destructive tendencies (social conflicts, revolutions) has narrowed. The socialist idea began to lose its class character, as the social structure of society changed under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution (STR); The working class began to disappear with its desire to establish the dictatorship of the proletariat and the humanistic ideal to regain value.
The increased level of national wealth makes it possible to create a high level of social protection of the individual and redistribute this wealth in favor of the less affluent sections of society. A new level of development of democracy is emerging, the main slogan of which is individual rights; The interdependence of states due to economic development is growing. Interdependence leads to the abandonment of absolute state sovereignty and national priorities in favor of multinational communities (Common European House, Atlantic Society, etc.). These changes correspond to the tasks of social progress.
Today, the unity of humanity lies in the fact that nothing significant can happen anywhere without affecting everyone. “Our age is universal not only in its external features, but absolutely universal, since it is global in nature. Now we are talking not about something interconnected in its internal meaning, but also about integrity, within which constant communication takes place. Nowadays, this process is designated as universal. This universality must lead to a completely different solution to the question of human existence than ever before. For if all previous periods of cardinal transformations were local, could be supplemented by other events, in other places, in other worlds, if during a catastrophe in one of these cultures there remained the possibility that a person would be saved with the help of other cultures, then now everything that happens is absolutely and final in its meaning. The internal significance of the ongoing process is also of a completely different nature than the axial time. Then there was fullness, now there is emptiness."
Global problems, which humanity faced in the 20th century, were generated by technogenic Western civilization. The Western path is not a fairy-tale idyll. Ecological disasters, global crises in the fields of politics, peace and war show that a certain limit of progress in its traditional forms has been reached. Modern researchers offer various theories of “limiting progress”, understanding that there is a certain environmental imperative, i.e. a set of conditions that a person has no right to violate under any circumstances. All this makes us think and critically analyze the prospects and achievements of Western civilization. Apparently in the 21st century. world civilization will develop, focusing not only on the achievements of Western civilization, but also taking into account the accumulated experience of the development of the East.
1. European West: the emergence of Pre-Industrial Civilization
In world history, pre-industrial civilization occupies a special place as a civilization of a transitional stage, the chronological boundaries of which include the 16th-18th centuries. Pre-industrial civilization, after a thousand-year pause, returned Europe to the role of political and economic leader. The smooth, slow, traditional and predictable development of Medieval civilization is replaced by an era of accelerated historical tempo, confrontation between old and new traditions, forms of spiritual life, knowledge and skills, social, national and state-legal institutions, increasing instability, disorder, crises and revolutions. If the Middle Ages laid the foundations of the European world (states within their current borders, forms of power and political culture, languages), then Pre-industrial civilization expanded the boundaries of the ecumene, expanded the boundaries of the market, opened the way to capitalism, revived man, gave him the right to choose, exalted the mind, changed ideas about the world around us and the possibilities of understanding it, raised the question of the meaning of life, and experienced the delight and disappointment of the revolution.
A significant milestone in the history of Pre-industrial civilization was the Renaissance (XIV-XVII centuries), which in its significance is comparable to the first intellectual revolution of the VI-IV centuries. BC. in Greece. It is no coincidence that the Renaissance began with an appeal to the ancient Greek heritage and was the beginning of the era of humanism, which lasted until the middle of the 19th century. During the era of Pre-industrial civilization, the Great scientific revolution, which laid the foundations modern science in various fields of knowledge. The scientific revolution was also connected with the General Technical Revolution, for it was fueled by the achievements of practice and satisfied its needs. The boundaries of the market were strengthened and expanded, the process of initial accumulation of capital, the formation of capitalism in trade, industry, maritime transport, and partly in agriculture(enclosure process in England). Pre-industrial civilization is a turbulent time in the prehistory of capital, but it is also a period of stable absolutist Middle Ages, when absolutist national states were formed. Great geographical discoveries and sea voyages led to the formation of world colonial empires, among which Spain was the first, and then England. In Europe, further consolidation of a single historical space continued, the dominance of material culture began to assert itself, the social structure of society changed, free owners and entrepreneurs began to appear, competition and competitiveness arose, and a new ideology emerged.
Pre-industrial civilization developed on different principles than the civilization of the Middle Ages that preceded it. What are these principles?
First of all, this is modernization, i.e. destruction of the very foundations of the previous traditional civilization. Modernization included: urbanization - the unprecedented growth of cities, which for the first time gained economic dominance over the countryside, pushing it into the background; industrialization, the ever-increasing use of machines in production, the beginning of which is associated with the industrial revolution in England at the end of the 18th century; democratization of political structures, when the preconditions for the formation of civil society and the rule of law were laid; growth of knowledge about nature and society and secularization, i.e. secularization of consciousness and the development of atheism.
Formed new system ideas about the purpose and role of man. The man of the previous traditional civilization was confident in the stability of the nature and society around him, which were perceived as something unchangeable, existing according to Divine laws. The man of Pre-Industrial Civilization believed that it was possible and even desirable to control society and nature, and even change it. The attitude towards state power becomes different. In the eyes of people, she is deprived of the Divine aura. Power is judged by the results of its actions. It is no coincidence that pre-industrial civilization is an era of revolutions, conscious attempts to violently rebuild the world. Revolution is the key word of Pre-industrial civilization.
The personality and type of person changes. Man of the Pre-Industrial Age is mobile and quickly adapts to changes. He feels himself to be part of a large community of class or nation, while the man of the Middle Ages was limited by the boundaries of his class, corporation, city, village. Changes are also taking place in the value system of mass consciousness. The gap between mass consciousness and the consciousness of the intellectual elite is narrowing due to the growth of literacy and later the development of the media.
2. Demographic and ethnic processes in Early Modern times
Pre-industrial civilization is characterized by a significant acceleration in the rate of population growth in Europe, although this process was very uneven. So, by the 16th century. the population of Europe grew from 69 million to 100 million people, and in the 17th century. was already 115 million. Population growth was facilitated by the features of the traditional type of its reproduction (early marriages, large families, widespread extramarital affairs), increased standard of living, especially among the wealthy part of society, and improving diet. In the XVI-XVII centuries. Sugar consumption increased sharply, food became more varied and high-calorie, but the average life expectancy was only 30-35 years. The reason for this was frequent crop failures, poor sanitary conditions, especially in cities, diseases and epidemics. Thus, the plague epidemic of the 17th century. affected almost the entire Mediterranean, when half of the urban population died out. Plague in Germany during Thirty Years' War led to a reduction in the number of subjects of the Duke of Württemberg from 400 to 59 thousand people. Numerous wars and uprisings also played their sad role. During the Great peasant war in Germany in 1524-1525. up to 100 thousand people died, and during the Thirty Years' War, the population in Germany alone was reduced by half. With the beginning of the use of firearms, the killing of civilians became a kind of norm accompanying military losses. The population also decreased as a result of the fight against dissent.
The bulk of the European population were rural residents (80-90%). Further urban growth continues. The most big city Europe had Paris, which had 300 thousand inhabitants, as well as Naples 270 thousand, London and Amsterdam 100 thousand each, Rome and Lisbon 50 thousand each.
The processes of ethnic consolidation and, above all, the formation of large nationalities and ethnic groups continued. Where the sprouts of capitalism were most stable, the formation of nations took place, which in the 17th century. either completed or was close to completion. This was facilitated by the formation of large centralized states. The English and French nations emerged, and the formation of nations also took place in Spain, Germany, and Italy.
3. Great geographical discoveries - the beginning of the oceanic global civilization of the 15th century. became a turning point in Europe's relations with other civilizations. For a long time, the West lived a relatively closed life. Relations with the East were limited mainly to trade. The first meeting of civilizations took place during the Crusades (XI-XIII centuries), but then Western European medieval civilization retreated, leaving the lands previously captured by the crusaders to the Islamic world. The second breakthrough was made by the Great Geographical Discoveries, on the first initial stage which (end of the 15th century - beginning of XVI c.) the initiative belonged to the Spaniards and Portuguese. Europeans discovered New World and made the first circumnavigation of the world; in search of the treasures of India, a number of expeditions passed along the coast of Africa. In 1456, the Portuguese managed to reach Cape Verde, and in 1486, the expedition of B. Diaz circumnavigated the African continent from the south. In 1492, Christopher Columbus, an Italian living in Spain, crossed the Atlantic Ocean in search of India and discovered America. In 1498, the Spanish traveler Vasco da Gama, having circumnavigated Africa, brought ships to India. At the second stage of the Great Geographical Discoveries (from the mid-16th century to the mid-17th century), the initiative was seized by the Dutch, English and French. In the 17th century Australia was discovered, Europeans sailed their ships around America and Asia. After the Great Geographical Discoveries, the process of formation of an oceanic global civilization began. People's understanding of countries and peoples expanded; industry, trade, and credit and financial relations began to develop rapidly in Europe. The leading trading centers of the Mediterranean countries changed and shifted, giving way to Holland, and later England, which found themselves at the center of world trade routes that moved from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean. Inflow precious metals to Europe caused a price revolution, rising prices for food and raw materials for production. After the great geographical discoveries, maize, potatoes, tomatoes, beans, capsicums, and cocoa beans appeared in Europe. So, the Great Geographical Discoveries, having given a powerful impetus to the development of industry and trade, contributed to the formation of capitalist relations. The meeting of the West with the rest of the world became an important factor in Pre-Industrial Civilization. But it had a dramatic and contradictory character, since the thirst for knowledge of Europeans who went on long journeys was intricately intertwined with the thirst for profit and the desire to establish Christian ideals among other peoples, which corresponded to the motto God, glory, gold. In the overseas possessions conquered by the Spaniards and Portuguese, which were in the last stages of the development of ancient societies, a violent leap was made into the Middle Ages, with the dominance feudal relations, the relapse of slavery and the destruction of original pagan cultures. By the middle of the 17th century. The civilizations of the Mayans, Aztecs, and Incas, which already had their own statehood, perished. The slave trade was revived, bringing fabulous profits. Due to a lack of labor, Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French ships began to import blacks to America.
V.P. Budanova
History of world civilizations
Western civilization is the process of development of the countries of Western Europe, the USA and Canada, which have the prerequisites for the successful development of the technogenic side of civilization.
D. F. Terin
“West” and “East” in the institutional approach to civilization
Ideas about the fundamental difference between the West and the East (at first in an almost intuitive, unreflected form) developed in European social science back in the 18th century. These ideas are expressed especially clearly, for example, in the “Persian Letters” of C. Montesquieu. Long before the concept of a social institution arose, the external dissimilarity and irreducibility of “Western” and “non-Western” modes of social existence were explained by the absence of private property in the East, which supposedly leads to “universal slavery.” As the idea of ​​progress was established, the idea of ​​eternity (at least since the rise of civilization) of the two types of society was gradually replaced by the idea of ​​their historical continuity: the “West” began to be seen as a form emerging at a certain stage of historical development, and, accordingly, more progressive (and not just “better” or “more correct”) in comparison with the “East”, and the “Eastern” societies contemporary to this or that researcher are considered to be lagging behind Western ones in development. In the 19th century ideas of this kind have undoubtedly become dominant. In the 20th century The dichotomy "East - West", rethought in the categories of "traditional" and "modern", was already considered the main distinction in social theory.
However, the success of "traditional/modern" theories, as in in this case should be called the theory of modernization, does not mean that the idea of ​​contrasting “West - East” in its original, or very close to its original, quality has lost scientific relevance. It is still present in the discourse of modern sociology in relation to the civilizational aspects of the study of society. Among the sociologists dealing with this issue are A. S. Akhiezer, V. V. Ilyin, S. G. Kirdina, L. M. Romanenko and a number of others. In this case, we are talking about a common problem field for these authors and the similarity of their original theoretical principles, expressed in the recognition of two alternatives to civilizational development and special attention to the reproduction of economic and political institutions as the main difference between these alternatives.
The idea of ​​civilization (V. Mirabeau is considered to be the author of the term itself in a meaning close to the modern one) initially included ideas about both the consistent improvement of social mores, the use of a “reasonable approach” in the field of law and politics, and the result already achieved by European nations process. The concept of civilization, opposed to “barbarism,” an uncivil state, very successfully captured the difference between Europe and the rest of the non-European world. Subsequently, the meaning of the term “civilization” underwent quite significant changes. Without touching here on the history of the words “civilization” and “culture” in different European languages, we will only say that by now the social scientific term “civilization” contains in its generic meaning some abstract and universal characteristic of any society that has overcome the primitive state, and in species meaning - a specific sociocultural community, the bearer of this universal characteristics, existing on a par with other similar communities. Similar to this and abstract concept culture coexists in science with the idea of ​​many specific cultures. Such a distinction between the generic and specific meaning of a single concept allows us to preserve the idea of ​​a single human civilization as a universal qualitative specificity of all developed societies in a comparative study of specific societies. This specificity represents a fundamentally different artificial, man-made social order compared to the “natural” primitiveness, an order of domination and subordination, ensured by the economy, division of labor and exchange; a type of society characterized by significant structural differentiation and the presence of a number of mandatory institutions, classified as economic, political, stratification, etc.
When considering "Civilization" and civilizations with a lowercase letter, one can choose one of two angles of view: in the first case, the object of close attention will be symbols, value and ideological systems rather than social practices, religion or myth rather than economics; in the second it’s the other way around. The first approach (presented in social science names of O. Spengler, A. Toynbee, F. Bagby, D. Wilkinson, S. Eisenstadt, W. McNeil, S. Huntington, S. Ito and other authors) gives rise to various classifications or lists of local civilizations, the number of which varies greatly from author to author - in direct dependence on the main criterion that makes it possible to call this or that society or group of societies a separate civilization. However, the existence of these local civilizations, regardless of their number, does not encroach on a single human civilization, Civilization with a capital C.
The second approach, referred to here as institutional, emphasizes dominant social practices down to symbolic structures. Appeal to social practices affirms this approach as a properly sociological one, in contrast to cultural studies and other possible approaches. Its second feature - the frightening inevitability of the existence of two (almost always just two) civilizations - in our opinion, is the result of the influence of the old ideologeme "West - East". This concept, in the form in which it is present in scientific discourse, radically breaks with ideas about the universality of the structure of civilized societies, since it draws as deep distinctions between the “West” and the “East” as between each of these civilizational types of society and societies pre-civilized (primitive). At the same time, data from paleosociology and historical anthropology about high complexity social organization of so-called primitive societies.
What exactly are the differences between the West and the East expressed in the “institutional” interpretation, and on what are they based? V.V. Ilyin gives a list of 23 paired reciprocal features that distinguish the West and the East: liberality - authority, legality - voluntarism, self-organization - directivity, differentiation - syncretism, particularity - absolutism, individuality - collectivity, etc. . The “Western” and “Eastern” sets of these characteristics represent opposing value complexes; at the same time, according to the author, they act as attributes of the institutional-technological, that is, the civilizational identity of individuals. The West and the East here differ in the way they maintain and reproduce life, in their principles of life, in the way they “accomplish historical existence.” At the same time, the motive of the civilizational confrontation between the West and the East is strengthened by emphasizing the specificity of the mechanisms of activity and reproduction of life in the West as civilians: the semantics of the word “civilization” (from the Latin civilis - urban, civil) in this case “works” for the recognition of only the West as a “real” civilization .
A. S. Akhiezer believes that the differences between the two forms of civilization (or “supercivilization” in his terminology) are based on two fundamentally different types of reproduction: static, aimed at preserving the historically established culture and level of efficiency (“traditional supercivilization”), and intensive, related to progress social relations, culture and reproductive activity itself (“liberal supercivilization”). This idea clearly echoes the thoughts of A. Toynbee that the main difference between civilization and primitive (“primitive”) society lies not in the presence or absence of institutions and not in the division of labor, but precisely in the direction of imitation: in a primitive society it is aimed at towards older generations, and in a civilized society - towards creative individuals. But if for Toynbee (who, by the way, identified more than two dozen local civilizations), the essence of civilization was its ability to develop, then the domestic researcher reserves the right to progress to only one of its two forms.
Progress as “a special type of systematic sociocultural changes leading from traditional to liberal supercivilization and constituting the value content of the latter” occupies an important place in the extremely rich and original terminological apparatus of A. S. Akhiezer. The above definition could suggest the error of classifying this theoretical scheme as one of the concepts of the “East - West” type, especially since the author himself does not use these terms. However, it is precisely this progress that seems to us quite specific. In contrast to classical evolutionary progress, which leaves a lot of traces in the form of numerous gradually different forms, widely scattered throughout all modernizing societies, this progress (or rather, its failures) generates only a kind of hybrid intermediate civilization, burdened by an internal split, which is an unnecessary phase in the process, but only an inorganic conglomerate, a mechanical mixture of institutions and ideals of its past and someone else’s future, which arose as a result unsuccessful attempts modernization. Because of this eloquent, in our opinion, absence of a continuum of obligatory intermediate forms between the designated poles, one gets the impression that the movement itself remains outside the concept. Progress turns out to be unrelated to evolution, perhaps even one-time. And thus, A. S. Akhiezer’s concept as a whole still has more in common with the idea of ​​“East - West” than with theories of modernization of an evolutionary orientation. Let us add that reproduction itself, which determines the civilizational structure of society, is designated by A. S. Akhiezer as “the main definition of human activity,” or activity itself, one way or another normatively organized in its forms, and in this regard, the whole picture of traditional and liberal civilizations appears undoubtedly institutional.
L. M. Romanenko, when distinguishing societies of “Western” and “Eastern” types, draws attention to the techniques of organizing the economic sphere, intensive in “Western” and extensive in “Eastern” societies. In her opinion, this difference is determined by the initial difference in environmental conditions. The intensive organization of the economic subsystem of Western-style societies has led to the emergence of a new type of social systems, distinguished by the relationship between power structures and the economy.
The option proposed by the “theory of institutional matrices” by S. G. Kirdina is also of undoubted interest. Institutional matrices are considered by her as stable systems of basic institutions of society that regulate the functioning of the economic, political and ideological spheres, and the entire diversity of civilized societies is based on one of two types of matrices, called “Eastern” and “Western”. The Western matrix is ​​characterized by the basic institutions of a market economy, the principles of federation in the political structure and the dominance of individual values ​​in the ideological sphere, and the Eastern matrix, accordingly, is characterized by a non-market economy, unitary statehood and the priority of communitarian, transpersonal values. Although basic institutions do not exhaust all institutional forms of society, they dominate over the alternative ones present, and thus, the border between West and East in this concept is drawn no less categorically than in others.
Based on Marx’s idea about the determining role of material and technical factors, or the technological environment, in the formation of the institutions of society, S. G. Kirdina substantiates the idea of ​​two types, or two alternative social properties, of this environment, each of which is responsible for the reproduction of one of the two civilization models. Thus, the concepts of “communal” and “non-communal” environments arise. The first type involves its use as an indivisible system, and the second - the possibility of technological isolation of the most important elements of infrastructure. The properties of the communal and non-communal environment are reflections of the properties of the economic landscape: its homogeneity/heterogeneity or its inherent level of economic risks. In our opinion, it is quite remarkable that these properties are not actually subject to any changes in the course of technological progress and remain unchanged extra-social guarantors of the stability of the fundamental social properties of the East and West.
As can be seen from the examples given by the author, in any technological environment there are some minimal elements that cannot be further decomposed. And in this sense, a peasant farm (as an example of a non-communal environment) is just as indivisible into component parts or operations without compromising the functioning of the system, as, for example, a gas pipeline or Railway(as examples of communal environments). The relative scales of these minimal elements of the environment can be very different, but it still seems more likely that they depend much more on the characteristics of specific human activity than on the properties of the territory, and therefore cannot be constant over time. Perhaps the very fact that various elements of the technological environment, which can be considered entities of the same order, appear here as fundamentally different, alternative foundations or conditions for the formation of social institutions, is an effect that depends on the methodological “optics” of the researcher. Since we are, in fact, talking about the general theoretical and ideological foundations of scientific conclusion, we can only carefully recall the existence of a maxim calling not to explain the social through the non-social. In any case, the primordial nature of the “communal” and “non-communal” environment is obvious. If we do not try to derive the properties of social institutions (even indirectly) from the unchanging properties of the landscape, then the fate of the dichotomously interpreted differences, on the basis of which serious conclusions are drawn about the civilizational nature of a particular society, may turn out to be completely different.
As mentioned above, when contrasting two civilizational types, special importance is always attached to the economic subsystem of society. The sphere of economics, or economic activity, as is known, covers the area of ​​making choices that people make using rare, limited resources to satisfy their needs. As long as rare resources exist, economic institutions also exist - long-term social practices that regulate human activity in this area1. From the point of view of the institutional approach, the commonality ends here, since all economic institutions that exist and have ever existed during civilization are divided into two fundamentally different, alternative economies, generally designated as “market” and “non-market”. In this case, the differences between the economies of the West and the East can be considered either indirectly - based on the existence/non-existence of the institution of private property, or directly - from the point of view of the dominance of one of two forms of integration in economic activity: exchange or distribution. In the latter case, private property takes its place among other basic institutions of a market (“Western”) economy, such as competition, exchange, hiring labor, and profit as a criterion of efficiency.
The topic of market and non-market (distributive, redistributive) economies as the most characteristic difference between two types of society in the economic sphere seems to be more general and comprehensive. Even when it is said that both of these economies extremely rarely exist in their pure form, it is still usually meant that at least for a market economy this is possible, and therefore the “market/non-market” criterion can serve as the basis for a typology based on institutional level. One clarification is necessary here, which is important precisely from the point of view of the typological value of this criterion.
Modern economic theory recognizes the existence of two main fundamentally possible ways of coordinating countless individual cases of economic choice - spontaneous order and hierarchy. The embodiment of the principle of spontaneous order in real economies is the market, based on the interaction of independent parties in response to economic incentives, and the embodiment of the hierarchical principle is the firm. Trying to answer the question of why firms are always built on hierarchical principles if the "invisible hand" of the market is so good at coordinating at the macroeconomic level, economic theory eventually came to the conclusion that the firm (and therefore the hierarchy) ) is a means of saving non-production costs, which always increase in proportion to complexity specific task. This conclusion, only at first glance, may seem far from the topic of differences between the West and the East. In fact, it means that precisely to the extent that economic activity is a rationally organized activity, it in its immediate form is always organized hierarchically. And no matter how much a particular economy is market, “open,” etc., market principles of coordination do not transcend the boundaries of the company. Basic Economic Institute modern societies- a firm - is always based on non-market principles of organization. It follows that hierarchy is inevitable, but the spontaneous order of market exchange is only possible (which is confirmed by researchers of non-market economies), and therefore, the modality of these characteristics themselves is different and they cannot form a dichotomous pair.
In the institutional approach to civilization, differences in the political institutions of the West and the East are, to a certain extent, a continuation of the differences in their economic institutions. From the point of view of S.G. Kirdina, the political (and ideological) system of the West is regulated by the basic institutions of federation and subsidiarity, while the Eastern institutional matrix is ​​characterized by unitarity and communitarianism. “Subsidiarity” in the system of federal relations denotes the priority of a smaller self-governing community over a community of a higher level, but in the most general sense this term means a higher value of “I” in relation to “We”, the primacy of the personal principle, the most important principle, as if through and through permeating all Western institutions. If we remember what was said above about the nature of firms, then these provisions, which are correct in their own way, should, in our opinion, be supplemented. A typical individual spends 8 hours every day at work in a company, about half of the time he is in reality Everyday life included in a rigid hierarchical structure, within which subsidiarity does not manifest itself in any way. The internal environment of the company should be defined as completely communitarian; at the same time, it is the firm that acts as the primary bearer of the properties of individuality and subsidiarity. The subsidiarity of the individual in such a system is somewhat similar to St. George’s Day of the Russian serf, because, using the freedom to choose a specific hierarchy, it is nevertheless impossible to abolish the laws of the rational (that is, hierarchical) structure of the company - this would be tantamount to the encroachment of chaos on order. At the same time, precisely based on the idea of ​​social order as the interdependence of basic institutions, it should be recognized that the property of hierarchy, usually attributed to the East, is in fact an integral part of any social system that has reached the level of civilization. Thus, in addition to the features that distinguish the West from the East (that is, in fact, from other civilizational options), there are others that confirm their deep similarity and affinity.
When it comes to political institutions, then, of course, first of all we mean the state. The state, as the most visible and indisputable sign of civilization, is given a significant place in the institutional approach. A. S. Akhiezer explains the origin of the state that arises in traditional civilization by extrapolating the values ​​and properties of “local worlds,” that is, communities, to a large society. Traditional civilization is characterized institutionally by a syncretic state, the syncretism of which is associated in its origin with the syncretism of local communities, the fusion of power and property. Such a traditional state - syncretic and authoritarian - is opposed by its liberal antithesis, based on the separation of powers, the rule of law, the market and individual freedom. In the joint work of V.V. Ilyin and A.S. Akhiezer, dedicated to the theory of the state, a significant part of the material is also presented in a civilizational aspect. They emphasize the integrative role of the state in the institutionalization of intersubjective connections, the objective nature of management support for the reproduction process. Due to all the operating factors, statehood in the East turned out to be in the form of despotism, a rigid dictatorial unity of command, most adequate to the tasks of optimal reproduction of sociality associated with irrigation agriculture. If we take into account what has been said above about hierarchical structures, then there is no need to specifically deduce their existence from “irrigated agriculture on alluvial soils” (and thus appeal, either directly or not, to the well-known theory of “hydraulic societies” by K. Wittfogel); What remains indisputable here is only the genetic connection of such structures and mechanisms of civilization.
In the theory of institutional matrices by S. G. Kirdina, as already noted, the state of the Western institutional type is generally called “federal”; Among its institutions are self-government, elections, multi-party systems and similar political practices that have developed mainly over the past two centuries. At the same time, to characterize the eastern political system, examples from a more distant era are more often used, and there is apparently no contradiction in this. If we talk about the institutional approach as a whole, it is against the background of a comparative analysis of the statehood of the West and the East as civilizational types that the ahistorical, absolute status given to these categories is quite clearly visible. “East is East, and West is West,” repeats V.V. Ilyin following R. Kipling.
Of course, a special emphasis on economic and political institutions in the analysis of social systems is justified (among other things, also by the existing authoritative tradition), but no matter how important the economic and political spheres of a civilized society are from this point of view, they far from exhaust all forms of human activity subject to habituation, typification, institutionalization. The institutional complexes used to compare the West and the East are not complete and do not include all groups of institutions. The lack of interest in, say, the institutions of kinship, family, and primary socialization in such comparisons is quite understandable - they are older than civilization, and therefore it is unlikely that differences in them can serve as a convenient criterion for distinguishing between its variants. The situation is different with stratification institutions. Although the authors whose concepts are discussed here do not often use the terms “status”, “group”, “stratum”, etc., the very theme of differences in social practices and norms related to inequality is present in the approach, constituting the content of the “power - power” dilemma. own". Thus, V.V. Ilyin, drawing distinctions between the institutions of the West and the East along the line of “power - property”, sees the distinctive features of the East in the primacy of power over property, the absence of an explicit subject of property and the subject of civil rights and, as a consequence, in the predominant spread of vertical (subordinative) social connections (as opposed to horizontal, partnership connections in the West). The Western model, in his opinion, thanks to the early development of private law, excluded the dependence of property on the government, economic activity on the state; the eastern one excluded possessiveness itself, its social structure was reproduced as a rank-status hierarchy. For L. M. Romanenko, the dilemma of power and property is at the center of the institutional differences between the “Western” and “Eastern” types of social systems. The emancipation of the institution of property in the West, in her opinion, led to the emergence of two different ladders of social hierarchy: one based on power relations, the second on property relations. The actualization of this second basis of stratification was crucial for the differentiation of Western societies. As a result, the basis of the social stratification structure in the West is formed by a set of economically and politically independent subjects, the class of owners, the middle layer. Further differences between these types of social systems are described in terms of two models of civil society, differing in the predominant nature social interactions, subjects of interaction, etc.
Emphasizing the signs of separation/inseparability of power and property actually always means understanding these two categories as antagonistic elements, conflicting or even mutually exclusive principles. In order not to go into a special consideration of this difficult issue, let us briefly say that in modern sociology there is an opposite, very widespread and authoritative point of view on the relationship between power and property. According to it, “property is actually revealed as a process of disposal, possession and appropriation. This means that property is a power relationship, a form of economic power. This is the power of the owner of an object over those who do not own it, but at the same time need it.” Power and property are basic concepts of inequality, but both categories denote the ability to manage various resources of society. Accepting this logic immediately deprives the property and power relationship of the character of a dilemma.
When exactly in world history did the division of humanity into two civilizational types occur? Taking into account the above, the same question can be formulated in another way: when exactly did the West appear?2 According to S. G. Kirdina, the West and the East arise simultaneously with the emergence of the first civilizations, and she cites the states of Mesopotamia as an example of the Western institutional matrix, and Ancient Egypt- eastern 3. And although the entire volume of basic institutions of the West cannot be attributed to the ancient Mesopotamia, this thesis, based on the internal logic of the concept, has support externally - in the idea existing in Russian historical science about the different paths of development of societies of early antiquity (see, for example, ). But still, a more common point of view is that the West emerges from the ancient polis organization. L. S. Vasiliev, for example, writes: “Only once in history, as a result of a kind of social mutation, on the basis of this system [“eastern”] in unique natural, socio-political and other circumstances, a different one, market-private property, arose in its original antique form." At the same time, V.V. Ilyin characterizes the East, among other things, by the fact that “in the East, in contrast to the West, there are no economic classes, there are legal strata and those without rights.” From this it seems that one can conclude that the emergence of the West should be dated only to the moment of the destruction of classes as layers with legally established different amounts of rights, or even the time of the extension of universal suffrage to women, etc. It is easy to notice that in many other cases the features abstractly presented as attributes of the West are of very recent origin. All this can lead to the idea that the West arose very late, very close to modern times, or even to the completely seditious idea that it may not have arisen yet.
In our opinion, the West is just such an absolute West - and in the institutional approach it has the appearance of a project or, perhaps, a metaphor for modernity. The disappearance of the absolutely alternative West (the West from the well-known formula the West and the Rest) would naturally lead to the fact that, having lost its alternative, the East would cease to be the East as an entity possessing the indispensable unity of its basic institutions.
For the institutional approach to civilization itself, this, in our opinion, would be only for the better, since, perhaps, it would make it possible to explain many controversially interpreted facts and answer questions like this, for example: why the dominance of the principle of collectivity (or communitarianism), giving rise to state socialism in the Far East, could not give birth to it in the Middle East? And it is quite possible that even the problem of the civilizational status of Russia, which is the main or at least the main topic of most of the cited works, but at the same time still remains debatable, would find in this case a solution that satisfies the available facts.
Variants of civilization differ from each other institutionally (or - including institutionally); this is perhaps a generally accepted fact. But the highest possible taxonomic status of the West and the East, equal to Civilization itself, in the considered version of the institutional approach seems only a tribute to dichotomous thinking. The reality of civilization still seems more complicated.
Notes
1 Without going into the interpretation of the concept of “rare resource,” we can accept the statement that the weak differentiation of economic institutions in a pre-civilized society is associated with the lack of resources that would be considered rare. In this sense, a pre-civilized society is in some sense also “pre-economic”.
2 The widespread idea that the West ultimately emerges from the events that gave rise to modernity is closely related to theories of modernization. Such a “relative” West is, of course, only a phase of development and a synonym for modernity. The West, in the binary construction in question, is the absolute West.
3 It is characteristic that V.V. Ilyin and A.S. Akhiezer consider the ancient Mesopotamia as the East.

The term " middle Ages"was first used by Italian humanists in the 15th century. to denote the period between classical antiquity and their time. In Russian historiography, the lower boundary of the Middle Ages is also traditionally considered to be the 5th century. AD - the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and the upper one - the 17th century, when the bourgeois revolution took place in England.

The Middle Ages period is extremely important for Western European civilization: the processes and events of that time still often determine the nature of the political, economic, and cultural development of the countries of Western Europe. Thus, it was during this period that the religious community of Europe was formed and a new direction in Christianity emerged, which most contributed to the formation of bourgeois relations, Protestantism, and an urban culture took shape, which largely determined modern mass Western European culture; the first parliaments arise and the principle of separation of powers receives practical implementation; the foundations of modern science and the education system are laid; The ground is being prepared for the industrial revolution and the transition to an industrial society.

Three stages can be distinguished in the development of Western European medieval society:

Early Middle Ages (V - X centuries) - the process of the formation of the main structures characteristic of the Middle Ages;

The Classical Middle Ages (XI - XV centuries) - the time of maximum development of medieval feudal institutions;

Late Middle Ages (XV - XVII centuries) - a new capitalist society begins to form. This division is largely arbitrary, although generally accepted; Depending on the stage, the main characteristics of Western European society change. Before considering the features of each stage, we highlight the most important features inherent in the entire period of the Middle Ages

Medieval society in Western Europe was agrarian. The basis of the economy is agriculture, and the vast majority of the population was employed in this area. Labor in agriculture, as in other branches of production, was manual, which predetermined its low efficiency and generally slow pace of technical and economic evolution.

The vast majority of the population of Western Europe lived outside the city throughout the Middle Ages. If for ancient Europe cities were very important - they were independent centers of life, the nature of which was predominantly municipal, and a person’s belonging to a city determined his civil rights, then in Medieval Europe, especially in the first seven centuries, the role of cities was insignificant, although over time Over time, the influence of cities is increasing.

The Western European Middle Ages was a period of dominance of subsistence farming and weak development of commodity-money relations. The insignificant level of regional specialization associated with this type of economy determined the development of mainly long-distance (external) rather than short-range (internal) trade. Long-distance trade was aimed mainly at the upper strata of society. Industry during this period existed in the form of crafts and manufacturing.

The Middle Ages is characterized by an exceptionally strong role of the church and high degree ideologization of society. If in the Ancient world each nation had its own religion, which reflected its national characteristics, history, temperament, way of thinking, then in Medieval Europe there was one religion for all peoples - Christianity, which became the basis for uniting Europeans into one family, the formation of a single European civilization. The process of pan-European integration was contradictory: along with rapprochement in the field of culture and religion, there is a desire for national isolation in terms of statehood development. The Middle Ages are the time of the formation of national states, which exist in the form of monarchies, both absolute and class-representative. Features political power there was its fragmentation, as well as its connection with conditional ownership of land. If in ancient Europe the right to own land was determined for a free person by his nationality - the fact of his birth in a given polis and the resulting civil rights, then in medieval Europe the right to land depended on a person’s belonging to a certain class. Medieval society is class-based. There were three main classes: the nobility, the clergy and the people (peasants, artisans, and merchants were united under this concept). Estates had different rights and responsibilities and played different socio-political and economic roles.

Vassalage system. The most important characteristic of medieval Western European society was its hierarchical structure, the system of vassalage. At the head of the feudal hierarchy was the king - the supreme overlord and, at the same time, often only the nominal head of state. This conditionality of the absolute power of the highest person in the states of Western Europe is also an essential feature of Western European society, in contrast to the truly absolute monarchies of the East. Even in Spain (where the power of royal power was quite noticeable), when the king was installed in the office, the grandees, in accordance with the established ritual, uttered the following words: “We, who are no worse than you, make you, who are no better than us, king, in order to you respected and defended our rights. And if not, then no.” Thus, the king in medieval Europe was merely “first among equals,” and not an all-powerful despot. It is characteristic that the king, occupying the first step of the hierarchical ladder in his state, could well be a vassal of another king or the Pope.

On the second rung of the feudal ladder were the king's direct vassals. These were large feudal lords - dukes, counts; archbishops, bishops, abbots. According to the immunity certificate received from the king, they had various types of immunity (from the Latin - immunity). The most common types of immunity were tax, judicial and administrative, i.e. the owners of the immunity certificates themselves collected taxes from their peasants and townspeople, held court, and made administrative decisions. Feudal lords of this level could mint their own coins, which often circulated not only within a given estate, but also outside it. The submission of such feudal lords to the king was often simply formal.

On the third rung of the feudal ladder stood the vassals of dukes, counts, and bishops - the barons. They enjoyed virtual immunity on their estates. Even lower were the vassals of the barons - the knights. Some of them could also have their own vassals, even smaller knights, while others had only peasants subordinate to them, who, however, stood outside the feudal ladder.

The vassalage system was based on the practice of land grants. The person who received the land became a vassal, the one who gave it became a lord. Land was given under certain conditions, the most important of which was service as a seigneur, which, according to feudal custom, was usually 40 days a year. The most important duties of a vassal in relation to his lord were participation in the lord's army, protection of his possessions, honor, dignity, and participation in his council. If necessary, the vassals ransomed the lord from captivity.

When receiving land, the vassal swore an oath of allegiance to his master. If the vassal did not fulfill his obligations, the lord could take the land from him, but this was not so easy to do, since the vassal-feudal lord was inclined to defend his recent property with arms in hand. In general, despite the seemingly clear order described by the well-known formula: “my vassal’s vassal is not my vassal,” the vassalage system was quite confusing, and a vassal could have several lords at the same time.

Manners, customs. Another fundamental characteristic of Western European medieval society, and perhaps the most important, was a certain mentality of people, the nature of the social worldview, and the everyday way of life strictly connected with it. The most significant features of medieval culture were the constant and sharp contrasts between wealth and poverty, noble birth and rootlessness - everything was put on display. Society was visual in its everyday life, it was convenient to navigate: thus, even by clothing, it was easy to determine the belonging of any person to class, rank and professional circle. A feature of that society was a great many restrictions and conventions, but those who could “read” them knew their code and received important additional information about the reality around them. Thus, each color in clothing had its own purpose: blue was interpreted as the color of fidelity, green as the color of new love, yellow as the color of hostility. At that time, color combinations seemed exceptionally informative to Western Europeans, which, like the styles of hats, caps, and dresses, conveyed a person’s inner mood and attitude to the world. So, symbolism is an important characteristic of the culture of Western European medieval society. The emotional life of society was also contrasting, since, as contemporaries themselves testified, the soul of a medieval resident of Western Europe was unbridled and passionate. The parishioners in the church could pray with tears for hours, then they got tired of it, and they started dancing right there in the church, saying to the saint, in front of whose image they had just knelt: “Now you pray for us, and we will dance.”

This society was often cruel to many. Executions were commonplace, and there was no middle ground in relation to criminals - they were either executed or forgiven completely. The idea that criminals could be re-educated was not allowed. Executions were always organized as a special moral spectacle for the public, and terrible and painful punishments were invented for terrible atrocities. For many ordinary people executions served as entertainment, and medieval authors noted that people, as a rule, tried to delay the ending, enjoying the spectacle of torture; The usual thing in such cases was “the animalistic, stupid joy of the crowd.”

Other common character traits of medieval Western Europeans were hot temper, selfishness, quarrelsomeness, and vindictiveness. These qualities were combined with a constant readiness for tears: sobs were considered noble and beautiful, and elevating everyone - children, adults, men and women.

The Middle Ages were the time of preachers who preached, moving from place to place, exciting people with their eloquence, greatly influencing public sentiment. Thus, brother Richard, who lived in France at the beginning of the 15th century, enjoyed enormous popularity and love. He once preached in Paris at the cemetery of innocent babies for 10 days from 5 am to 11 pm. Huge crowds of people listened to him, the impact of his speeches was powerful and quick: many immediately threw themselves on the ground and repented of their sins, many made vows to begin new life. When Richard announced that he was finishing his last sermon and had to move on, many people, leaving their homes and families, followed him. The preachers certainly contributed to the creation of a unified European society.

An important characteristic of society was the general state of collective morals, the social mood: this was expressed in the fatigue of society, fear of life, and a feeling of fear of fate. Indicative was the lack of strong will and desire in society to change the world for the better. Fear of life will give way to hope, courage and optimism only in the 17th-18th centuries. - and it is no coincidence that from this time onwards it will come new period in human history, an essential feature of which will be the desire of Western Europeans to positively transform the world. The praise of life and an active attitude towards it did not appear suddenly and not out of nowhere: the possibility of these changes would gradually mature within the framework of feudal society throughout the entire period of the Middle Ages. From stage to stage, Western European society will become more energetic and enterprising; slowly but steadily the entire system of social institutions, economic, political, social, cultural, and psychological, will change. Let us trace the features of this process by period.

The formation of European civilization

The term "Middle Ages" was first used by Italian humanists in the 15th century. to denote the period between classical antiquity and their time. It was during this period that the religious community of Europe was formed and a new direction in Christianity emerged, which most contributed to the formation of bourgeois relations, Protestantism, and an urban culture took shape, which largely determined modern mass Western European culture; the first parliaments arise and the principle of separation of powers receives practical implementation; the foundations of modern science and the education system are laid; The ground is being prepared for the industrial revolution and the transition to an industrial society. Three stages can be distinguished in the development of Western European medieval society:

· early Middle Ages(V-X centuries) - the process of folding the main structures characteristic of the Middle Ages is underway;

· classical Middle Ages (XI-XV centuries) - the time of maximum development of medieval feudal institutions;

· late Middle Ages (XV-XVII centuries) - a new capitalist society begins to form. This division is largely arbitrary, although generally accepted; Depending on the stage, the main characteristics of Western European society change.

Medieval society was agrarian. The basis of the economy is agriculture. Labor in agriculture, as in other branches of production, was manual. The vast majority of the population of Western Europe lived outside the city throughout the Middle Ages. The Middle Ages is characterized by an exceptionally strong role of the church and a high degree of ideologization of society. The peculiarities of political power were its fragmentation, as well as its connection with conditional ownership of land. Medieval society was class-based.

States of the East in the Middle Ages

The term "Middle Ages" is used to designate the period in the history of the Eastern countries of the first seventeen centuries new era. The natural upper limit of the period is considered to be the XVI - beginning of XVII centuries, when the East became the object of European trade and colonial expansion, which interrupted the course of development characteristic of Asian and North African countries. Geographically, the Medieval East covers the territory North Africa, Near and Middle East, Central and Central Asia, India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia and Far East.

The transition to the Middle Ages in the East in some cases was carried out on the basis of already existing political entities (for example, Byzantium, Sasanian Iran, Kushano-Gupta India), in others it was accompanied by social upheavals, as was the case in China, and almost everywhere the processes were accelerated thanks to the participation of “barbarian” nomadic tribes in them. During this period, hitherto unknown peoples such as Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and Mongols appeared and rose to prominence in the historical arena during this period. New religions were born and civilizations arose on their basis.

The countries of the East in the Middle Ages were connected with Europe. Byzantium remained the bearer of the traditions of Greco-Roman culture. The Arab conquest of Spain and the Crusaders' campaigns in the East contributed to the interaction of cultures. However, for the countries of South Asia and the Far East, acquaintance with Europeans took place only in the 15th-16th centuries.

The formation of medieval societies of the East was characterized by the growth of productive forces - iron tools spread, artificial irrigation expanded and irrigation technology was improved; the leading trend of the historical process both in the East and in Europe was the establishment of feudal relations. Different results of development in the East and West by the end of the 20th century. were determined by the lesser degree of its dynamism.

Among the factors causing the “lag” of eastern societies, the following stand out: the preservation, along with the feudal structure, of the extremely slowly disintegrating primitive communal and slave relations; the stability of communal forms of living, which restrained the differentiation of the peasantry; the predominance of state property and power over private land ownership and the private power of feudal lords; the undivided power of the feudal lords over the city, weakening the anti-feudal aspirations of the townspeople.

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The emergence of modern Western civilization

More recently, the concept of civilization was of exclusively historical and cultural interest for Europe. Moreover, attention was paid, first of all, to the differences between peoples. Now the concept of civilization comes to the fore as a category reflecting the unity of the peoples of Europe, the common values ​​of the European home. The theme of pan-European civilization with its unique common features runs like a red thread through many studies as the “highest argument” in favor of pan-European unity. It was in Europe that the progressive type of civilization gained stability and developed over a long period of time. Therefore, it is more appropriate to consider the features of this type of civilization, primarily using the example of Europe.

The medieval civilization of Europe began to collapse in the 11th century. Manufacturing production appeared, trade expanded, and cities grew. The townspeople sought freedom from secular and spiritual lords. The 13th century is considered a turning point. From the XIII to the XVII centuries. There was an active process of formation of European civilization, similar to the Greco-Latin one. The formation of modern European civilization was difficult, during wars, revolutions, social and religious movements. This formation was not unilinear. The revolution was often followed by a counter-revolution, and the reforms by counter-reforms, but the progressive tendency still prevailed.

The process of rationalization of consciousness unfolded, and broader ideas about the world began to emerge. The education system separated from the church. In the XII-XIII centuries. The first universities appeared in Italy, Spain, France, and England. On Latin language Aristotle's works were translated and their study became the most important subject in school. Roman laws and judicial procedures (Roman law) were intensively studied. The most famous schools were in Bologna (Roman law), Salerno (medicine), and Paris (philosophy and theology). Schools (universities) brought together students from different countries, teaching was conducted in Latin. In the middle of the 15th century, thanks to the goldsmith and carver Gutenberg, printing appeared.

At this time, the first signs of separation of society from the state and elements of the rule of law appeared. Signed English king John the Landless Magna Carta (1215) laid the foundations of the rule of law and state protection of individual rights. The charter limited the rights of the king and gave privileges (liberties) to knights, free peasants, and townspeople. The Charter stated: “No one will be captured, imprisoned, deprived of property, outlawed, expelled or brought into loss, no one will fall into royal disgrace except by virtue of the lawful verdict of people equal in rank to the accused, or by the law of the land." The Great Parliament of 1265, in which for the first time elected representatives from the population of the counties, knights and townspeople sat next to the prelates and barons invited by name, foreshadowed the era of parliamentary dominance in Europe.

The Renaissance, which unfolded during the XIV-XVII centuries. allowed us to master the experience accumulated by ancient civilization. Especially great importance for the formation of European civilization had a legacy Ancient Rome(Little was known about Ancient Greece in Europe for a long time). The experience of Latinism (Roman experience) is the colossal initial capital that made it possible to sharply reduce the time for the development and assimilation of democratic mechanisms and the creation of an appropriate culture. European civilization in a broad sense is a direct descendant of classical ancient civilization. Consequently, it is successive, although absolutely independent, since it has gone much further in its development. The formation of modern European civilization was facilitated by the assimilation of the experience of antiquity.

The religious Reformation in the first half of the 16th century was of enormous importance for the formation of European civilization. The Church, the phenomenon of religious charisma on public consciousness and development restrained the process of formation of a progressive type of society, rational consciousness. In difficult struggles, during wars and destructive mass movements, it was possible to limit the role of the church and clergy. But most importantly. The Reformation gave birth to a new movement in Christianity, which became the spiritual basis of Western civilization: Protestantism. A significant part of the population of Europe left Catholicism: England, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Holland, Finland, Switzerland, part of Germany, the Czech Republic, etc. And significant changes were taking place in Catholicism itself.

Protestantism freed people from the pressure of religion in practical life. Religion has become a personal matter. Religious consciousness was replaced by a secular worldview. Protestantism taught that man has a direct spiritual connection with God, without intermediaries. Religious rituals were simplified. It is this direction in Christianity that is considered the most adequate to the Western way of life, a system of spiritual values ​​that corresponds to a democratic market society. What is important is that Protestantism gave spiritual sanction to profit as the goal of human economic activity. Catholicism and the popes fought against profit, relying on biblical canons. Ancient biblical property law did not contain the concept of “property”; similar terms found in sacred texts usually meant “property”. It prohibited usury. The New Testament also contains many provisions limiting economic activity. However, Protestantism has proven that, by striving for wealth, one can serve the Christian God, since a rich person spends his money not only on himself, but also on society. Baptism, which later emerged from Protestantism, freed itself even more radically from religious dogma and paraphernalia. The Reformation opened the way to parliamentarism and the industrial revolution. European civilization can be called in relation to the old (ancient) new, or modern civilization.

What are the main features of the mentality of European peoples? According to Christian ideas, human history itself began not from the moment of the creation of the world, for paradise existence took place without significant changes, that is, outside history, but from the moment of the Fall, after which man was cast into the stream of time and became mortal. Europe is characterized by the idea of ​​linear, rapidly flowing time, which consists of three stages:

Past. It has happened, nothing can be changed about it, only lessons can be learned from it.

The present. A person is an active person in the present; he can and should influence the course of events, the life of society.

Future. It is just ahead, it is unknown, but a person, through his active activity in the present, can, to the extent that it is available to him, prepare the future.

The public consciousness is dominated by the belief in the need for constant development, progress, and movement forward. Christianity, as a system of spiritual values, contains the idea of ​​progress, the need for constant development and improvement of society and individuals. It is no coincidence that this type of civilization is often called Christian or Judeo-Christian. It is enough to turn to the biblical parable of Moses, who led the people of Israel from Egyptian captivity. Escape from captivity is a movement in time, a movement from slavery to freedom, to the Promised Land, from inequality and oppression to equality and God's chosenness. In Christianity, the life given to a person was considered as a kind of loan that would have to be repaid with interest. A person was required to spend his life improving himself and the life around him. After death, the highest court must give everyone what they deserve. The socially recognized need for constant development and movement forward has turned innovation, the new in general, into the highest value. Western society is imbued with a passion for renewal.

This type of civilization is literally characterized by the ideology of individualism. The priority of the individual and his interests is unconditional. Individualism is a historically established type of behavior that has socio-psychological and ideological motivation. The emphasis is on the individual’s self-worth, on her freedom, autonomy, and the right to determine the direction of her activities. At the same time, individualism presupposes a person’s responsibility for himself and his family. Individualism presupposes multivariate behavior, including political behavior. Consequently, political pluralism, characteristic of Western-style societies, has its origins in individualism. Individualism does not deny the existence of collective interests - the interests of society as a whole, but presupposes them. The limits of individualism are determined by the norms of public morality and the laws of the country. In Western countries, a stable balance of interests of the individual and society has historically been formed. A clear indicator of the priority of individualism is the Guinness Book of Records. It clearly demonstrates that anyone can become unique, achieve something unusual, and encourages them to do so.

It is important that public consciousness perceives the world only in reality; it is rational, free from the pressure of religious dogma in solving practical issues. The goals of human activity are specific, pragmatic in nature. Despite rationalism, public consciousness is focused on Christian values ​​as the highest and normative, as an ideal to which we must strive. The sphere of undivided dominance of Christianity is public morality. Moreover, this applies not only to the sphere of personal relationships, but also to business life. There is a concept of Protestant business ethics. Its most important principle: modest personal consumption, but a prosperous business.

European civilization developed unevenly. The progressive type of development requires a constant influx of resources, labor, and more and more new brains. This type of civilization acquired sustainable dynamism in the era of geographical discoveries and colonial wars. The potential of virtually the entire planet was tapped to create what we call the West today. Thus, the progressive type of development is not the achievement of only the Western community, but the result of the activities of all mankind. Exploiting the colonies, Europe introduced pockets and enclaves of its own type of development into different parts of the world, spreading it to other parts of the world. Thus, Europe went beyond geographical boundaries and turned into the West - Western civilization.

What are the historically established features of Western civilization, primarily based on the example of Europe?

High moral prestige of work and its results. Already in the 13th century. economic doctrine catholic church has undergone changes, softened. If previously it was believed that work is God’s punishment for sins, now the conviction of the usefulness of work and its high moral significance is being affirmed. Work is seen as a high moral and religious service, and not simply as a means to life. Hence the high interest in the results of work.

The market as a way of functioning of the economy and its regulator. Developed private property. High prestige of entrepreneurship. Since the 15th century The economic activities of townspeople in Europe are being built on new foundations. Freedom of trade and entrepreneurial activity receives strong legal guarantees. New, market forms of organizing economic activity have emerged.

The class structure of society, developed forms of class organization: trade unions, parties, programs and ideologies, etc. Private property and a market economy lead to the division of society into classes, the formation of class interests and, accordingly, the emergence of class struggle.

The presence of developed (horizontal) connections independent of the authorities: economic, social, cultural, spiritual, etc., between individuals and social units, families, economic units, and, as a consequence, the presence of a civil society that exists independently of the authorities.

Legal democratic state. The state in a class society inevitably gives the greatest influence to the wealthy and educated. But the main thing is: the state acts as a regulator of social-class relations, an instrument for resolving social conflicts, for ensuring conditions for civil peace, for ensuring the implementation of ideas of progress. The form of the state is democracy. What does it mean? Democracy presupposes the consent of the governed to be governed. This is achieved through the participation of the population in the elections of government bodies. State intervention in civil life is limited by law. To ensure that the state does not increase its sphere of influence, there is a separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. Each branch of government is independent, but in relation to each other they exert a check and balance influence. A democratic society provides for openness, the right to freedom of thought, religious beliefs, the possibility of discussion on any issue, freedom to express any views, except those destructive to society. A democratic state protects human dignity and individual rights. This is a rule of law state, that is, the law rules there, not people.

Of course, this does not mean that democracy is an ideal form of government. Abuse of power in relation to society, violation of laws, use of official position, and use of democratic institutions to achieve undemocratic goals are also possible (as happened in the elections in Germany in 1933, when Hitler came to power).

It should be noted that the Western type of civilization is characterized by Western or Eurocentrism. It permeates everything: science, art, social consciousness, politics. The West is considered the center and top of the world. Everything else is a backward periphery. Aristotle laid the foundation for treating barbarians (and this is everyone who was not Hellenic) as part of the surrounding nature, as “plants or animals.” Subsequently, these ideas were actively developed. Famous German philosopher A. Hegel put forward the thesis about Europe as the completion of world history and the highest embodiment of the human spirit. The historical materialism of K. Marx and F. Engels was developed in the same vein. Classic Marxists focus on Europe, believing that the rest of the world is doomed to repeat what is happening here. The ideas of Western-centrism are clearly represented in the modern world.

development european civilization

LITERATURE

1. Paths of Eurasia - M., 1992.

2. Semenikova L.I. Russia in the world community of civilizations - Bryansk, 1996.

3. Yakovets Yu.V. History of Civilizations - M., 1994.

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