Where did the different races of people come from? How races of people appeared Why are there different races on earth

What is a race? This is a population of people with similar hereditary characteristics. Each race is characterized by its specific geographical region. It is thanks to this that specific external features are formed as a result of adaptation to certain conditions. environment. Representatives of different races can produce common offspring, which contributes to the emergence of a variety of transitional forms and mixing of racial characteristics.

Now let's ask ourselves a question: how did the races of people appear? According to one of the scientific versions, they formed in the Holocene, which began 12 thousand years ago. That is, before that, our distant ancestors did not have any racial differences. Another scientific version claims that racial differences have always existed, only they were not similar to modern ones. That is, each era had its own racial specificity, and today there is only one of the options.

In accordance with modern science, our direct ancestors Cro-Magnons appeared in Africa about 200 thousand years ago. Their original population was racially homogeneous. When the Cro-Magnons began to leave Africa and populate the lands of Europe and Asia, then, taking into account different climatic conditions, racial differences began to appear. A variety of races arose, except for the Negroid, since it originated on the lands of the hot continent.

And when did ancient people begin to leave African lands? It is assumed that the exodus began 80-70 thousand years ago. However, some experts believe that this happened no earlier than 45 thousand years ago. That is, the appearance of modern races is given 40-50 thousand years during the Paleolithic period.

At the same time, one must understand that it was not millions of Cro-Magnons who left Africa, but hundreds and thousands. Ancient people walked in small groups of 100-150 people. They met land suitable for life and settled on it. It is quite natural that each such isolated group had its own genetic characteristics. From this it can be assumed that large races of people were formed from small groups that were simply lucky with climatic conditions, food resources, and tribes living in the neighborhood. Less successful groups died out.

At the same time, it can be assumed that the numerous races of people who inhabited vast expanses of land were formed not only as a result of biological characteristics, but also as a result of common social and technological factors. Their appearance was influenced by agriculture, cattle breeding, state institutions, as well as various crafts and life in large administrative entities. All these signs of civilization appeared in the Holocene. And those who possessed them began to oust and destroy small and scattered tribes with a primitive level of organization.

As a result, the number of races has decreased. The most advanced survived. They became numerous, occupied large territories and created the current racial gradation. Thus, answering the question of how human races appeared, it can be argued that they were formed as a result of the integration of numerous tribal groups united by common economic and social interests with initially different genetic characteristics.

However, there are ambiguities on this issue. But the fact is that there are modern races that were formed without taking into account the signs of civilization. An example of this is the Australian Aborigines. Before Europeans appeared on this continent, an absolutely homogeneous Australoid race lived there. There were only three types of people who differed from each other extremely weakly.

Racial homogeneity was accompanied by the absence of any significant geological barriers and a low level of social structures. The ancient inhabitants of Australia had no poor, no rich, no caste distinctions. The natives were not even united into tribes, in the generally accepted sense of the word. Marriage unions were limited to neighboring neighbors, but in general it should be noted that marriage contacts covered the entire continent, which contributed to smoothing out genetic differences.

Another example of racial homogeneity with a low level of civilization development was observed among the Hottentots and Bushmen who lived in Africa. But in India, with its highly developed civilization and rich culture, many different racial variants arose due to caste restrictions. There were no geographical obstacles between people, they lived in an equal socio-cultural environment, but at the same time different castes existed in complete isolation from each other.

The same can be said about many other nations, which were divided into poor, rich, artisans, peasants, warriors, merchants, and the highest nobility. All these social groups lived apart and entered into marriages only with those similar to themselves. Even today, citizens try to marry and marry people of their own circle.

This suggests the conclusion that it is extremely difficult to answer the question of how the races of people appeared. Modern racial gradation arose as a result of many causes. They affect demographic, economic and social aspects. All this together gave rise to the racial diversity that we now see on Earth.

Alexey Starikov

I have questions, why are there only 4 races on Earth? Why are they so different from each other? How do different races have skin colors that match their area of ​​residence?

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First of all, we will examine the map of the settlement of the "Modern races of the world." In this analysis, we will not deliberately accept the position of either monogenism or polygenism. The purpose of our analysis and the entire study as a whole is precisely to understand exactly how the emergence of mankind and its development, including the development of writing, took place. Therefore, we cannot and will not rely in advance on any dogma, be it scientific or religious.

Why are there four different races on Earth? Naturally, four types of different races could not come from Adam and Eve....

So, under the letter "A" on the map, races are indicated that, according to modern research, are ancient. These races include four:
Equatorial Negroid races (hereinafter "Negroid race" or "Negroids");
Equatorial Australoid races (hereinafter "Australoid race" or "Australoids");
Caucasoid races (hereinafter referred to as "Caucasoids");
Mongoloid races (hereinafter "Mongoloids").

2. Analysis of the modern mutual settlement of races.

Extremely interesting is the modern mutual settlement of the four main races.

Negroid races are settled exclusively in a limited area, located from the center of Africa to its southern part. There is no negroid race anywhere outside of Africa. In addition, it is precisely the areas of settlement of the Negroid race that are currently the "suppliers" of the culture of the Stone Age - in South Africa there are still areas within which the population still exists in a primitive communal way of life.

We are talking about the archaeological culture of Wilton (Wilton, Wilton) of the late Stone Age, common in South and East Africa. In some areas, it was replaced by the Neolithic with polished axes, but in most areas it existed until modern times: arrowheads made of stone and bone, pottery, beads made from ostrich egg shells; people of the Wilton culture lived in grottoes and in the open air, hunted; agriculture and domestic animals were absent.

It is also interesting that on other continents there are no centers of settlement of the Negroid race. This, of course, indicates the fact that the origin of the Negroid race was originally in that part of Africa, which is located south of the center of the continent. It is worth noting that here we do not consider the later “migrations” of the Negroids to the American continent and their modern entry through the regions of France into the territory of Eurasia, since this is an effect that is completely insignificant in the lengthy historical process in terms of time.

The Australoid races are settled exclusively in a limited area, which is located integrally in the north of Australia, as well as in extremely small fluctuations in the territory of India and on some isolated islands. The islands are so insignificantly populated by the Australoid race that they can be neglected when estimating the entire center of distribution of the Australoid race. This focus, quite reasonably, can be considered the northern part of Australia. It should be noted here that the Australoids, as well as the Negroids, for reasons unknown to today's science, are located exclusively within the same common range. Stone Age cultures are also found among the Australoid race. More precisely, those Australoid cultures that have not experienced the impact of Caucasoids are mainly in the Stone Age.

Caucasoid races are settled in the territory located in the European part of Eurasia, including the Kola Peninsula, as well as in Siberia, in the Urals, along the Yenisei, along the Amur, in the upper reaches of the Lena, in Asia, around the Caspian, Black, Red and Mediterranean Seas, in northern Africa , on the Arabian Peninsula, in India, on the two American continents, in southern Australia.

In this part of the analysis, we should dwell on the consideration of the area of ​​​​settlement of Caucasians in more detail.

First, for obvious reasons, we will exclude from historical estimates the territory of distribution of Caucasians in both Americas, since these territories were occupied by them in a not so distant historical time. The last “experience” of Caucasians does not affect the very history of the original settlement of peoples. The history of the settlement of mankind in general took place long before the American conquests of the Caucasians and without taking them into account.

Secondly, like the two previous races in terms of the description, the territory of distribution of Caucasoids (from this point onwards, under the “territory of distribution of Caucasoids” we will understand only its Eurasian part and northern Africa) is also clearly marked by the area of ​​their settlement. However, unlike the Negroid and Australoid races, the Caucasoid race has reached the highest flowering of culture, science, art, etc. among the existing races. The Stone Age within the habitat of the Caucasoid race was passed in the vast majority of areas 30 - 40 thousand years BC. All modern scientific achievements of the most advanced nature are made precisely by the Caucasoid race. You can, of course, mention and argue with this statement, referring to the achievements of China, Japan and Korea, but let's be honest, all their achievements are purely secondary and they use, we must pay tribute - with success, but still use the primary achievements of Caucasians.

The Mongoloid races are settled exclusively in a limited area, located integrally in the northeast and east of Eurasia and on both American continents. Among the Mongoloid race, as well as among the Negroid and Australoid races, to this day there are cultures of the Stone Age.
3. On the application of the laws of Organisms

The first thing that catches the eye of an inquisitive researcher looking at a map of the settlement of races is that the areas of settlement of races do not mutually intersect in such a way that this concerns any noticeable territories. And, although on mutual borders the adjoining races give the product of their intersection, called "transitional races", the formation of such mixtures is classified according to time and is purely secondary and much later than the formation of the ancient races themselves.

To a large extent, this process of interpenetration of ancient races resembles diffusion in the physics of materials. We apply to the description of races and peoples the laws of Organisms, which are more unified and give us the right and opportunity to operate with equal ease and accuracy, both with materials and with peoples and races. Therefore, the mutual penetration of peoples - the diffusion of peoples and races - is completely subject to the law 3.8. (numbering of laws, as is customary in) Organisms, which says: "Everything moves."

Namely, not a single race (now we will not discuss the originality of one or the other) under any circumstances will remain without movement in any “frozen” state. We will not be able, following this law, to find at least one race or people that would arise in a certain territory at the moment of “minus infinity” and would remain within this territory until “plus infinity”.

And from this it follows that it is possible to work out the laws of motion of populations of organisms (nations).
4. Laws of motion of a population of organisms
Any people, any race, as, indeed, not only real, but also mythical (disappeared civilizations), always has a point of its origin, different from the one considered and as earlier;
Any nation, any race is represented not by the absolute values ​​of its population and its certain range, but by a system (matrix) of n-dimensional vectors that describe:
directions of settlement on the Earth's surface (two dimensions);
time intervals of such resettlement (one dimension);
…n. the values ​​of the mass transfer of information about the people (one complex dimension; this includes both the numerical composition and national, cultural, educational, religious, and other parameters).
5. Interesting observations

From the first law of population movement and taking into account a careful examination of the map of the current distribution of races, we can deduce the following observations.

First, even at the present historical time, all four ancient races are extremely isolated in terms of their distribution areas. Recall that we do not consider hereinafter the colonization by Negroids, Caucasians and Mongoloids of both Americas. These four races have the so-called cores of their ranges, which in no case coincide, that is, none of the races in the center of their range coincides with similar parameters of any other race.

Secondly, the central "points" (regions) of the ancient racial regions remain quite "pure" in composition at the present time. Moreover, the mixing of races occurs exclusively only on the borders of neighboring races. Never - by mixing races that were not historically located in the neighborhood. That is, we do not observe any mixing of the Mongoloid and Negroid races, since between them is the Caucasoid race, which, in turn, has mixtures with both Negroids and Mongoloids just at the points of contact with them.

Thirdly, if the central points of the settlement of races are determined by a simple geometric calculation, then it turns out that these points are located at the same distance from each other, equal to 6000 (plus or minus 500) kilometers:

Negroid point - 5 ° S, 20 ° E;

Caucasoid point - with. Batumi, the easternmost point of the Black Sea (41°N, 42°E);

Mongoloid point - ss. Aldan and Tomkot in the upper reaches of the Aldan River, a tributary of the Lena (58°N, 126°E);

Australoid point - 5° S, 122° E

Moreover, the points of the central regions of the settlement of the Mongoloid race on both American continents are also equidistant (and approximately at the same distance).

An interesting fact is that if all four central points of the settlement of races, as well as three points located in South, Central and North America, are connected, then a line will be obtained that resembles the bucket of the constellation Ursa Major, but inverted relative to its current position.
6. Conclusions

An assessment of the areas of settlement of races allows us to draw a number of conclusions and assumptions.
6.1. Conclusion 1:

It does not seem legitimate and substantiated a possible theory that suggests the birth and resettlement of modern races from one common point.

We are currently observing precisely the process that leads to the mutual averaging of the races. As, for example, the experiment with water, when a certain amount of hot water is poured into cold water. We understand that after some finite and quite estimated time, hot water will mix with cold water, and the temperature will be averaged. After that, the water will generally become somewhat warmer than cold before mixing, and somewhat colder than hot before mixing.

The situation is the same with the four old races - we are currently observing precisely the process of their mixing, when the races mutually penetrate each other, like cold and hot water, form mestizo races in the places of their contact.

If four races were formed from one center, then we would not observe mixing now. Since in order to form four from one essence, a process of separation and mutual dispersal, isolation, accumulation of differences must occur. And mutual miscegenation, which is now taking place, is a clear proof of the opposite process - the mutual diffusion of four races. An inflection point that would separate the earlier process of separation of races from the later process of their mixing has not yet been found. Convincing evidence of the objective existence of some point in history from which the process of separation of races would be replaced by their unification has not been found. Therefore, it is precisely the process of historical mixing of races that should be considered as a completely objective and normal process.

And this means that initially the four ancient races had to be inevitably divided and isolated from each other. The question of the force that could be engaged in such a process, we will leave open for the time being.

This assumption of ours is convincingly confirmed by the very map of the distribution of races. As we have previously revealed, there are four conditional points of the initial settlement of the four ancient races. These points, by a strange chance, are located in a sequence that has a clearly defined series of patterns:

in the first place, each frontier of mutual contact of races serves only as a division between two races, and nowhere as a division between three or four;

secondly, the distances between such points, by a strange coincidence, are almost the same and equal to about 6000 kilometers.

The processes of development of territorial spaces by races can be compared with the formation of a pattern on frosty glass - from one point the pattern spreads in different directions.

Obviously, the races, each in its own way, but the general type of settlement of the races was quite the same - from the so-called distribution point of each race, it spread in different directions, gradually mastering new territories. After quite an estimated time, the races sown 6000 kilometers from each other met at the borders of their ranges. Thus began the process of their mixing and the emergence of various mestizo races.

The process of building and expanding the ranges of races fully falls under the definition of the concept of "organismic center of organization", when there are patterns that describe such a spread of races.

The natural and most objective conclusion suggests itself about the existence of four separate centers of origin of four different - ancient - races, located at an equal distance from each other. Moreover, the distances and points of "seeding" races are chosen in such a way that if we tried to repeat such a "seeding", we would come to the same variant. Therefore, the Earth was inhabited by someone or something from 4 different regions of our Galaxy or our Universe....
6.2. Conclusion 2:

Perhaps the original placement of the races was artificial.

A series of random coincidences in the distances and equidistance of the races leads us to believe that this was not accidental. Law 3.10. Organismics says: ordered chaos acquires intelligence. It is interesting to trace the work of this law in the reverse causal direction. The expression 1+1=2 and the expression 2=1+1 are equally true. And, therefore, the causal relationship in their members works in both directions equally.

By analogy with this, law 3.10. we can reformulate as follows: (3.10.-1) intelligence is an acquisition due to the ordering of chaos. The circumstance when out of three segments connecting four seemingly random points, all three segments are equal to the same value, can only be called a manifestation of intellect. In order for the distances to match, it is necessary to measure them accordingly.

In addition, and this circumstance is no less interesting and mysterious, the “wonderful” distance between the points of origin of races, revealed by us, for some strange and inexplicable reason, is equal to the radius of the planet Earth. Why?

By connecting the four seeding points of the races and the center of the Earth (and they are all located at the same distance), we will get a quadrangular equilateral pyramid, with its apex directed towards the center of the Earth.

Why? Why in a seemingly chaotic world, clear geometric shapes?
6.3. Conclusion 3:

On the initial maximum isolation of races.

Let's start the consideration of mutually pairwise settlement of races with a pair of Negroids-Caucasoids. Firstly, Negroids do not come into contact with any other race. Secondly, between the Negroids and the Caucasians lies the region of central Africa, which is characterized by the abundant distribution of lifeless deserts. That is, initially, the location of the Negroids relative to the Caucasians provided that these two races would have the least contact with each other. There is some intent here. And also an additional argument against the theory of monogenism - at least in part of the Negroid-Caucasian couple.

In a pair of Caucasians-Mongoloids, there are also similar features. The same distance between the conditional centers of the formation of races is 6000 kilometers. The same natural barrier to the mutual penetration of races is the extremely frosty northern regions and the Mongolian deserts.

The pair of Mongoloids-Australoids also provides for the maximum use of terrain conditions, preventing the mutual penetration of these races, which are approximately the same 6000 kilometers apart from each other.

Only in recent decades, with the development of means of transport and communications, did the interpenetration of races become not only possible, but also assumed a mass character.

Naturally, in the course of our research, these conclusions may be subject to revision.
Final conclusion:

Everything shows that there were four points of sowing races. They are equidistant both between themselves and from the center of the planet Earth. Races have only mutual-pair contacts. The process of mixing races is a process of two recent centuries before that, the races were isolated. If there was an intention in the initial settlement of the races, then it was this: to settle the races so that they would not come into contact with each other for as long as possible.

This was probably an experiment to solve the problem - which race will better adapt to earthly conditions. And also, which race will be more progressive in its development....

Source - razrusitelmifov.ucoz.ru

The problem of the origin of human races, their history has long interested people. Ordinary inhabitants were curious how such a difference in individuals living in different parts of the world could be explained. Scientists, of course, tried to find scientific explanation this fact. The most popular hypotheses of the origin of human races will be discussed in this article.

What are races

First, let's define these units. Under the races of the species Homo Sapiens, it is customary to understand relatively isolated groups - its systematic divisions. Their representatives differ in a certain set of external signs, as well as in their habitat. Races are relatively stable over time, although in the context of globalization and the accompanying migration of the population, their characteristics may undergo certain changes. The origin and biology of human races are such that genetically each of them has certain autosomal components. It's confirmed scientific research.

Human races: their relationship and origin. Main races

They are well known to everyone: they are Caucasoid, Negroid (Negro-Australoid, Equatorial) and Mongoloid. These are the so-called large, or However, the list is not exhausted by them. In addition to them, there are also the so-called mixed races, in which there are signs of several main ones. They usually have several autosomal components characteristic of the main races.

The Caucasoid race is characterized by relatively fair skin compared to the other two. However, for people living in the Middle East and Southern Europe, it is quite dark. Its representatives have straight or wavy hair, light or dark eyes. The incision of the eyes is horizontal, the hairline is often moderate. The nose protrudes noticeably, the forehead is straight or slightly sloping.

The Mongoloids have an oblique section of the eyes, the upper eyelid is noticeably developed. The inner corner of the eyes is covered with a characteristic fold - the epicanthus. Presumably, she helped protect the eyes of the steppes from dust. Skin color - from dark to light. Black hair, coarse, straight. The nose protrudes slightly, and the face looks flatter than that of Caucasians. The hairline of the Mongoloids is poorly developed.

Representatives of the Negroid race have lush curly hair, the darkest skin color among all major races, containing a large amount of eumelanin pigment. It is assumed that these signs were formed to protect the equatorial region from the scorching sun. The noses of Negroids are most often wide and somewhat flattened. The lower part of the face is protruding.

All races, like all mankind, according to research, originate from the first man - great-Adam, who lived on the territory of the African continent 180-200 thousand years ago. The kinship and unity of the origin of the human races is thus obvious to scientists.

Intermediate races

Within the framework of the main ones, the so-called small races are distinguished. They are shown in the diagram below. Small races (they are also intermediate), or, as they are also called, anthropological types, have a number of similar features. On the diagram you can also see intermediate races that combine the features of several main ones: Ural, South Siberian, Ethiopian, South Indian, Polynesian and Ainu.

Time of origin of races

Scientists believe that races arose relatively recently. According to one theory, at first, about 80 thousand years ago, the Negroid and Caucasoid-Mongoloid branches separated. Later, after about 40 thousand years, the latter broke up into Caucasoid and Mongoloid. Their final differentiation into (small races) and the distribution of the latter occurred later, already in the Neolithic era. Scientists, in different time who studied the origin of man and human races, believe that their formation continued after settlement. Thus, the characteristic features of the inhabitants of the Australian mainland, belonging to the large equatorial race, formed much later. Researchers believe that at the time of settlement, they had racially neutral characteristics.

There is no consensus on the origin of man and human races, how their settlement took place. Therefore, below we will consider two theories concerning this problem: monocentric and polycentric.

Monocentric theory

According to it, races appeared in the process of the settlement of people from the area of ​​​​their origin. At the same time, neoanthropes were likely to interbreed with paleanthropes (Neanderthals) in the process of crowding out the latter. This process is quite late, it took place about 35-30 thousand years ago.

polycentric theory

According to this theory of the origin of human races, human evolution occurred in parallel, in several so-called phyletic lines. They, according to the definition, represent a continuous succession of populations (species) replacing each other, each of which is a descendant of the previous one and at the same time an ancestor of the next unit. The polycentric theory says that the intermediate races had distinctive features already in antiquity. These groups were formed on the border of the settlement of the main ones and continued to exist parallel to them.

Intermediate theories

They allow the divergence of phyletic groups at different stages of human evolution - paleoanthropes, neoanthropes. One such theory, according to which the equatorial and Mongoloid-Caucasoid branches formed first, was briefly described above.

Modern settlement

As for the settlement of representatives of large and small races, it changes significantly with time. So, the Indians - representatives of the American branch of the Mongoloid race, which some scientists even singled out as a separate, fourth ("red"), are now in the minority in their original territories. The same can be said about the small Australian race. Its representatives in Australia are significantly inferior in number not only to Caucasians, but also to numerous migrants and their descendants belonging to the Mongoloid races (mainly the Far East).

Caucasoids, with the beginning of the Age of Discoveries (mid-15th century), began to actively explore and populate new territories, and are currently found in all parts of the globe, on all continents. Representatives of all anthropological groups of the Caucasoid race are found on the territory of modern Europe, but the Central European type is still in the lead. In general, the racial composition of modern Europe, as a result of migrations and interracial marriages, as well as in the USA, is extremely colorful and diverse.

The Mongoloids are still in the lead in the countries of Asia, the equatorial race - in Africa, New Guinea, Melanesia.

Race changes over time

Naturally, the minor races could undergo certain changes over time. At the same time, the question of how much their stability was affected by isolation remains open. So, for example, the appearance of the Australians who lived separately has not changed much over several tens of millennia.

At the same time, the absence of significant changes is also characteristic of the Ethiopian and Far Eastern races. For at least five thousand years, the appearance of the inhabitants of Egypt has remained constant. Discussions about the racial origin of its inhabitants have been going on for many years. Supporters of the "black theory" are based on the study of Egyptian mummies, as well as surviving works of art, which showed that the inhabitants ancient egypt had pronounced external signs of the equatorial race.

Supporters of the “white theory” are based on the appearance of modern Egyptians and believe that the representatives of the nation are the descendants of the ancient Sevenist peoples who lived in this territory before the spread of the equatorial race.

However, some were formed much later. So, for example, the final formation of the South Siberian race took place in the XIV-XVI centuries, despite Tatar-Mongol invasion and the archaeologically confirmed penetration of Mongoloids into areas inhabited by Caucasians, as early as the 7th-6th centuries. BC.

In our time, thanks to globalization and intensive migration, there is an active miscegenation, mixing both within the main races and between them. So, for example, in Singapore the number of such marriages today is more than 20%. As a result of mixing, people are born with various combinations of signs, including those that were previously extremely rare. For example, the combination of light eye color and dark skin is no longer a rarity in the islands of Cape Verde.

In general, this process is positive, because thanks to it, various racial groups acquire useful dominant traits that were not previously characteristic of them, and avoid the accumulation of recessive ones, which entails various genetic disorders and diseases.

Instead of a conclusion

The article briefly talked about the human races, their origin. The unity and commonality of all representatives of Homo Sapiens have been confirmed by many years of research.

Obviously, the differences in the level of development of certain groups of people are caused primarily by the peculiarities of the conditions of their existence. Therefore, the racial theory, so popular in the past in Western countries, is morally obsolete. The intellectual and other abilities of representatives of different races are not affected by their origin, appearance and skin color. And thanks to globalization, when people of different races were placed in equal conditions due to migration, this point of view was confirmed.

How were races formed on planet Earth?

So, "reasonable man" appeared in East Africa. What were they, the first representatives of the species to which we belong? Most likely - undersized and dark-skinned, with thick hair, a flat nose and deep-set dark eyes.

Creating a "verbal portrait" of an ancient ancestor, scientists seem to be looking back at our closest relatives - the great apes, who lived in Africa for millions of years. But where did all these red-haired Anglo-Saxons, gray-eyed blond Norwegians and Russians, yellow-faced Chinese, mahogany-skinned Indians, black West Africans and olive-skinned Mediterraneans come from? After all, they are all people, which means they belong to the same species.

People settled on the Earth, and over time, the variability of the human body made itself felt: the signs that appeared in the new conditions of life became characteristic of large groups of people. These groups are called races. Today on Earth there are three main races: European, Negroid and Mongoloid, that is, white, black and yellow. In addition, there are over a dozen intermediate races. Only in Europe do representatives of the Alpine, White Sea-Baltic, Indo-Afghan and Mediterranean sometimes live.

Human races differ not only in appearance. There are other features that are characteristic of each of them. So, among the Mongoloids, people with a blood type predominate in China, Mongolia and Southeast Asia, smallpox epidemics often occurred, and people with this blood type tolerate this disease easily. Black people in Africa do not suffer from most of the tropical diseases that are detrimental to Europeans. There are also differences in the structure of the teeth, the skull, and also in the patterns on the fingertips of people belonging to different races and subraces. And it's all. Otherwise, the people of the Earth are not biologically different from each other. People of different races intermarry and produce healthy children who inherit the characteristics of both races. Black, yellow, white - all contributed to the treasury of human thought, science, culture and art. The absurd inventions of the racists, who insist on the superiority of some races over others, are becoming simply ridiculous in our time.

Eternal Wanderers

The resettlement of people, which began 150 thousand years ago, took them tens of thousands of kilometers away from the places where they originally lived. Our ancestors wandered from continent to continent, even crossed the oceans, and often found themselves in conditions that in no way resembled their ancestral home - East Africa. Suffice it to say that already a hundred thousand years ago, primitive hunters learned to successfully survive in the harsh climate of Eastern Siberia and Alaska. In this they were helped not only by the amazing adaptability of the human body, but also by what animals do not have - the mind and the ability to use tools for obtaining food. People were driven to travel not only by climate change, the depletion of natural resources, or the hostility of their closest neighbors. Since ancient times, man has sought by all means to know the world in which he lives. Curiosity, "greed" of the mind, the desire to see and understand what lies beyond the foggy horizon, remain one of the most important qualities of a "reasonable person" even today, when people have already stepped far beyond the boundaries of their planet.

Three colors of humanity

The Negroid race is characterized by dark brown skin and a thick hat of curly hair, strongly protruding jaws and a wide nose. All this, as well as thickened lips and wide nostrils, made it possible to better regulate body temperature in the hot and humid equatorial climate.

People with blond smooth or wavy hair and pale skin had the best chance of surviving in the cool climate of Europe, where the number of sunny days in the post-glacial period was very small. The eyes of Europeans are most often from light brown to pale blue, and the narrow nose has a high nose bridge.

The Mongoloid race was formed in the semi-deserts of Central Asia. The main features of this race are yellowish skin, coarse dark hair, a narrow slit in the eyes, a flat face with strongly protruding cheekbones. All of these traits arose as a result of living in a climate with extreme temperature changes and frequent dust storms. The Indians of the North and South America.

Dr. Don Batten and Dr. Carl Wieland

What are "races"?

How did different skin colors come about?

Is it true that black skin is the result of Noah's curse?

According to the Bible, all people living on Earth are descended from Noah, his wife, three sons and three daughters-in-law (and even earlier from Adam and Eve - Genesis 1-11). However, today on Earth there are groups of people called "races", whose external signs differ significantly. Many see this state of affairs as a reason to doubt the truth of the biblical story. It is believed that these groups could have arisen only as a result of separate evolution over tens of thousands of years.

The Bible tells us how the descendants of Noah, who spoke the same language and held together, disobeyed the divine command « fill the earth» (Genesis 9:1; 11:4). God confused their languages, after which people divided into groups and scattered throughout the Earth (Genesis 11:8-9). Modern methods geneticists show how, after separating people, in just a few generations, variations in external features (for example, skin color) could develop. There is strong evidence that the different groups of people we see in modern world, were not isolated from each other for vast periods of time.

In fact, on earth "there is only one race"- the race of people, or the human race. The Bible teaches that God « from one blood ... produced the whole human race " (Acts 17:26). Holy Scripture distinguishes people by tribes and peoples, and not by skin color or other features of appearance. At the same time, it is quite obvious that there are groups of people who have common features (for example, the notorious skin color) that distinguish them from other groups. We prefer to call them "groups of people" rather than "races" to avoid evolutionary associations. Representatives of any people can interbreed freely and produce fertile offspring. This proves that the biological differences between "races" are quite small.

In fact, the differences in the composition of DNA are extremely small. If we take any two people from any corner of the Earth, then the differences in their DNA will normally be 0.2%. At the same time, the so-called "racial characteristics" will make up only 6% of this difference (that is, only 0.012%); everything else is within "intra-racial" variations.

“This genetic unity means, for example, that a white American who is markedly different in phenotype from a black American may be closer in tissue composition to him than another black American.”

Fig. 1 The eyes of Caucasians and Mongoloids differ in the amount of fat around the eye, as well as the ligament, which disappears in most non-Asian infants at six months of age.

Anthropologists divide humanity into several main racial groups: Caucasoid (or "white"), Mongoloid (including Chinese, Eskimos and American Indians), Negroid (black Africans) and Australoid (Australian Aborigines). Virtually all evolutionists today admit that different groups of people could not be of different origin- that is, could not evolve from different types animals. Thus, proponents of evolution agree with creationists that all groups of peoples descended from a single original population of the Earth. Of course, evolutionists believe that groups such as the Australian Aborigines or the Chinese are separated from the rest by tens of thousands of years.

Most people believe that such significant external differences could develop only for a very long time. One of the reasons for this misconception is that many believe that external differences are inherited from distant ancestors who acquired unique genetic properties that the rest did not have. This assumption is understandable, but fundamentally wrong.

Consider, for example, the question of skin color. It is easy to assume that if different groups of people have yellow, red, black, white or brown skin, then there are different skin pigments. But since different chemicals imply a different genetic code in the gene pool of each group, a serious question arises: how could such differences have formed in a relatively short period of human history?

In fact, we all have only one "dye" of the skin - melanin. This is a dark brown pigment that each of us produces in special skin cells. If a person does not have melanin (like albinos - people with a mutational defect due to which melanin is not produced), then his skin color is very white or slightly pinkish. Cells in "white" Europeans produce little melanin, in black Africans - a lot; and in between, as is easy to understand, all shades of yellow and brown.

Thus, the only significant factor that determines skin color is the amount of melanin produced. In general, whatever property of a group of people we consider, it, in fact, will be just a variant comparable with others inherent in other peoples. For example, the Asian eye section differs from the European one, in particular, by a small ligament that slightly pulls down the eyelid (see Figure 1). This ligament is present in all newborns, but after the age of six months it remains, as a rule, only in Asians. Occasionally, the ligament is retained in Europeans, giving their eyes an Asian almond-shaped cut, and vice versa, in some Asians it is lost, making their eyes Caucasian.

What is the role of melanin? It protects the skin from ultraviolet rays of the sun. A person with a low amount of melanin under the strong influence of solar activity is more prone to sunburn and skin cancer. Conversely, if you have too much melanin in your cells, and you live in a country where there is not enough sun, it will be more difficult for your body to produce the required amount of vitamin D (which is produced in the skin when exposed to sunlight). A lack of this vitamin can cause bone diseases (such as rickets) and some types of cancer. Scientists have also found that ultraviolet rays destroy folates (salts of folic acid), vitamins needed to strengthen the spine. Melanin helps store folate, so people with dark skin are better adapted to living in areas with high UV levels (tropics or highlands).

A person is born with a genetically predetermined ability produce melanin in a certain amount, and this ability is activated in response to sunlight- Tan appears on the skin. But how could such different skin colors have arisen in such a short time? If a member of a black group of people marries a "white", the skin of their descendants ( mulattoes) will be a "medium brown" color. It has long been known that from mulatto marriages children are born with the most diverse skin color - from completely black to completely white.

The realization of this fact gives us the key to solving our problem as a whole. But first we need to familiarize ourselves with the basic laws of heredity.

Heredity

Each of us carries information about our own organism - detailed, like a drawing of a building. This “drawing” determines not only that you are a person, and not a head of cabbage, but also what color your eyes are, what is the shape of your nose, and so on. At the time of the fusion of the spermatozoon and the egg into the zygote, it already contains all information about the future device of a person (excluding such unpredictable factors as, say, sports or diet).

Much of this information is encoded in DNA. DNA is the most efficient information storage system, many times superior to any of the most complex computer technologies. The information recorded here is copied (and recombined) in the process of reproduction from generation to generation. The term "gene" means a piece of this information containing instructions for the production of, for example, only one enzyme.

For example, there is a gene that carries instructions for the production of hemoglobin, the protein that carries oxygen in red blood cells. If this gene is damaged by a mutation (copy error during reproduction), the instruction will be incorrect - and we, in best case, we get defective hemoglobin. (Mistakes like this can lead to diseases like sickle cell anemia.) Genes are always paired; therefore, in the case of hemoglobin, we have two sets of codes (instructions) for its reproduction: one from the mother, the second from the father. The zygote (fertilized egg) receives half of its information from the father's sperm and the other half from the mother's egg.

Such a device is very useful. If a person inherits a damaged gene from one parent (and this condemns their cells to produce, say, abnormal hemoglobin), then the gene received from the other parent will be normal, and this will enable the body to produce normal protein as well. In the genome of each person there are hundreds of errors inherited from one of the parents, which do not manifest themselves, since each of them is "hidden" by the activity of another - a normal gene (see the booklet "Cain's Wife - Who is She?").

Color of the skin

We know that skin color is determined by more than one pair of genes. For simplicity, we assume that there are only two such (paired) genes, and they are located on the chromosomes in places A and B. One form of the gene, M, "gives the order" to produce a lot of melanin; another, m, - little melanin. According to the location of A, paired combinations of MAMA, MAmA and mAmA can be used, which give the skin cells a signal to produce a lot, not a lot or a little melanin.

Similarly, at location B, combinations of MBMB, MBmB, and mBmB can exist, also signaling the production of much, little, or little melanin. Thus, in people with very dark skin color, there may be a combination of genes, such as MAMAMMB (see Figure 2). Since both sperm and eggs of such people can only contain MAMB genes (after all, only one gene from positions A and B can get into a sperm or egg), their children will be born only with the same set of genes as their parents.

Consequently, all these children will have very dark skin color. In the same way, light-skinned people with the mAmAmBmB gene combination can only have children with the same gene combination. What combinations can appear in the offspring of mulattoes with dark skin, with a combination of the MAmAMBmB genes - which are, for example, children from the marriage of people with the MAMAMBMB and mAmAmBmB genes (see Figure 3)? Let's turn to a special scheme - the "Pennett lattice" (see Figure 4). On the left are the genetic combinations possible for the sperm, on the top - for the egg. We select one of the possible combinations for the spermatozoon and consider, going along the line, what results from its combination with each of the possible combinations in the egg.

At each intersection of a row and a column, a combination of offspring genes is recorded when a given egg is fertilized by a given spermatozoon. For example, when a sperm cell with the MAmB genes and an egg cell mAMB are fused, the child will have the MAmAMBmB genotype, like his parents. In general, the diagram shows that children with five levels of melanin content (shades of skin color) can be born from such a marriage. If we take into account not two, but three pairs of genes responsible for melanin, we will see that the offspring can have seven levels of its content.

If people with the MAMMBB genotype are “totally” black (i.e., have no melanin-reducing and skin-lightening genes at all) marry each other and move to places where their children cannot meet with lighter-skinned people, then all of them the descendants will also be black - you get a clean "black line". Similarly, if "white" people (mAmAmBmB) marry only people of the same skin color and live apart without dating darker people, then the result will be a pure "white line" - they will lose the genes necessary to produce a large amount of melanin, providing a dark skin color.

Thus, two swarthy people can not only produce children with any skin color, but also give rise to various groups of people with a stable skin tone. But how did groups of people of the same swarthy shade appear? Again, this is easy to explain. If people with the MAMAmBmB and mAmAMBMB genotypes do not intermarry, they will produce only swarthy offspring. (You can test this for yourself by making a Punnett lattice.) If a representative of any of these lines enters into a mixed marriage, the process will reverse. In a short time, the offspring of such a marriage will exhibit a full range of skin tones, often within the same family.

If all people on Earth were now freely intermarrying, and then for some reason were divided into groups living apart, there could be a whole host of new combinations: almond-shaped eyes with black skin, blue eyes and black curly short hair, and so on. Of course, it must be remembered that genes behave in a much more complex way than in our simplified explanation. Sometimes certain genes are linked. But the essence of this does not change. Even today, within one group of people, one can see traits usually associated with another group.

Figure 3 Multi-colored twins born to mulatto parents are an example of genetic variants of skin colors.

For example, you can meet a European with a wide flattened nose, or a Chinese with very pale skin or quite European eyes. Most scientists today agree that for modern humanity, the term "race" is practically devoid of biological meaning. And this is a serious argument against the theory of the isolated development of groups of peoples over long periods of time.

What really happened?

We can recreate true story groups of people with:

1. information given to us by the Creator Himself in the Book of Genesis;
2. the above scientific information;
3. some environmental considerations.

God created the first man, Adam, who became the progenitor of all people. 1656 years after Creation, the Flood destroyed all mankind, except for Noah, his wife, three sons and their wives. The Flood radically changed their habitat. The Lord confirmed to the survivors His commandment to be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth (Genesis 9:1). A few centuries later, people decided to disobey God and united to build a huge city and the Tower of Babel - a symbol of rebellion and paganism. We know from the eleventh chapter of Genesis that up to this point people spoke the same language. God put disobedience to shame by mixing up the tongues of men so that people could not work together against God. The confusion of languages ​​forced them to scatter over the Earth, which was part of the Creator's intentions. Thus, all "groups of people" arose simultaneously, with a mixture of languages ​​during the construction of the Tower of Babel. Noah and his family were probably dark-skinned—they had the genes for both black and white.)

This average color is the most universal: it is dark enough to protect against skin cancer, and at the same time light enough to provide the body with vitamin D. Since Adam and Eve had all the factors that determine skin color, they probably also had swarthy, brown-eyed, with black or brown hair. In fact, most of the modern population of the Earth has dark skin.

After the Flood and before the construction of Babylon, there was a single language and a single cultural group on Earth. Therefore, there were no obstacles for marriages within this group. This factor stabilized the skin color of the population, cutting off extremes. Of course, from time to time people were born with very light or very dark skin, but they freely intermarried with the rest, and thus the "middle color" remained unchanged. The same applies to other traits, not just skin color. In circumstances suggesting the possibility of free crossing, obvious external differences do not appear.

In order for them to appear, it is necessary to break the population into isolated groups, eliminating the possibility of interbreeding between them. This is true for populations of both animals and humans, which is well known to any biologist.

Aftermath of Babylon

This is exactly what happened after the Babylonian pandemonium. When God made people speak different languages, there were insurmountable barriers between them. Now they did not dare to marry those whose language they did not understand. Moreover, groups of people united common language, had difficulty communicating and, of course, did not trust those who spoke other languages. They were forced to move away from each other and settled in different places. Thus God's commandment was fulfilled: "Fill the earth."

It is doubtful that each of the newly formed small groups contained people of the same wide range of skin colors as the original. Carriers of dark skin genes could predominate in one group, while lighter ones in the other. The same applies to other external signs: the shape of the nose, the shape of the eyes, and so on. And since now all marriages took place within the same language group, each such trait no longer aspired to the average, as it had previously. As people moved away from Babylon, they had to face new unusual climatic conditions.

As an example, consider a group heading to cold climes where the sun shines weaker and less frequently. Black people were deficient in vitamin D there, so they got sick more often and had fewer children. Consequently, over time, this group began to be dominated by people with fair skin. If several different groups headed north, and one of them lacked the genes for fair skin, that group was doomed to extinction. Natural selection operates on the basis existing traits rather than creating new ones. The researchers found that, which today have already been recognized as full-fledged representatives human race, suffered from rickets, which indicates a deficiency in the bones of vitamin D. In fact, it was the signs of rickets, plus evolutionary prejudices, that for a long time forced Neanderthals to be classified as "monkey people."

Apparently, this was a group of dark-skinned people who found themselves in a natural environment that is unfavorable for them - because of the set of genes, which they originally had. Again, we note that the so-called natural selection does not create a new skin color, but only selects from existing combinations. Conversely, a group of fair-skinned people stranded in a hot, sunny region would be more likely to suffer from skin cancer. Thus, in hot climates, dark-skinned people were more likely to survive. So we see that environmental influences can

(a) influence the genetic balance within one group and

(b) even cause entire groups to disappear.

That is why we are currently seeing the correspondence of the most common physical qualities of the population with the environment (for example, northern peoples with pale skin, dark-skinned inhabitants of the equator, and so on).

But this is not always the case. The Inuit (Eskimos) have brown skin, although they live where there is little sun. It can be assumed that initially their genotype was something like MAMAmBmB, and therefore their offspring could not be lighter or darker. The Inuit mainly eat fish, which is rich in vitamin D. Conversely, the native South Americans living near the equator do not have black skin at all. These examples once again confirm that natural selection does not create new information - if the genetic pool does not allow you to change skin color, natural selection is not able to do it. African pygmies are inhabitants of hot lands, but they are very rarely in the open sun, because they live in shady jungles. And yet their skin is black.

Pygmies can serve a prime example another factor influencing the racial history of mankind: discrimination. People who represent a deviation from the "norm" (for example, a very fair-skinned person among blacks) are traditionally treated with dislike. It is difficult for such a person to find a spouse. This state of affairs leads to the disappearance of light-skin genes in black people in hot countries and dark-skin genes in light-skinned people in cold countries. This was the tendency of the groups to "purify".

In some cases, consanguineous marriages in a small group may bring about a reappearance of near-extinct traits that have been "suppressed" by ordinary marriages. There is a tribe in Africa, all members of which have severely deformed feet; this sign manifested itself in them as a result of closely related marriages. If people with hereditary short stature were discriminated against, they were forced to seek refuge in the wilderness and marry only among themselves. So over time, the "race" of the pygmies was formed. The fact that Pygmy tribes, according to observations, do not have their own language, but speak the dialects of neighboring tribes, is strong evidence in favor of this hypothesis. Certain genetic characteristics could move groups of people to consciously (or semi-consciously) choose the place of settlement.

For example, people genetically predisposed to denser subcutaneous fat layers were more likely to leave regions that were too hot.

Common memory

The biblical story of the origin of man is supported by more than just biological and genetic evidence. Since all mankind descended from Noah's family relatively recently, it would be strange if the legends of different peoples did not contain references to the Flood, even if somewhat distorted during oral transmission from generation to generation.

Indeed, in the folklore of most civilizations there is a description of the Flood that destroyed the world. Often these stories contain wonderful "coincidences" with the true biblical story: eight people who escaped in a boat, a rainbow, a bird sent in search of land, and so on.

And what is the result?

The Babylonian dispersion broke up a single group of people, within which free interbreeding was carried out, into smaller, isolated groups. This led to the appearance in the formed groups of special combinations of genes responsible for different physical traits.

The dispersion itself must, in a short space of time, bring about the appearance of certain differences between some of these groups, commonly called "races." An additional role was played by the selective influence of the environment, which contributed to the recombination of existing genes to achieve precisely those physical characteristics, which were required in the data natural conditions. But there was no evolution of genes "from simple to complex" and could not be, because the entire set of genes existed. The dominant properties of different groups of people have come about as a result of recombinations of an already existing set of engineered genes, with minor degenerative changes due to mutations (random changes that can be inherited).

Originally created genetic information either combined or degraded but never increased.

What did the false teachings about the origin of races lead to?

All tribes and peoples are the descendants of Noah!

The Bible makes it clear that any "recently discovered" tribe definitely goes back to Noah. Therefore, at the very beginning of the culture of the tribe were laid down: a) the knowledge of God and b) the possession of technology high enough to build a ship the size of an ocean liner. From the first chapter of the Epistle to the Romans, we can conclude that the main reason for the loss of this knowledge (see appendix 2) is the conscious renunciation of the ancestors of these people from serving the living God. Therefore, in helping the so-called "backward" nations, the gospel must come first, not secular education and technical support. In fact, in the folklore and beliefs of most "primitive" tribes, memories have been preserved that their ancestors turned away from the living Creator God. Dan Richardson of the Child of the World mission showed in his book that the missionary approach, unblinked by evolutionary prejudices and seeking to re-establish a lost connection, has in many cases produced abundant and blessed results. Jesus Christ, who came to reconcile a man who has rejected his Creator with God, is the only Truth that can bring true freedom to people of any culture, of any skin color (John 8:32; 14:6).

Attachment 1

Is it true that black skin is the result of Ham's curse?

Black (or rather, dark brown) skin is just a special combination of hereditary factors. These factors (but not their combination!) were originally present in Adam and Eve. There is no indication anywhere in the Bible to the fact that the black color of the skin is the result of a curse that fell on Ham and his descendants. Also, the curse did not apply to Ham himself, but to his son Canaan (Genesis 9:18,25; 10:6). Most importantly, we know that the skin of the descendants of Canaan was swarthy (Genesis 10:15-19), not black.

False teachings about Ham and his descendants were used to justify slavery and other biblical racism. African peoples are traditionally considered to be descended from the Hamites, since the Kushites (Kush - son of Ham: Genesis 10:6) are believed to have lived in what is now Ethiopia. The Book of Genesis suggests that the dispersion of people on Earth occurred with the preservation of family ties, and it is possible that the descendants of Ham were on average somewhat darker than, for example, the clan of Japheth. However, things could have been quite different. Rahab (Rahab), mentioned in the genealogy of Jesus in the first chapter of the Gospel of Matthew, belonged to the Canaanites, the descendants of Canaan. Being from the clan of Ham, she married an Israelite - and God approved this union. Therefore, it didn't matter what "race" she belonged to - what mattered was that she believed in the true God.

The Moabite Ruth is also mentioned in the genealogy of Christ. She confessed her faith in God before her marriage to Boaz (Ruth 1:16). God warns us against only one kind of marriage: God's children with unbelievers.

Annex 2

Stone age people?

Archaeological finds show that there were once people on Earth who lived in caves and used simple stone tools. Such people live on Earth to this day. We know that the entire population of the earth descended from Noah and his family. Judging by the book of Genesis, even before the Flood, people had developed technology that allowed them to make musical instruments, farm, forge metal tools, build cities, and even build huge ships like the Ark. After the Babylonian Pandemonium, groups of people - due to mutual hostility caused by the confusion of languages ​​- quickly dispersed over the earth in search of shelter.

In some cases, stone tools could be used temporarily until people equipped their homes and did not find deposits of metals necessary for the manufacture of familiar tools. There were other situations when a group of immigrants initially, even before Babylon, did not deal with metal.

Ask members of any modern family: if they had to start life from scratch, how many of them would be able to find an ore deposit, develop it and smelt the metal? Obviously, the Babylonian dispersion was followed by a technological and cultural decline. Harsh environmental conditions may also have played a role. The technology and culture of the Australian Aborigines is well suited to their way of life and the need to survive in the drylands.

Let us recall at least the aerodynamic principles, the knowledge of which is necessary to create various types boomerangs (some of them come back, others don't). Sometimes we see clear but hard to explain evidence of decline. For example, when Europeans arrived in Tasmania, the technology of the natives there was the most primitive one can imagine. They did not fish, did not make or wear clothes. However, archaeological excavations have shown that the cultural and technological level of the previous generations of aborigines was incomparably higher.

Archaeologist Rhys Jones claims that in the distant past, they were able to sew complex clothes from skins. This contrasts sharply with the situation of the early 1800s, when the natives simply threw the skins over their shoulders. There is also evidence that in the past they caught fish and ate it, but they stopped doing this long before the arrival of Europeans. From all this we can conclude that technological progress is not natural: sometimes the accumulated knowledge and skills disappear without a trace. Followers of animistic cults live in perpetual fear of evil spirits. Many elementary and healthy things - washing or good nutrition - are taboo for them. This once again confirms the truth that the loss of knowledge about God the Creator leads to degradation (Romans 1:18-32).

Here is the Good News

Creation Ministries International strives to glorify and honor the Creator God, and to affirm the truth that the Bible describes the true story of the origin of the world and man. Part of this story is the bad news about Adam's violation of God's command. This brought death, suffering and separation from God into the world. These results are known to everyone. All of Adam's descendants are afflicted with sin from the moment of conception (Psalm 50:7) and share in Adam's disobedience (sin). They can no longer be in the presence of the Holy God and are doomed to separation from Him. The Bible says that “all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God” (Romans 3:23) and that all “will suffer chastisement, eternal destruction, from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of his might” (2 Thessalonians 1:9). But there is good news: God did not remain indifferent to our trouble. “For God so loved the world that he gave his only begotten Son, that whoever believes in him should not perish but have eternal life.”(John 3:16).

Jesus Christ, the Creator, being sinless, took upon Himself the blame for the sins of all mankind and their consequences - death and separation from God. He died on the cross, but on the third day he rose again, having conquered death. And now everyone who sincerely believes in Him, repents of his sins and relies not on himself, but on Christ, can return to God and be in eternal communion with his Creator. “He who believes in Him is not judged, but the unbeliever is already condemned, because he did not believe in the name of the Only Begotten Son of God”(John 3:18). Wonderful is our Savior and marvelous is salvation in Christ our Creator!

Links and notes

1. On the basis of variations in mitochondrial DNA, attempts were made to prove that all modern people are descended from a single foremother (who lived in a small population from about 70 to 800 thousand years ago). Recent discoveries in the field of mitochondrial DNA mutation rates have drastically reduced this period to the time frame specified by the Bible. See Lowe, L., and Scherer, S., 1997. Mitochondrial Eye: the plot thickens. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 12 (11):422-423; Wieland, C., 1998. A shrinking date for Eve. CEN Technical Journal, 12(1): 1-3. creationontheweb.com/eve