The creation and development of new products can occur both through the acquisition of patents, licenses, inventions, know-how, and through the use of the enterprise's own intellectual potential.

As is known Scientific research are divided into fundamental, search and applied development work (R&D) (Table 5.4).

Fundamental and exploratory research work is usually not a common phenomenon in the complex of works on the creation of fundamentally new products.

Directly these processes include applied research work. Their main steps include:

1) development of terms of reference (TOR);

2) choice of research direction;

3) theoretical and experimental research;

4) generalization and evaluation of research results.

The specific composition of the stages and works is determined by the specifics of production (Table 5.5).

Table 5.4. Content of research works (R&D)

Research types	Research results
Fundamental	Extension theoretical knowledge. Obtaining new scientific data about the processes, phenomena, patterns that exist in a certain area; scientific achievements, methods and principles of research of new functions of the object that is being studied
search engines	Increasing the volume of knowledge for a deeper understanding of the subject of study. Making forecasts for the development of science and technology; discovery of new areas of application of discovered phenomena and processes. Search for new functional combinations based on existing functions
Applied	Using positive concrete scientific problems to create new products. Obtaining recommendations, instructions, settlement and technical materials, methods, etc.
Experimental design (R&D)	Development of layouts, prototypes, models. Conducting experiments, correcting deficiencies, testing

After the completion of applied research work (R&D), provided that positive results are obtained that satisfy the customer in terms of goals, resource costs and market conditions for the implementation of the project, in practice, they begin to perform experimental design work (R&D). This is the most important stage in the materialization of the results of previous studies.

The main stages of R&D:

1) development of TOR and technical proposal;

2) preliminary design;

3) technical design;

4) preparation of working documentation for the manufacture and testing of a prototype;

5) preliminary tests of a prototype;

6) commission test of a prototype;

7) finalization of documentation based on test results.

Table 5.5. Stages and composition of research

Stages of research	Composition of the GDR
TK development	Scientific forecasting. Analysis of the results of fundamental and exploratory research. Study of patent documentation. Accounting for customer requirements
Choice of research direction	Collection and study of scientific and technical information. Drawing up an analytical review. Conducting patent research. Formulation of possible directions for solving the tasks set in the TOR, comparative assessment. Selection and justification of the accepted research direction and methods of solving problems. Comparison of the expected indicators of new products after the implementation of the results of research and development with the existing indicators of analogue products. Evaluation of the estimated economic efficiency of new products. Development of a general methodology for conducting research (programs of work, schedules, network models). Submission of an interim report
Theoretical and experimental studies	Development of working hypotheses, construction of models of the research object, substantiation of assumptions. Identification of the need for experiments to confirm certain provisions of theoretical studies or to obtain specific values parameters required for calculations. Development of experimental research methodology, preparation of models (models, experimental samples), as well as new equipment that is being designed. Conducting experiments, processing the obtained data; comparison of experimental results with theoretical studies. Correction of theoretical models of the object. Carrying out additional experiments if necessary. Conducting feasibility studies. Submission of an interim report
Generalization and evaluation of research results	Generalization of the results of the previous stages of work. Evaluation of the completeness of problem solving. conducting OKR. Development of a draft TOR for R&D. Drawing up a final report. Acceptance of research work by the commission

An example of a list of works at the stages of R & D is given in Table. 5.6.

Table 5.6. An example of a list of works at the stages of R&D

OKR stages	Main tasks and scope of work
TK development	Drawing up a draft TK by the customer. Development of the draft TOR by the contractor. Establishment of a list of counterparties and coordination of private TK with them. Coordination and approval of TK
Technical proposal (is the basis for adjusting the TOR and performing a draft design)	Identification of additional or refined requirements for the product, its technical characteristics and quality indicators that cannot be specified in the TOR, including: Elaboration of forecasting results; Study of scientific and technical information; Preliminary calculations and clarification of the requirements of the TOR
Preliminary design (serves as the basis for technical design)	Development of fundamental technical solutions includes: Performance of work on the stage of the technical proposal, if this stage is not performed; Choice of element base of development; Justification of the main technical solutions; Development of structural and functional schemes of the product; Justification of the main structural elements; Metrological examination of the project; Development and testing of layouts
Engineering design	The final choice of technical solutions for the product as a whole and for its components: Development of basic electrical, kinematic, hydraulic and other circuits; Clarification of the main parameters of the product; Carrying out the structural layout of the product and determining the data for its placement at the facility; Development of technological conditions (TS) for the supply and manufacture of the product; Testing mock-ups of the main devices of the product in real conditions
Development of working documentation for the manufacture and testing of a prototype	Formation of a set of design documentation: Development of a complete set of working documentation; Its coordination with the customer and the manufacturer of serial products; Checking design documentation for unification and standardization; Production in a pilot production of a prototype; Comprehensive prototype adjustment
Preliminary tests	Checking the compliance of the prototype with the requirements of the TOR and determining the possibility of further testing: Bench tests; Preliminary tests of the object; Reliability Tests
commission test	Assessment of the compliance of the TOR and TS with the possibilities of organizing mass production by the commission of the enterprise with the participation of state regulatory authorities
Development of documentation based on test results	Making the necessary clarifications and changes in the relevant types of documentation. Transfer of documentation to the manufacturer

The probabilistic nature of the results of research and development works makes it difficult to assess their economic efficiency, which can lead to an increase in the stages and duration of development. To avoid these difficulties, a method of step-by-step determination of economic efficiency with an increasing degree of accuracy is used. In the early stages of implementation design work These calculations are predictive in nature and include:

Feasibility study of expected results;

Selection of a base for comparison and reduction of options to a comparable form;

Calculation of forward and capital costs in the field of production and operation;

Calculation and analysis of indicators of economic efficiency. Methods for calculating the annual economic effect depend on whether

the difference between analogue and new product options and annual production. For the condition of equality of annual productivity (O2 = ED, the calculation of the annual economic effect is based on the absolute values ​​of investments (K) and operating costs (I):

If the annual productivity of the new version of the product (2) is higher than that of the analogue product (1): (O.2>O.i), then the annual economic effect Er is calculated based on unit costs k, and:

where K is the absolute value of investments;

/ - the absolute value of operating costs;

k - specific investments;

and - specific operating costs;

Yong is the rate of return.

The annual economic effect from the production and use of new means of labor - durable equipment (machines, equipment, instruments, etc.) with improved quality characteristics (productivity, durability, reduction in operating costs, etc.) is determined as follows:

where the indices "1" and "2" denote data for the analog and new product, respectively;

B - reduced costs per unit of product; B \u003d C + ENK; C - the cost of manufacturing the product;

P is the productivity of new technology or an integral indicator of product quality;

D - the share of deductions for the complete restoration of the product;

Di + En /D2 + En - coefficient of change in the service life of new equipment;

En - normalized profitability ratio (discount factor);

Тsl is the service life of the means of labor;

N is the annual production volume of the product;

s| = and~[ ■ ТІО2 / П1 - annual operating costs per production volume;

K1 = K1 ■ P2 / P1 - current investment in operation (at the consumer).

Investments are invested in order to bring a profit more than the cost of acquiring capital or when an investor invests capital in another business or places capital in a bank depository. Therefore, for the analysis of new projects associated with the need to make a profit, often use the rate of return En, corresponding to different types of investment efficiency. The use in the calculations of one or another value of the rate of return depends entirely on management and investment, the goals of the enterprise and the specific market conditions.

The economic evaluation of the new product is also calculated to determine the payback period of additional investments and their profitability.

The estimated return on investment is estimated by the ratio:

The payback period is calculated as the reciprocal of the calculation of profitability (accounting rate of return):

A new product during operation will be cost-effective if the inequality How > Ek. Within the limits of compliance with this inequality, it is possible to compare the price level of a new product, depending on the goals set by the management and the owners of the enterprise.

If the strategy of the capital owners is to achieve maximum profit during the settlement period, then the most likely decision will be to set the maximum price for a new product that the market can bear (the product will remain competitive and be successfully sold during the settlement period).

The strategy of "deep penetration into the market" allows you to achieve a price reduction to the minimum level for which the manufacturer adheres to the irregularity How > Ek.

If during the operation of a new product there is an increase in profits and a decrease in the cost of production, the annual economic effect can be calculated by the formula:

where P1 is the annual profit from the operation of the company's existing analogue (equipment, instrument, etc.); N is the volume of production (works);

N - the volume of production from the operation of a new product. C1, C2 - the cost of manufactured products, respectively, during the operation of a new product and an analogue product; K - additional investment in new product development; Ep is the rate of return.

When determining the annual economic effect, it is necessary to ensure a comparison of options for a new product and an analogue product according to the following indicators:

The volume of products (work) produced with the help of these products;

Their quality parameters;

Time factor;

Social factors of production and operation of products.

It should also be taken into account that the transition to serial or mass production significantly reduces the cost of a unit of production by reducing the share of semi-fixed costs (the effect of scale in production) and increasing the level of mechanization and automation of production processes.

The product must have a qualitative comparison. Depending on the purpose and conditions of their operation, qualitative indicators of comparison can be, for example, reliability, durability, maintainability, performance, power, weight, dimensions, accuracy, speed, degree of automation, and so on. If an analogue product does not provide the performance of any function that is available in a new product, then additional measures (means) should be provided that are necessary to bring this indicator to the level of a new product.

There can be several approaches to the design indicators that need to be taken into account to determine the overall quality indicator. Usually determine the specific weight of the importance and significance of each indicator in the overall characteristics of the new product. Then they are evaluated according to one of the point systems (for example, ten-point). The assessment in points is made by expert way (tab. 5.7).

Table 5.7. Table of scoring parameters Xi of a new product-analogue

The integrated indicator (coefficient) of quality (c) of a new product is determined by the formula:

where n is the number of product parameters;

a, - weight coefficient of importance of the 7th parameter;

bin, lia - the values ​​of this parameter, respectively, of a new product and an analogue product, evaluated by experts in points.

Calculation of the annual economic effect in the production of new products:

where Pch - profit from the sale of new products after paying taxes and interest on loans;

K - capital investment.

In the case when a new product is mastered instead of an analogue product:

where Egn, Ega - respectively, the economic effect in the production of a new product and an analogue product.

If investments are related to the commissioning of fixed assets, depreciation charges (AI) can be taken into account when calculating the annual economic effect, then:

In this case, the annual profitability of capital investments As for the development of new products is estimated by the ratio:

The criterion for making a decision on the development of the production of a new product is the ratio:

where Current and Currents are the payback period of investments, respectively: calculated and standard:

The indicator of the economic effect from the production of new products should have a positive value, which means that the return on investment As exceeds the normative value En.

To calculate As in the case of bringing income and costs to one point in time (? в), you need to solve the following problem. Find the value at which the integral economic effect for the calculation period (investment life cycle) Ei would be equal to zero:

where Psh - profit from the sale of new products of the i-th year;

K - investment in g-m;

T - life cycle of investments (years);

and - discount factor.

Taking into account the time factor for assessing the economic efficiency of research and development work.

When performing economic calculations at the stages of research and development, it must be taken into account that investments, as a rule, are made in the years preceding the start of production of new products by the manufacturer and the previous start of operation of these projects. Therefore, all indicators of income and expenses are considered reduced to one point in time - the first year of the billing period (the beginning of the manufacture or operation of new products). If necessary, such a reduction is determined as a sum of the indicators of a given year by the discount factor and:

where d is the number of years between the year ґ to which this indicator refers, and the year "0" - the first year of the calculation period.

For economic calculations of indicators after the accounting year, they are brought to the estimated zero year by multiplying by the discount factor.

Determination of production costs of products at the stages of research and development.

At the stages of research and development, there is still no data on the technology of manufacturing a new product, its labor intensity and material consumption, therefore, determining production costs at these stages presents some difficulties. At the same time, a comprehensive economic analysis, both in production and in the field of operation, is necessary to make decisions about the feasibility of new developments.

Approximate cost calculations in these cases are carried out by establishing analogies between a new product and a previously created product based on an analysis of its parameters, elements and functions. Most often, the cost is calculated by the following methods:

Specific indicators;

Specific weight costs;

ballroom;

Correlative;

Normative calculation.

Introduction…………………………………………………………………….3

Research…………………………………………………………………………….4

Concept…………………………………………………………........4

Types of R&D………………………………………………………………4

Regulatory documents………………………………………….5

OKR…………………………………………………………………………….7

1. Concept………………………………………………………………7

2. Regulatory documents………………………………………….7

R&D organization…………………………………………………………9

Values ​​of R&D in the development of the country……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

R&D in Russia, investments…………………………………………...15

Conducting R&D in Russia. Myths and reality…………………...16

Conclusion…………………………………………………………18

References………………………………………………...19

Introduction:

Constant modernization and optimization of production is simply necessary and promises enterprises not only profit growth, but also the release of unique, superior products, which will lead to a leading position in the market. However, the interest in R&D in our country is negligible compared to Western countries. The state allocates hundreds of millions for scientific research and still the result is almost not noticeable. We, as students whose future work is closely related to innovation, need to understand: at what level at this moment is this system, what are the reasons for this and whether there are prospects for its development.

Research work (R&D): A set of theoretical or experimental studies carried out in order to obtain reasonable initial data, find principles and ways to create or modernize products.

The basis for the implementation of research is the terms of reference (hereinafter: TOR) for the implementation of research or a contract with the customer. The role of the customer can be: technical committees for standardization, organizations, enterprises, associations, associations, concerns, joint-stock companies and other business entities, regardless of the organizational and legal form of ownership and subordination, as well as government bodies directly related to the development, production, operation and maintenance of products.

There are the following types of R&D:

Fundamental R&D: research work, the result of which are:

Expansion of theoretical knowledge.

Obtaining new scientific data on the processes, phenomena, patterns that exist in the study area;

Scientific bases, methods and principles of research.

Exploratory R&D: research work, the result of which are:

Increasing the volume of knowledge for a deeper understanding of the subject being studied. Development of forecasts for the development of science and technology;

Discovery of ways to apply new phenomena and patterns.

Applied R&D: research work, the result of which are:

Solving specific scientific problems to create new products.

Determination of the possibility of conducting R & D (experimental design development) on the subject of research.

Research work is regulated by the following documents:

GOST 15.101 it reflects:

general requirements for the organization and implementation of research work;

the procedure for the implementation and acceptance of R&D;

stages of research, rules for their implementation and acceptance

GOST 15.201 it reflects:

TK requirements

GOST 7.32 it reflects:

Research report requirements

Research work (R&D) – these are scientific developments related to the search, conducting research, experiments in order to obtain new knowledge, test hypotheses, establish patterns, and scientifically substantiate projects.

The implementation of R&D is regulated by the following regulatory documents: GOST 15.101-98 “Procedure for performing R&D”, GOST 7.32-2001 “Formation of a report on R&D”, STB-1080-2011 “Procedure for performing research, development and experimental-technological work to create scientific and technical products” and others (Appendix 10).

Distinguish fundamental, search and applied R&D.

As a rule, fundamental and search works are not included in the life cycle of a product, however, on their basis, ideas are generated that can be transformed into applied R&D.

Basic Research can be divided into "clean" (free) and target.

"Pure" basic research- these are studies, the main purpose of which is the disclosure and knowledge of the unknown laws and patterns of nature and society, the causes of the occurrence of phenomena and the disclosure of the relationships between them, as well as an increase in the volume scientific knowledge. In "pure" research, there is freedom to choose the field of research and methods of scientific work.

Targeted fundamental research aimed at solving certain problems with the help of strictly scientific methods based on available data. They are limited to a certain area of ​​science, and their goal is not only to know the laws of nature and society, but also to explain phenomena and processes, to better understand the object under study, and to expand human knowledge.

This fundamental research can be called goal-oriented. They retain the freedom to choose methods of work, but in contrast to the "pure" fundamental research there is no freedom in the choice of research objects, the area and purpose of the research are tentatively set (for example, the development of a controlled thermonuclear reaction).

Basic Research conducted by academic research institutes and universities. Results of fundamental research - theories, discoveries, new principles of action. The probability of their use is 5 - 10%.

Exploratory research cover works aimed at studying the ways and means of practical application of the results of fundamental research. Their implementation implies the possibility of alternative directions for solving an applied problem and the choice of the most promising direction for its solution. They are based on the well-known results of fundamental research, although as a result of the search, their main provisions may be revised.

The main goal of exploratory research– using the results of fundamental research for practical application in various fields in the near future (for example, searching for and identifying opportunities for using a laser in practice).

Exploratory research may include work on the creation of fundamentally new materials, metal processing technologies, the study and development of scientific foundations for optimizing technological processes, the search for new drugs, the analysis of the biological effect on the body of new chemical compounds etc.

Exploratory research has varieties: exploratory research of a wide profile without a special application to a particular industry and a narrowly focused nature to address issues of specific industries.

Search work is carried out in universities, academic and industry research institutes. In individual branch institutes of industry and other branches of the national economy, the proportion of prospecting work reaches 10%.

The probability of practical use of exploratory research is about 30%.

Applied Research (R&D) are one of the stages life cycle creation of new types of products. These include studies that are carried out with the aim of practical use of the results of fundamental and exploratory research in relation to specific tasks.

The purpose of applied R&D is to answer the question “is it possible to create a new type of product, materials or technological processes based on the results of fundamental and exploratory R&D, and with what characteristics”.

Applied research is carried out mainly in branch research institutes. The results of applied research are patentable schemes, scientific recommendations proving the technical feasibility of creating innovations (machines, devices, technologies). At this stage, a market target can be set with a high degree of probability. The probability of practical use of applied research is 75 - 85%.

R&D consists of stages (stages), which are understood as a logically justified set of works that has independent significance and is the object of planning and financing.

The specific composition of the stages and the nature of the work performed within their framework are determined by the specifics of R&D.

According to GOST 15.101-98 "Procedure for performing research" the main stages of research are:

1. Development of terms of reference (TOR)- selection and study of scientific and technical literature, patent information and other materials on the topic, discussion of the data obtained, on the basis of which an analytical review is compiled, hypotheses and forecasts are put forward, customer requirements are taken into account. Based on the results of the analysis, research directions and ways of implementing the requirements that the product must satisfy are selected. Reporting scientific and technical documentation for the stage is compiled, the necessary performers are determined, the terms of reference are prepared and issued.

At the stage of developing the terms of reference for research, the following types of information are used:

· object of study;

description of the requirements for the object of study;

List of functions of the object of study of a general technical nature;

a list of physical and other effects, regularities and theories that can be the basis of the principle of operation of a new product;

technical solutions (in predictive studies);

· information about the scientific and technical potential of the R&D performer;

information about the production and material resources of the research contractor;

· marketing research;

data on the expected economic effect.

Additionally, the following information is used:

methods for solving individual problems;

general technical requirements (standards, environmental and other restrictions, requirements for reliability, maintainability, ergonomics, and so on);

Projected terms of product renewal;

· offers of licenses and "know-how" on the object of research.

2. Choice of research direction– collection and study of scientific and technical information, drawing up an analytical review, conducting patent research, formulating possible directions for solving the problems set in the TOR of research and their comparative assessment, choosing and justifying the accepted direction of research and methods for solving problems, comparing the expected indicators of new products after implementation of research results with existing indicators of analogous products, assessment of the estimated economic efficiency of new products, development of a general methodology for conducting research. Preparation of an interim report.

3. Conducting theoretical, experimental research– development of working hypotheses, construction of models of the research object, substantiation of assumptions, scientific and technical ideas are tested, research methods are developed, the choice of various schemes is justified, calculation and research methods are selected, the need for experimental work is identified, methods for their implementation are developed.

If the need for experimental work is determined, design and manufacture of mock-ups and an experimental sample are carried out.

Bench and field experimental tests of the sample are carried out according to the developed programs and methods, the test results are analyzed, and the degree of compliance of the data obtained on the experimental sample with the calculated and theoretical conclusions is determined.

If there are deviations from the TOR, then the experimental sample is being finalized, additional tests, if necessary, changes are made to the developed schemes, calculations, technical documentation.

4. Registration of research results- preparation of reporting documentation on the results of research, including materials on the novelty and expediency of using the results of research, on economic efficiency. If positive results are obtained, then scientific and technical documentation and draft terms of reference for development work are developed. The compiled and executed set of scientific and technical documentation is presented to the customer for acceptance. If private technical solutions are new, then they are issued through the patent service, regardless of the completion of the preparation of all technical documentation. The leader of the topic, before presenting the research work to the commission, draws up a notice of its readiness for acceptance.

5. Subject acceptance– discussion and approval of the results of research (scientific and technical report) and the signing of the customer's act on acceptance of the work. If positive results are obtained and the acceptance certificate is signed, the developer transfers to the customer:

An experimental sample of a new product accepted by the commission;

Protocols of acceptance tests and acts of acceptance of a prototype (dummy) of the product;

Calculations of economic efficiency of using the development results;

Necessary design and technological documentation for the production of an experimental sample.

The developer takes part in the design and development of a new product and, along with the customer, is responsible for achieving the product performance guaranteed by him.

The comprehensive implementation of research on a specific target program allows not only to solve a scientific and technical problem, but also to create a sufficient reserve for a more efficient and quality development work, design and technological preparation of production, as well as significantly reduce the amount of improvements and the timing of the creation and development of new equipment.

Experimental design developments (R&D). Continuation of applied R&D are technical developments: experimental design (R&D), design and technological (PTR) and design (PR) developments. At this stage, new technological processes are developed, samples of new products, machines and devices, etc. are created.

R&D is regulated by:

· STB 1218-2000. Development and production of products. Terms and Definitions.

· STB-1080-2011. “Procedure for the implementation of research, development and experimental-technological work to create scientific and technical products.”

· TCP 424-2012 (02260). The procedure for the development and production of products. Technical code. The provisions of the technical code apply to work on the creation of new or improved products (services, technologies), including the creation of innovative products.

· GOST R 15.201-2000, System for the development and production of products. Products for industrial and technical purposes. The procedure for the development and production of products.

and others (see Appendix 10).

The purpose of the development work is the development of a set of working design documentation in the amount and quality of development, sufficient for putting a certain type of product into production (GOST R 15.201-2000).

Development work in its objectives is a consistent implementation of the results of previously conducted applied research.

Development work is mainly carried out by design and engineering organizations. The material result of this stage is drawings, projects, standards, instructions, prototypes. The probability of practical use of the results is 90 - 95%.

Main types of work that are included in the OKR:

1) preliminary design (development of fundamental technical solutions for the product, giving general idea on the principle of operation and (or) the design of the product);

2) technical design (development of final technical solutions that give a complete picture of the product design);

3) design (design implementation of technical solutions);

4) modeling, pilot production of product samples;

5) confirmation of technical solutions and their design implementation by testing layouts and prototypes.

Typical stages OKRs are:

1. Technical task - the source document, on the basis of which all work is carried out to create a new product, developed by the manufacturer of the product and agreed with the customer (main consumer). Approved by the lead ministry (whose profile the product under development belongs to).

In the terms of reference, the purpose of the future product is determined, its technical and operational parameters and characteristics are carefully substantiated: performance, dimensions, speed, reliability, durability and other indicators due to the nature of the work of the future product. It also contains information on the nature of production, conditions of transportation, storage and repair, recommendations on the implementation of the necessary stages of development of design documentation and its composition, a feasibility study and other requirements.

The development of the terms of reference is based on the performed research work, marketing research information, analysis of existing similar models and their operating conditions.

When developing TOR for R&D, information is used similar to that for developing TOR for R&D (see above).

After coordination and approval, the technical task is the basis for the development of a preliminary design.

2. Preliminary design consists of a graphic part and an explanatory note. The first part contains fundamental design solutions that give an idea about the product and the principle of its operation, as well as data that determine the purpose, main parameters and overall dimensions. It gives an idea of ​​the future design of the product, including general drawings, functional blocks, input and output electrical data of all nodes (blocks) that make up the overall block diagram.

At this stage, documentation for the manufacture of mock-ups is developed, they are manufactured and tested, after which the design documentation is corrected. The second part of the preliminary design contains the calculation of the main design parameters, a description of the operational features and an approximate work schedule for the technical preparation of production.

The layout of the product allows you to achieve a successful layout of individual parts, find more correct aesthetic and ergonomic solutions and thereby speed up the development of design documentation at subsequent stages.

The tasks of the draft design include the development of guidelines for ensuring manufacturability, reliability, standardization and unification at subsequent stages, as well as the preparation of a list of specifications for materials and components for prototypes for their subsequent transfer to the logistics service.

The draft design goes through the same stages of approval and approval as the terms of reference.

3. Technical project is developed on the basis of an approved preliminary design and provides for the implementation of the graphic and calculation parts, as well as the refinement of the technical and economic indicators of the product being created. It consists of a set of design documents containing the final technical solutions that give a complete picture of the design of the product being developed and the initial data for the development of working documentation.

The graphic part of the technical project contains drawings of a general view of the designed product, assemblies in the assembly and main parts. Drawings must be coordinated with technologists.

The explanatory note contains a description and calculation of the parameters of the main assembly units and basic parts of the product, a description of the principles of its operation, a rationale for the choice of materials and types of protective coatings, a description of all schemes and final technical and economic calculations. At this stage, when developing product options, a prototype is manufactured and tested. The technical project goes through the same stages of approval and approval as the terms of reference.

4. working draft is a further development and concretization of the technical project. This stage is divided into three levels: development of working documentation for an experimental batch (prototype); development of working documentation for the installation series; development of working documentation for serial or mass production.

The result of the R&D is a set of working design documentation (RKD) for putting a new type of product into production.

Working design documentation (RKD)- a set of design documents intended for the manufacture, control, acceptance, delivery, operation and repair of the product. Along with the term "working design documentation", the terms "working technological documentation" and "working technical documentation" are used with a similar definition. Working documentation, depending on the scope of use, is divided into production, operational and repair design documentation.

Thus, the result of R&D, in other words, scientific and technical products (STP) is a set of design documentation. Such a set of RKD may contain:

actual design documentation,

software documentation

operational documentation.

In some cases, if it is provided for by the requirements of the terms of reference, the technological documentation may also be included in the working technical documentation.

The various stages of R&D, as they are carried out, should contain their characteristic results, such results are:

· technical documentation based on the results of preliminary design;

· layouts, experimental and prototypes made in the course of R&D;

The results of testing prototypes: preliminary (PI), interdepartmental (MI), acceptance (PriI), state (GI), etc.

Similar information.

6.4. Scientific preparation of production

6.4.1. Research work (R&D)

Scientific research can be divided into fundamental, exploratory and applied (table 6.2).

Table 6.2

Research work

Research types	Research results
Fundamental	Expansion of theoretical knowledge. Obtaining new scientific data on the processes, phenomena, patterns that exist in the study area; scientific foundations, methods and principles of research
search engines	Increasing the volume of knowledge for a deeper understanding of the subject being studied. Development of forecasts for the development of science and technology; discovery of ways to apply new phenomena and patterns
Applied	Solving specific scientific problems to create new products. Obtaining recommendations, instructions, settlement and technical materials, methods, etc.

Directly to the processes of creating new goods are applied R&D.

Fundamental and exploratory R&D are usually not included in the scope of work on the creation and development of new products.

The procedure for conducting research work (R&D) of an applied nature is regulated by GOST 15.101.-80.

The main stages of research:

1) development of terms of reference (TOR) for R&D;
2) choice of research direction;
3) theoretical and experimental research;
4) generalization and evaluation of research results.

The specific composition of the stages and work on them is determined, of course, by the specifics of R&D. An approximate list of works at the stages of research is given in Table. 6.3.

Table 6.3

Stages and scope of research work

Stages of research	Scope of work
Development of technical specifications for research	- scientific forecasting; - analysis of the results of fundamental and exploratory research; - study of patent documentation; - taking into account customer requirements
Choice of research direction	- collection and study of scientific and technical information; - drawing up an analytical review; - conducting patent research; - formulation of possible directions for solving the tasks set in the TOR of R&D, and a comparative assessment; - selection and justification of the accepted direction of research and methods for solving problems; - comparison of the expected indicators of new products after the implementation of the results of research and development with the existing indicators of analogue products; - assessment of the estimated economic efficiency of new products; - development of a general methodology for conducting research (programs of work, schedules, network models);
Theoretical and experimental studies	- development of working hypotheses, construction of models of the research object, substantiation of assumptions; - identification of the need for experiments to confirm certain provisions of theoretical studies or to obtain specific values ​​of the parameters necessary for calculations; - development of experimental research methodology, preparation of models (models, experimental samples), as well as test equipment; - conducting experiments, processing the obtained data; - comparison of experimental results with theoretical studies; - adjustment of the theoretical models of the object; - carrying out additional experiments if necessary; - conducting feasibility studies; - preparation of an interim report
Generalization and evaluation of research results	- generalization of the results of previous stages of work; - assessment of the completeness of problem solving; - development of recommendations for further research and development work; - development of a draft TOR for R&D; - preparation of the final report; - acceptance of research by the commission.

6.4.2. Development work (R&D)

After the completion of applied research, subject to the positive results of an economic analysis that satisfies the firm in terms of its goals, resources and market conditions, they begin to perform development work (R&D). R&D is the most important link in the materialization of the results of previous R&D. Based on the results of research, new products are created and tested.

The main stages of R&D (GOST 15.001-73):

1. Development of technical specifications for R&D.
2. Technical proposal.
3. Preliminary design.
4. Technical design.
5. Development of working documentation for the manufacture and testing of a prototype.
6. Preliminary testing of the prototype.
7. State (departmental) testing of a prototype.
8. Development of documentation based on test results.

An approximate list of works at the stages of R&D is given in Table. 6.4.

Table 6.4

Approximate list of works at the stages of R&D

OKR stages	Main tasks and scope of work
Development of technical specifications for R&D	- preparation of a draft statement of work by the customer; - elaboration of the draft TOR by the contractor; - establishment of a list of contractors and coordination of private TK with them; - coordination and approval of TK
Technical proposal (is the basis for adjusting the TOR and performing a draft design)	Identification of additional or refined requirements for the product, its technical characteristics and quality indicators that cannot be specified in the TOR: - elaboration of research results; - elaboration of forecasting results; - study of scientific and technical information; - preliminary calculations and clarification of the requirements of the TOR
Preliminary design (serves as the basis for technical design)	Development of fundamental technical solutions: - performance of work on the stage of the technical proposal, if this stage is not performed; - choice of element base of development; - selection of basic technical solutions; - development of structural and functional schemes of the product; - selection of the main structural elements; - metrological examination of the project; - development and testing of layouts
Engineering design	The final choice of technical solutions for the product as a whole and its components: - development of basic electrical, kinematic, hydraulic and other circuits; - clarification of the main parameters of the product; - Carrying out the structural layout of the product and issuing data for its placement at the facility; - development of projects of specifications for the supply and manufacture of the product; - testing of models of the main devices of the product in natural conditions
Development of working documentation for the manufacture and testing of a prototype	Formation of a set of design documents: - development of a complete set of working documentation; - its coordination with the customer and the manufacturer of serial products; - verification of design documentation for unification and standardization; - production in pilot production of a prototype: - tuning and complex adjustment of the prototype
Preliminary tests	Checking the compliance of the prototype with the requirements of the TOR and possible presentation for state (departmental) tests: - bench tests; - preliminary tests at the facility; - reliability tests
State (departmental) tests	Assessing the compliance with the TOR and the possibility of organizing mass production
Development of documentation based on test results	- making the necessary clarifications and changes to the documentation; - assignment of documentation letter " O 1"; - transfer of documentation to the manufacturer

6.5. Evaluation of the effectiveness of research and development work

The probabilistic nature of R&D results complicates the assessment of economic efficiency and leads to their step-by-step determination with an increasing degree of accuracy. At the early stages of design work, calculations are predictive in nature and include:

Feasibility study of expected results;
- selection of a base for comparison and reduction of options to a comparable form;
- calculation of pre-production and capital costs in the field of production and operation;
- calculation and analysis of indicators of economic efficiency.

Annual economic effect and economic efficiency in the operation of new products.

Methods for calculating the annual economic effect depend on whether the annual productivity of products differs in the compared options. If their annual productivity is equal (Q H = Q A), the calculation of the annual economic effect is based on the absolute values ​​of capital investments K and operating costs (expenses) AND:

At .

If, in the new version, the annual productivity of the product is higher than in the analogue , then the annual economic effect Eg is calculated on the basis of specific cost values ​​k, u:

At ,

where K is the absolute value of capital investments;
And - the absolute value of operating costs;
k - specific capital investments;
u - specific operating costs;
E n - rate of return.

During the economic evaluation of a new product, the payback period for additional investments and the return on investment (in our case, capital investments) are also calculated (see Section 4.8 of Topic 4).

Investments (capital investments) are made in order to bring a profit greater than the cost of acquiring capital by an entrepreneur or when investing capital by an investor in another business or placing capital in a bank at interest. Therefore, to analyze new projects associated with the need to make a profit, often use the rate of return corresponding to different types capital investments. The use in the calculations of one or another value of the rate of return depends entirely on the entrepreneur and investor, the goals of the company and the specific market situation. However, it is possible to recommend approximate values ​​of E n depending on the types of capital investments mentioned above (Table 6.5).

Table 6.5

Rates of return depending on the types of investments

Estimated profitability(accounting rate of return) of capital investments are estimated by the ratio

Payback period calculated as the reciprocal of the estimated profitability (accounting rate of return):

The value of the rate of return E n can also be taken equal to the actual return on investment of the best projects in a similar direction, the real interest rate on the capital market or bank interest. The real interest rate is the nominal interest rate expressed in current prices but adjusted for inflation.

The developed product in operation is cost-effective if the inequality is observed.

Within the limits of compliance with this inequality, it is possible to change the price level of a new product depending on the goals pursued by entrepreneurs (developer and manufacturer).

If the strategy of capital owners is the strategy of "skimming the cream", that is, extracting the maximum profit during the billing period, then the most likely decision will be to set the maximum price for a new product that the market can only withstand (products will remain competitive and will be successfully sold during the billing period). ).

With a strategy of "deep market penetration" (gaining market share), prices can be reduced to the minimum level at which inequality is observed among the producer.

If during the operation of a new development (new product) there is an increase in profits and a decrease in the cost of manufactured products or work (in an organization using a new development), the annual economic effect can be calculated by the formula

,

where P a is the annual profit from the operation of an analogue product available at the enterprise (machine, device, etc.);
Q is the volume of production (works);
Q n - during the operation of a new product development;
Q a - during the operation of the product development available at the enterprise);
Z n, Z a - the cost of manufactured products, respectively, during the operation of a new product and an analogue product;
K - additional investment in new product development;
E n - rate of return.

When determining the annual economic effect, it is necessary to ensure the comparability of the compared options for a new product and an analogue product in terms of such indicators as:

The volume of products (work) produced with the help of a new product;
- quality parameters;
- time factor;
- social factors of production and use of products.

Comparability in terms of the volume of products produced with the help of a new product and an analogue product was considered earlier.

It should also be taken into account that the transition from single to serial and mass production significantly reduces the cost of a unit of production by reducing the share of semi-fixed costs and increasing the level of mechanization of processes.

An analogue product and a newly developed product must be qualitatively comparable. Depending on the purpose and conditions of its operation, qualitative indicators of comparability can be, for example, reliability, durability, maintainability, power consumption, weight, dimensions, accuracy, speed, degree of automation, etc.

If an analogue product does not provide the performance of any function that is available in a new product, then additional funds should be provided for it, necessary to bring this indicator to the level of a new product.

In the designed products, there may be several indicators that must be taken into account when determining the overall quality indicator. Usually, the specific weight of the importance of each indicator in the general characteristics of the new development is determined. Then they are evaluated on a point system (for example, ten points). The scoring is made by an expert (Table 6.6).

The integral indicator (coefficient) of quality (K and) of a new product is determined by the formula

where n is the number of product parameters;
a i - weight coefficient of importance of the i-th parameter;
b in, b ia are the values ​​of this parameter, respectively, of a new product and an analogue product, evaluated by experts in points.

Calculation of the annual economic effect in the production of new products

Annual economic effect in the production (development) of new products E g

,

where P h - profit from the sale of new products after paying taxes and interest on loans;
K - capital investments.

In the case when a new product is mastered instead of an analogue product,

where - respectively, the economic effect in the production of a new product and an analogue product.

If capital investments are associated with the commissioning of fixed assets, depreciation deductions (A d) can be taken into account when calculating the annual economic effect, then

In this case, the annual profitability of capital investments for the development of new products is estimated by the ratio

The criterion for making a decision on the development of new products in the production is

(or ),

where and - respectively, the payback period of investments: calculated and standard.

The indicator of the economic effect from the production of new products should be a positive value, which means the excess of the return on investment (capital investment) over the norm E n.

When calculating when bringing income and costs to one point in time (t 0), you need to solve the following problem. Find the value at which the integral economic effect for the calculation period (term of the economic life of investments) Ei would be equal to zero:

at ,

where - profit from the sale of new products of the t-th year;
- capital investments of the t-th year;
T is the number of years of the investment life cycle;
J q - discount factor.

This method of calculation is discussed in detail in the course "Analysis of economic activity".

Taking into account the time factor in assessing the economic efficiency of research and development

When performing economic calculations at the stages of research and development, it must be taken into account that capital investments, as a rule, are made in the years preceding the start of production of new products at the manufacturer and prior to the start of operation of these systems. Therefore, all indicators of income and costs are considered reduced to one point in time - the first year of the billing period (the beginning of the manufacture or operation of new products). If necessary, such a reduction is done by dividing the indicators of a given year by the discount factor Jq:

where t is the number of years between year t, to which this indicator refers, and year "0" - the first year of the calculation period.

In the economic calculations of indicators after the settlement year, they are brought to the settlement "0" year by multiplying by the discount factor.

Determination of production costs of products at the stages of research and development

At the stages of research and development, there is still no data on the technology of manufacturing a new product, its labor intensity and material consumption, therefore, determining production costs at these stages presents certain difficulties. At the same time, a comprehensive economic analysis, both in production and in the field of operation, is necessary to make decisions about the feasibility of new developments.

Approximate cost calculations, in these cases, are carried out by establishing analogies between the created product and the previously created product based on the analysis of its parameters, elements and functions. Most often, the cost price is calculated using one of the following methods:

According to specific indicators;
- by specific weight costs;
- scoring;
- correlation;
- normative calculation.

Method of specific indicators

When calculating according to this method, it is assumed that the costs change in proportion to the change in the defining parameter of the product (for example, power consumption, performance, speed, etc.).

Typically, indicators such as the cost per unit of weight, the cost per unit of power, speed, the cost of one function, etc. are used.

The unit cost of the selected parameter is determined on the basis of the statistical data of the analogue product.

The cost of a new product Z n is determined as the product of the specific cost Z ud ​​by the value of the main parameter of the new product X n:

Calculations of this type can be refined with the help of differentiated specific indicators, such as the cost of materials Z m.ud and labor intensity t ud per unit of the main parameter. Then

where C t is the hourly rate of a piece worker (or the hourly rate of a time worker);
- coefficients taking into account, respectively, shop, factory and non-production costs.

Weighted cost method

This method is based on calculating one of the costing items of a new product in a direct way, for example, the cost of basic materials and components, and determining the cost of a new product, based on the assumption that the share of this article in the cost structure of a new product will be equal to the share of this article in the cost structure of an analogue product:

Point method

The scoring method is based on conditional scoring of the main technical and operational characteristics of products, for example, on a ten-point system.

The scoring procedure is carried out using line charts(Figure 6.8) or tables (Table 6.6).

Rice. 6.8 Graph of the scoring of parameters A and B for two types of materials M c and M d (n - new product; a - analogue product)

Table 6.6

Table of scoring parameters X i of a new product (H) and an analogue product (a)

Parameters Xi	Unit ism	Weight coefficient importance a i	New item (N)			Analogue product(s)
			Numeric meaning	Number of points b in	Significance	Numeric meaning	Number of points	Significance
Parameter X 1
Parameter X 2
. . .
Parameter Xn
Total

The scores established for each parameter by an expert are summed up for a new product and an analogue product separately.

The calculation of the cost of a new product Z n is carried out according to the formula

,

where is the value multiplier obtained by dividing the actual cost of the analogue product For by the sum of points corresponding to its technical characteristics:

where a i is the weighting coefficient of importance of the i-th product parameter.

The method of points is applicable in the early stages of design for rough cost calculations only if the principle of proportional dependence of costs on parameters is preserved.

Correlation Method

The method is based on the correlation dependence of the cost on any parameters of the product.

This dependence can be expressed either as a linear equation

or in the form of a power dependence (with a curvilinear form of the correlation field)

For i=1, ..., n,

where Z n - cost;
x i - considered parameter;
- constants characterizing the degree of influence of the considered parameter on the cost price.

On the basis of statistical data for 3-5 years on the production of analogous products, it is possible to determine the trends in the cost of change and, if the results of research and development do not radically change the structure and value of the cost, determine the coefficients of the equation (using the least squares method).

So, for example, the equation for the relationship between the cost of Z n (for a group of semiconductor devices) and the labor intensity of manufacturing tpcs, the yield factor of suitable K v.g, the production volume Q and the year of manufacture T has the following form:

The process of establishing correlation dependencies is very time-consuming, it requires the selection of a large statistical material on analogous products, but the accuracy of determining the cost of costs in the early stages of design increases.

Standard costing method

The standard costing method (see topic 4, section 4.3) is the most accurate method for determining the cost of products, but the lack of reliable standard data on actual production costs makes it impossible in the early stages of design.

Method of average cost of functional elements

The method is based on the limited set of functional elements in the manufacture of the product and is mainly used in instrumentation. The average cost of some classes of functional elements differs slightly. The average cost of phase detectors, modulators, UPT triggers and other elements is almost the same for all radio equipment. This allows you to determine the cost of a product (device) by summing up the costs of functional elements, taking into account their class:

,

where n is the number of different classes in a given device;
N i - number of elements of one class;
S i - average cost of a functional element;
W sb - the cost of the overall layout and adjustment.

The values ​​of n and N i are most often known or can be determined at the stage of preliminary design. The average cost of a functional element is determined by dividing the cost of a block of the same i-th class of an analogue device by the number of functional elements in the device. The costs associated with the overall layout, setup and adjustment of the instrument are determined by any known methods of determining the cost. The total error of the deviation of the actual cost from the calculated one is no more than 10%, which is quite acceptable for economic calculations at the early stages of design.

Accounting for price changes when determining the cost (cost indexation)

To determine the overall level of cost increases, it is necessary to determine private indices of price changes for individual components and take into account the share of these costs in total costs. The summary index of change in the cost price I can be determined by the formula

where n is the number of individual components;
- the share of material, labor costs and (or) costs for the sale of products and other costs;
- index of changes in prices for materials, consumer prices, average wages, product sales prices, etc.

When determining the change in cost, it is advisable to take into account only the main cost items, that is, those costs that are directly related to ensuring the release of products.

Calculation and comparison of capital investments for new products of compared options

The calculation of capital investments of the consumer is given earlier (section 4.5 of topic 4).

Calculation and comparison of specific capital investments

In cases where the annual productivity of new products (for example, devices) in the compared options is not the same, it is necessary to compare not absolute, but specific values ​​of capital investments:

,

where k - specific capital investments in the new (k n) and the old (k a) version;
K - the absolute value of capital investments in the new (K n) and former (K ​​a) options;
Q - annual productivity of the product (Q n - new; Q a - analogue).

6.6. Market testing of goods (trial marketing)

With the successful completion of functional testing of a new product, many firms produce market tests (trial marketing). The problem of conducting market trials of new products depends on many factors, the main of which are the following:

The goals and resources of the firm;
- type of product, expected volume of production and type of market;
- the degree of reliability of marketing information and research;
- the degree of firm confidence in the competitive success of a new product in the market;
- the company's policy in relation to risk;
- assessment of the time delay of the full range of work on the creation and development of a new product.

Deciding whether to conduct (or not to conduct) market tests, as well as deciding which design documentation (prototype, mass production) and in which production (pilot or serial) will be used to produce a pilot batch of a new product for trial marketing and whether to suspend or to continue pre-production work until the results of market tests are obtained - depend on the specific conditions of the functioning of the firm, its goals, resources, working methods and policies.

Purpose of Market Tests- testing the product in real-life conditions, identifying opinions, comments from consumers and salespeople about the features of its use and sales problems, as well as determining the size of the market and the overall sales forecast, i.e. production program.

Market test results and their use

Tests in market conditions provide management with information to make a final decision on the feasibility of releasing a new product. If the firm goes into commercial production, it will face high costs for the completion of pre-production, the cost of capital property and development of production, the cost of distribution channels and promotion of the new product. At the same time, it must solve the following main questions - when, where, to whom and how to sell a new product.

WHEN. The first decision is made on the timeliness of the release of a new product on the market. If the new product undermines the sales of other similar products of the firm, or if further improvements can be made to its design, it is likely that the introduction of the new product to the market will be delayed.

WHERE. A decision is made on the sale of goods in certain geographical markets or on a national or international scale. In the absence of sufficient confidence, funds and opportunities to enter the national market with a new product, a time schedule for the consistent development of markets is established.

TO WHOM. The most profitable markets in the group of developed markets are selected and sales promotion efforts are concentrated to develop them.

HOW. An action plan is being developed for the consistent launch of a new product on the markets - a marketing plan.

The answers to these questions, simple in form, but extremely complex in their essence, have an impact on the further course of preparation for production and the industrial development of new goods, since they determine:

The production capacity of the company;
- type of production;
- production structure;
- production schedule by years.

Previous

Development work (R&D) are project-based activities that result in a new scientific and technical product in the form of a set of text and drawing documents characterizing a new object. This is the main, but not the only goal of such works, which will be discussed in more detail below.

In essence, R&D is a special type of investment activity, in which the main costs are incurred, as a rule, within an enterprise (firm), where there are specialized units - design and research centers, bureaus, laboratories, etc. At the same time, the scale of these investments in leading firms can reach several percent of the annual sales volume.

It is clear that the rational use of such considerable funds to achieve the required results is of particular importance for the leaders of the company and its specialized divisions. Typically, such divisions have a fixed annual budget and, within this framework, they must ensure that their products are continuously updated in accordance with changing market requirements, while striving not only to maintain the position won in the competitive struggle, but also to strengthen it.

Based on this, the strategic goal of each R&D is ultimately to create a new, more advanced production facility. The achievement of this goal is ensured by the correct organization, precise implementation and timely implementation of the R&D results. In turn, each of these concepts is saturated with specific content from a sequence of certain principles (of which, perhaps, only the content of the term “implementation”, which boils down to the fact that the created object should be used in accordance with its purpose, does not require disclosure).

Objectives of development work.

If you do not know where to sail, not a single wind will be fair. (Old saying).

It has already been said that OKRs are one of the types of investment activities. It is clear that the goal is to obtain sufficient profit from the invested funds. But this is a general, strategic goal, and it needs to be specified. First of all, it can be pointed out that goals can be realized here both for the near future and for a fairly distant future.

The immediate goals of R&D may be related to one single need: to develop a new production facility. It is needed in order to better satisfy the desires of the consumer and thereby increase the competitiveness of your company. At the same time, the production of a new object can be both single (piece) and mass.

There can be quite a lot of incentives that determine the feasibility of R&D. In some cases, this is a direct order of the consumer or a person representing his interests. Such orders usually come from some public institutions, for example, defense, law enforcement and others. However, such orders represent a relatively small proportion of the R&D volume performed globally or in a particular country, although for a particular firm they may be prevalent.

Most of the R&D volumes are works that firms organize on their own initiative. However, it also appears for very specific reasons. The main one is the continuous progress of science and technology, which allows, with its achievements, to unlimitedly improve the objects of production in terms of their consumer properties, making these objects more and more attractive to the consumer and thereby strengthening their market positions in the competition. Here, one cannot exclude such a factor as changing fashion, to which products such as cars and household appliances are especially sensitive.

The next reason may be related to the fact that the production or operation of a previously developed object reveals certain design flaws that could not be detected at the time. These may be insufficient reliability, excessive consumption of resources, for example, energy, insufficient ease of management or maintenance, insufficient compliance with legal safety or environmental requirements that have changed in the direction of tightening. It may turn out that the manufactured product does not work effectively enough in some area of ​​application in which there is a significant need for it, but at the same time there are specific requirements that are not fully taken into account during its development.

A serious reason for OCD may be the need to reduce the cost of production in order to maintain or expand its market niche or increase the profitability of production. This result is achieved by a set of measures, including organizational and managerial ones. However, the center of gravity in this totality lies in the field of technology, in which far from everywhere it is possible to manage only by replacing one process with another or by intensifying regimes. Often required radical solutions, in which both the design of the product and the technology of its production change simultaneously. For example, during the transition from stamp-welded structures to cast structures (or vice versa), the configuration, dimensions and masses of parts and assembly units change significantly. Another example is related to the desire to reduce the complexity of assembly processes, for which connections using threaded fasteners are replaced with connections such as snaps. AT electrical circuits connections with screw terminals are replaced by quick connectors, etc.

This also includes the desire to use cheaper materials in production (both in terms of the primary price and the cost of the quantity consumed - it should be noted here that the transition to a more expensive primary price, but higher quality material allows it to be spent in much smaller quantities and ultimately Or it may be that the transition to a more expensive, but better quality material will so improve the consumer qualities of the product that the consumer agrees to pay more for it without objection and the profitability of production not only will not decrease, but may even increase) and components products. Often, this requires not only changing the corresponding entry in the drawing of the part or assembly unit and in the technological instructions for production, but also changing the design of the part or assembly unit itself. This is most pronounced when replacing metals with plastics or steel structures with aluminum. It is clear that here, along with technology, both the configuration and the dimensions of both the variable parts and assembly units themselves and those with which they are mated (as well as the tolerances for these dimensions) change.

It also happens that technological goals are not associated with the task of reducing costs, but are reduced to increasing production productivity to increase its volume. This happens when the product is in stable demand in the market, exceeding the achieved production volumes. Here, of course, there is the possibility of extensive development with appropriate capital investments to expand production capacity (construction of additional premises and equipping them with equipment). However, it may be more reasonable to intensify production at existing facilities by increasing productivity. And this is essentially the same task, which also includes design and technological measures. Only here the main criterion for the effectiveness of the solution will be the reduction of labor intensity and capital intensity of production.

Here it is worth considering some possible features of the design and development work in case it is planned to design a product similar to the manufactured one. It can be conceived as being substantially different from the one produced in most respects. However, such productions are also possible, in which the differences of the new product will be relatively shallow. Such a setting is usually called modernization and it provides some advantages compared to the radical processing of the product. First of all, the transition to the production of a new (modernized) product is carried out, as a rule, during production without stopping it and without a radical change in technology, including equipment and tooling. At the same time, some components of the product simply do not change at all. The service of the modernized product requires minimal changes, and it is easier and more readily accepted by the consumer.

This practice of constant and frequent upgrading also has the advantage of less need for one-time investment, which essentially stretches the investment process over time. It is no coincidence that in many industries and individual large firms, constant modernization has become the main form of R&D. Examples of this practice can be shown in the military aircraft industry, where it is customary to create a number of modifications based on the first basic model for specific applications. Examples can be given from the practice of the domestic automotive industry. So, JSC Moskvich (former AZLK) for a number of years successively switched from the M-402 model to the M-407 model, then from the M-408 model to the M-412, 2138 and 2140 models. VAZ did the same. Now AMO ZIL, based on the basic model of the truck 5301 ("Bull"), is developing and putting into production a number of modifications for special purposes, up to the bus. GAZ has a similar strategy based on the Gazelle car.

The goals of R&D for a more distant future are not associated with putting the object being created into production. In this case, the object is intended to replenish the scientific and technical reserve of the company. It is subjected to research and testing, the results of which can be usefully applied in subsequent developments. The possibilities of new materials, components or design and technological solutions are checked. Previously unknown patterns are being sought, the limits of permissible operating modes are being expanded.

In aircraft construction, this type of R&D is used very widely. Experimental aircraft are being created that are not intended for subsequent replication, but to obtain information about the possibility and expediency of using new circuit-parametric solutions, about the behavior of the device in previously inaccessible flight modes, etc. Suffice it to recall the first Soviet aircraft with a BI-1 liquid-propellant engine or the American experimental aircraft X-15. Without the design, manufacture and testing of such objects, the aircraft industry simply cannot develop.

The automotive industry also practices the design and manufacture of experimental machines. As a rule, they are not only shown at exhibitions and salons, but also tested. Such cars are called "concept cars". True, innovations in them are most often associated with artistic and design solutions, with what is commonly called design.

Other branches of mechanical engineering are not alien to such productions of R&D. Often when creating experimental machines it is not entirely clear whether such a machine will provide the expected effects or even work at all. Nevertheless, such R&D, called search, are quite common, for example, in tractor and agricultural engineering. One possible beneficial outcome of exploratory R&D is the emergence of new production technologies in machine-consuming industries.

R&D is practiced for the manufacture and testing of experimental samples and for defense purposes. The possibilities of creating new types of weapons and equipment are being studied, the expediency of their use is being studied, and, if available, methods of application are being worked out.

Naturally, different ROC goals lead to differences in both organization and execution. These differences will be shown below when considering other issues.

The goal of R&D formulated in this way determines its final result - the emergence of a new production object or a means for obtaining new information. Such goals associated with obtaining the final result are usually called general. However, they cannot be achieved by any single action. On the way to this, intermediate goals must be set, the achievement of which is the necessary steps on the way to the general goal. It is convenient to show the approximate composition of such intermediate goals using the example of R&D in the near future - the development of a new production facility.

In order for a new object to be considered developed and ready for production, it is necessary to obtain a complete set of drawing and text documentation, which must fully and unambiguously characterize this object and its manufacturing technology. At the same time, the probability of errors in this documentation should be minimized (of course, one can strive for the complete elimination of errors, but, unfortunately, among them there are those that are detected only in subsequent production or operation). The receipt of such a kit serves as confirmation that the general goal has been achieved. It should be especially noted that its achievement does not yet mean readiness for production itself. For this, other measures must also be taken, in particular, the necessary equipment and stock of tools must be prepared, the first batches of materials and components purchased, and contracts with their suppliers for further deliveries drawn up, etc. However, these activities can be considered outside the scope of the ROC, although their implementation may coincide in time with its final stages.

Now consider what is the content of this kit. Firstly, it contains drawings of all, without exception, the parts and assembly units that make up the product. They include all the corrections, the need for which was established during the tests and final development of the technology. Secondly, this technology itself has been worked out in all stages of production without exception for each part and assembly unit, including methods of assembly, adjustment, testing and control.

In fact, we have already formulated the goals, the achievement of which is necessary to achieve the general goal and which can be considered goals of a lower level in comparison with it. The procedure for formulating such goals can essentially be considered a decomposition of a higher-level goal, and it is repeated from top to bottom from the general down to the most elementary. At the same time, of course, each goal of a higher level may require two or more goals of a lower level to achieve it. A graphic representation of such a multi-level set of goals is commonly called a tree of goals and it allows you to visualize the content of the project as a whole (in our case, the entire R&D) and the relationship between its constituent parts - goals of different levels. The goal tree in general is shown in the figure.

Goal tree structure

It is clear that the complete concrete view of the R&D goal tree for creating even a fairly simple product is too cumbersome to present in a book. Therefore, we will illustrate some part in the form of examples of goals decreasing from the goal of producing a complete set of product drawings. From the foregoing, it is clear that this should have been preceded by the purpose of making adjustments, including the results of testing the product. But this means that these tests have been carried out. And for this it was necessary to make at least one sample of the product in pilot production.

This would not have been possible without a complete set of drawings of all parts and assembly units (let us make a reservation that some drawings appear as a result of the manufacture of individual parts "in place" according to diagrams or sketches. This is done, for example, for spatially curved metal pipelines). For the design of some parts and assembly units, calculations such as kinematic, strength, thermal, etc. are required. Calculations require specific initial data, which are contained in the regulatory documentation of the type of technical assignment (we will talk about it in more detail below), in reference literature or research reports, which require certain computational and analytical work. Thus, we have actually reached the very origins of OCD.

The formation of a set of goals, in particular in the form of a tree "from top to bottom", is essentially the beginning of OKR planning. Such planning is usually called target planning and it is convenient because there is less chance of missing any development component. This, however, does not exclude the possibility of forming a tree of goals "from the bottom up", starting from the lowest level goals. Such planning, which is called normative, can be used for R & D for the development of an object similar to the one already developed or the one whose development was already planned.

Having a set of goals, i.e. expected intermediate and final results, allows you to determine the actions necessary to obtain these results. This, in turn, makes it possible to determine the timing of the planned R&D and a number of other circumstances, which will be discussed below.

Stages of development work.

Development work and the documentation produced at the same time include the following stages:

• 1) Terms of reference.
• 2) Draft design.
• 3) Technical project.
• 4) Working draft.
• 5) A complete set of design documentation.
• 6) Reporting on testing of product samples.
• 7) Information about the patent purity of the product.

Technical task. Development of terms of reference is usually the first stage of R&D. In some cases, the release of this document precedes the official start of the development work, especially when it is carried out on a contractual basis.

If, based on the results of R&D, the production of a new product begins, the terms of reference become the basis for the development of the document "Specifications" (see below).

Preliminary design. The draft design is basically a drawing preliminary study of the design of the product. It usually includes a general view of the product and the necessary diagrams.

In the course of preliminary design, the necessary calculations are carried out, which are summarized in a settlement and explanatory note. The composition of the components used is preliminarily determined.

In necessary cases, based on the results of preliminary design, a model model of the product is made to coordinate the dimensions and connecting dimensions.

Typically, a draft design is subject to public discussion - protection. Based on the results of this procedure, a decision is made on the transition to the next stages of R&D.

Technical project. It differs from the sketch in a more detailed study of the design of the product. Often these stages are even combined into one - a preliminary design.

Working project. Contains a complete set of drawings and text documents necessary for the manufacture of the product in pilot production.

Complete set of design documentation. It consists of a working draft with the additional inclusion of a number of documents necessary for the preparation of production. Examples of these documents are tooling drawings, assembly and adjustment instructions, container drawings and instructions for preservation and packaging, forms of accompanying documents.

Mandatory document set are technical specifications. They contain a list of product characteristics guaranteed by the manufacturer and a description of the methods by which these characteristics are verified. In the spirit of the law, the manufacturer is solely responsible for ensuring the guaranteed performance of the product (unless, of course, the user violates certain rules that the manufacturer is required to report).

The use of the product in conditions corresponding to the manufacturer's instructions does not require any agreement with him. Nevertheless, it is possible, by agreement between the consumer and the manufacturer, to draw up private specifications in which the requirements for the product or the rules for its use can be either tightened or weakened (with a corresponding price adjustment).

Reporting on testing of product samples. Typically refers to internal, confidential documents of an organization. It consists of acts, protocols and reports (depending on the volume and complexity of the tests). The typical content of each document is a brief or detailed description of the test object, an indication of the purpose of the tests, a description of the methods and conditions for conducting tests, a presentation of the test results and conclusions in accordance with the purpose of the tests. Often such documents end with recommendations on how to eliminate the shortcomings identified as a result of the tests.

The format of reporting documents may be regulated by internal rules.

A special type is reporting on the results of certification tests. The list of products subject to such tests is established by law. To carry out such tests, only specially authorized organizations with the so-called. accreditation. As a result of successful passing of such tests, the product receives a certificate of conformity, confirming that it, in terms of its characteristics, which are regulated by law (these include everything related to the safety and health of people, with the impact on the environment, etc.), complies with the requirements of regulatory documents.

Information about the patent purity of the product. As a rule, they are issued for internal use in the form of a report on the results of a patent research. At the same time, answers to two questions are obligatory: whether the developed product, by its features, falls under the claims of any patent with a continuing validity period, and whether the developed product contains features that could become the claims of a new patent.

Insufficient attention to these issues can be costly for the developer. Being covered by a valid patent, especially one owned by a competitor, can result in large losses as a result of a lawsuit. Neglecting to protect your own solutions, which came at a high cost of R&D, will allow anyone who wants to reproduce the same solutions in their own production at much lower costs.

Development of technical specifications.

How will we cut? - Well, let's get a haircut. We will leave the necessary, we will remove the excess (From a conversation in a hairdresser).

Having defined the general and intermediate goals of the ROC, we have determined the actions that need to be taken to achieve these goals. And then you have to determine what these results and actions should be. In other words, after answering the question "What?" questions immediately arise: “What?” And How?".

The question “What?”, or rather, “Which?”, refers to the most important result of R & D - to the object or product that we want to design. After all, it should be quite specific, having well-defined characteristics and features. In domestic R&D practice, it is customary to establish these characteristics and features in a document called the terms of reference (TOR). Similar documents exist in foreign practice.

Technical task is a text document that establishes the requirements for the design and characteristics of the product to be developed.

Development of terms of reference is usually the first stage of R&D. In some cases, the release of this document precedes the official start of the development work, especially when it is carried out on a contractual basis.

The procedure for compiling, agreeing and approving the terms of reference does not have a single regulation and basically corresponds to the general rules adopted by the ROC participants. The terms of reference are usually considered valid until the official recognition of the R & D as completed. During the term of its validity, changes and additions may be made to it by agreement between the interested parties.

If, based on the results of R&D, the production of a new product begins, the terms of reference become the basis for the development of the document "Specifications".

Who and how drafts this document and makes the final decisions on its content in the form of approval? Where does the data needed to compile it come from? What format is this document in? There is no universal uniformity here, although in some areas certain rules are established (for example, for R&D carried out in the interests of the Department of Defense Russian Federation, where even this document itself is called "Tactical and technical task"). However general principles drafting and execution of this most important document in the domestic practice of R & D are available and should be considered in detail.

As a rule, the draft TOR is developed by the specialists of the developer organization, i.e. the organization that will conduct the planned R&D. In order for this project to acquire the force of a directive, i.e. binding document, it is approved by at least the head of this organization. Approval can be practiced for more high level- the management of the company or a higher department. If there is a specific customer in the intended R&D, joint approval can be practiced both on his part and on the part of the developer. And the tactical and technical tasks of the Ministry of Defense are approved only by its representative in the person of the interested unit, and the future developer is only agreed upon (although the draft of this document is being prepared by him).

A very important question is on whose initiative the draft TK is being developed. At one time in the USSR, GOST 15.001-73 “Development and putting products into production” came into effect (and had later editions). According to this standard, the only basis for the development of a draft TOR could be the existence of technical requirements of the customer. For all the seeming logic of this rule - to develop only what someone really needs - it either simply got around (in my practice there were precedents when we ourselves prepared such requirements on behalf of the USSR Ministry of Agriculture and received the required signatures), or it was unnecessary an obstacle. Indeed, how could it be possible to obtain technical requirements for any initiative development, for which it was not always even initially clear who could be considered a customer. Therefore, common sense suggests a number of reasonable grounds for preparing this draft.

First, the initiative of the customer is not excluded. This is especially true for OCD of a defensive or similar nature. But this is typical for large or complex products. Often the developer of such large or complex products acts as a customer of smaller and simpler ones, which he intends to use as components instead of those that are available on the market, but he is not satisfied (sometimes such relationships also arise for materials with special properties). Thus, the developer of a new car or tractor model may issue technical requirements for the development of new engines, electrical or hydraulic equipment, rims, tires, etc., if he has reason to consider such developments necessary.

The design organization that receives the technical requirements of the customer is obliged to study them carefully, primarily in order to gain confidence in the correct understanding of his needs. At the same time, the very content of these requirements is not subjected to any criticism. The main attention is paid to the extent to which these requirements can be implemented within the capabilities of the developer. Then the possibility of raising the level of requirements without a significant increase in the cost of both the development itself and the subsequent production of the ordered object is being worked out. After that, the developer draws up a draft TOR and coordinates it with the customer.

As follows from the essence of the procedure for preparing a draft TOR, the characteristics of the object contained in it cannot be worse than those proposed in the technical requirements of the customer. However, situations are not excluded when the wishes of the customer either cannot be realized at all using the existing state of the art, or the price of development or production may turn out to be too high. This conflict forces us to start working together with the customer to clarify his requirements. It is generally accepted here that the performer is obliged to understand the concerns and difficulties of the customer better than he himself. In any case, the draft TOR is the result of a compromise between the requirements of the parties, however, in order to achieve it, the developer must take a more flexible position, guided by two well-known rules:

The client (customer, buyer, consumer) is always right.

If the client is wrong, see rule 1.

Secondly, the terms of reference may be the result of the initiative of the design organization itself. The sources of this initiative are quite varied. There are new achievements in science and technology, including inventions that make it possible to develop and produce more advanced products. The operating experience of manufactured products indicates the need to eliminate certain shortcomings that were not noticed during development. There was information that a competing company is preparing the production of new products that may be more attractive to the market. Finally, we recall that among the motives for the formation of R&D goals, there may be aspirations for more efficient production (reducing costs, increasing volumes).

It is clear that although in this case there seems to be no formal customer, the developers of the technical specifications must fully represent for whom and for what purpose the R&D will be carried out. The initial information for such representations are the results of marketing research, which any self-respecting company is obliged to conduct. Often the costs of such research are comparable to the costs of R&D themselves, but practice shows that this approach is the only correct one.

Now let's consider what sources of information are involved in the development of the draft TOR. There are no priorities here, and all possible sources should be used to the maximum.

Firstly, these are the already mentioned technical requirements of the customer, if any. Secondly, these are the results of the research work of the company itself (if it has the appropriate structures), and specialized organizations, including laboratories of higher educational institutions. Thirdly, it is a patent fund containing descriptions of inventions, including inventions made by employees of the company. Fourthly, these are the results of testing and research of special experimental products, as well as manufactured products (both at the stages of pre-production and in operation). Fifthly, these are the mentioned results of marketing research, which are worth dwelling on for a more detailed consideration.

Unlike the first four groups of sources, in which information is usually presented in a language understandable to developers and manufacturers of specific technical terms, the results of marketing research may contain information in terms of the user (buyer). It is often said that these are requirements at the household level. This should not be treated with arrogance, since the average user is not required to have the same training in understanding technical terminology as a specialist. Therefore, one should be able to translate the user's desires into specific technical characteristics of the future product. The mechanisms of such translation have been developed and described in domestic and foreign literature. The most effective is the method called "Quality Function Deployment" (structuring the quality function). Its main features are that the initial information contains the requirements of the user at this everyday level, and also that during the procedure for translating these requirements into the language of technical terminology, one compares one's position with the position of the closest competitors in the market of manufactured products (the one that one wants catch up or even overtake, and the one that is catching up with us). In addition, the very process of obtaining information about user requirements can take the form of surveys organized with sufficient representativeness. Finally, this method allows you to seamlessly transition from specifications of the future R&D facility to the technical requirements for materials and components, on the one hand, and for production technology, on the other.

More detailed information about the essence and features of this method is available in many foreign publications. In domestic practice, Yu. P. Adler did a lot for its propaganda in the journal “Kurs na kachestvo” published by him.

The design of TK does not have general rules and is rather determined by the rules or traditions of the department or company. The document may be in the form of plain text. Design can be accepted according to the rules established for text documents as part of design documentation according to the standards " unified system design documentation (ESKD)”, adopted in domestic practice. At the same time, in any case, the document must contain the signatures of officials and specialists responsible for its preparation, approval and approval.

The content of TK also cannot be subject to uniform rules, however, certain General requirements exist in this part. Usually at the beginning of the document indicate the name, designation and purpose of the product, as well as the area and features of its intended use. Next comes a section that contains technical requirements, including the composition of the product (all its components are listed and, if necessary, the purpose of each is indicated) and the design requirements for both the product as a whole and for each of its component parts separately. We will dwell on the content of this section (“Technical requirements”) for a more detailed consideration.

First of all, specific, including quantitative, requirements for the operation and characteristics of the product as a whole and its components are set out. At the same time, the completeness of the presentation should be sufficient for a complete idea of ​​the features and properties of the future product. Dimensional-mass, energy and other restrictions are indicated. If necessary, interaction with other products is stipulated.

The following details the expected operating conditions of the product. The permissible level of vibro-impact loads on the product is indicated, as a rule, in units of "g" (for vibrations with an indication of the frequency band), if necessary - along various axes of the product. The temperature range from the lowest negative to the highest positive temperatures is indicated for both product operation and non-operating storage. The maximum allowable humidity and dust content of the air surrounding the product are specified. If necessary, conditions such as radiation exposure(including direct solar radiation), the presence of chemically active substances in the ambient air, extreme values ​​​​of atmospheric pressure, possible biological effects (fungal microorganisms, insects, rodents), etc. For external power supply, the features of the sources are indicated, for example, in terms of the stability of voltages and frequencies of the power supply.

For each of these impacts, verification methods are indicated. In addition, conformity criteria are established for them, on the basis of which it will be possible to subsequently decide whether the product is sufficiently resistant to these influences. As a rule, such criteria are taken to be the preservation of the functions and characteristics of the product specified in the previous paragraphs of the "Technical requirements" section.

A mandatory part of the section is the requirements for the reliability of the product. For different products, they can be formulated in different terms depending on the type of product, its purpose, customer requirements, etc. Here, terms such as resource before overhaul or culling, the probability of failure-free operation for a given time, etc. can be used. In this case, operating modes may be indicated under which these requirements must be met, for example, the relative duration of switching on, the permissible duration of limiting loading modes or operation at extreme values ​​of operating conditions. Test methods may be specified to verify that these requirements are met.

A special part is the safety requirements for people and environment. As a rule, national and international standards operate in this area, requiring unconditional implementation and violation of which may be associated with liability under the law, from financial to criminal. Therefore, when compiling, agreeing and approving the ToR, the product must be fully compliant with all such standards by recording the relevant requirements. If necessary, methods for verifying compliance are also indicated.

AT last years Ergonomic requirements have become an integral part of many TK. They arise where the use of the product must take into account the human factor when using the product, operating it or maintaining it. Part of these requirements are the safety requirements for people mentioned above, but the goal of the designer and manufacturer should also be to give the product such properties and characteristics that it will not only be safe for health and life itself, but also convenient to use. Such an approach must exclude the situation in which the product does not provide the expected results in operation precisely because it is inconvenient to operate or maintain. For products in which the buyer and user most often coincide (the most obvious example is a car), and not only for them, these requirements fall into the category of key ones. Some ergonomic requirements are included in the safety standards, for example, requirements for visibility from the cabs of cars and tractors and requirements for the operation of external lighting devices.

Often ergonomic requirements are combined with aesthetic ones related to appearance products and (if the product has internal spaces - cabins, cabins, salons, etc.) to its interior (interiors). At the same time, aesthetic requirements are often written down in a very generalized form, however, the presence of such requirements in the TK at least inspires confidence that artistic design specialists - designers - will take part in the development of the product.

The section "Technical requirements" ends with paragraphs containing specific requirements, some of which are nevertheless present in each TOR. These are the requirements for packaging and preservation for products that can take an indefinite time from the moment of release to the moment of use. The meaning of the requirements for transportation and storage is clear. And, probably, it is not required to explain that the implementation of these requirements is linked to the design of the product.

In domestic practice, it is customary for some products to indicate the requirements for standardization and unification. They stipulate the degree of use in the product of both standard components and parts already used in previously developed products that are in production. In my opinion, the presence of such requirements, especially in terms of unification, is justified when developing modifications. When developing a new product, these requirements should not be introduced. Designers will decide for themselves what they can apply for it in the best way, without looking back at the given percentages.

In some cases, such specific requirements are introduced as requirements for the composition of a set of spare parts, tools and accessories, requirements for the development of special technological equipment such as stands for assembly, adjustment and testing of parts of the product and the product as a whole, requirements for the development of training funds for training, etc. It is clear that the presence of such requirements is determined by the very nature of the future product and the features of its application. At the same time, such requirements can be either part of the technical requirements for the product, or displayed in separate sections.

In essence, such sections are no longer requirements for the product, but determine the requirements for the nature of the maintenance of the R&D itself. Among them, the composition of the R&D stages and the scheduled deadlines for implementation are indicated. Economic (price) restrictions on the production of a product are established. For developments of a defensive nature, measures to comply with state secrets are indicated. This list can be continued, but it is more important to understand that everything here is determined by the specifics of the product, including its purpose, features of the design organization, and many other factors.

Having mentioned the deadlines for completing the R&D stages, we essentially moved from answering the question “Which?”, relating to the product, to answering the question “How?”, Relating to the rules and restrictions of conducting the R&D itself. Indeed, when setting the deadlines for the development, the head of the design organization or another person who makes a decision about it sets a time limit for obtaining the required result and thus constitutes the main part of the R&D implementation plan. After all, it is clear that its results are needed not in general, but at a very specific time, because the goals for which it begins must also be achieved without delay. So the calendar plan for the implementation of R & D should be considered one of the main rules.

The following rule applies to the composition of the ROC. It should provide for all its main components: issuing a set of design documentation (CD), manufacturing a sample (samples) of the product in pilot production, testing the components and the sample (s) as a whole, and adjusting the design documentation based on the results of manufacturing and testing. However, one should keep in mind the goals of the ROC, which may make certain amendments to this list. So, when designing a piece of a unique product such as a heavy press or a rolling mill, it is hardly worth planning the production of a preliminary sample. And if a product is being developed as an experimental product, it is unlikely that the design documentation will be adjusted based on the results of its testing or research, unless it turns out that the product simply does not work and needs to be redone.

Now consider some rules for the implementation of the components (stages) of R&D. As for the issuance of CD, there are rules for completeness and execution, mainly based on the already mentioned ESKD. At the same time, there may exist in the form of enterprise standards and their own rules and regulations. They can relate to very many features, ranging from dimensional designations and tolerances and technological guidelines to restrictions on the use of materials, standardized or normalized products. Purely proprietary are the rules for the production of drawings and text documents using paper or computer design technologies.

According to the content of the CD itself, it is difficult to indicate any general rules. Nevertheless, it is worth paying attention to an important trend in modern production, which manifests itself in the fact that the high quality of a future product is laid down already during its design. And here we are not talking about the fact that the design should be sufficiently qualified and error-free - this is implied by itself (and guaranteed in many ways, for example, by carefully fine-tuning the design of the product and testing the technology before starting its production). This means that the design of the product is such that it ensures minimal damage from possible errors in production or use. This approach provides the product with a feature that in Russian translation can be called “fool proof” (in English “foolproof”). Examples of such an approach can be constructive solutions that exclude incorrect assembly or failure of the product if the polarity of the DC supply is not observed (but they, of course, will not save if the product is assembled with a sledgehammer or instead of a battery, it is connected to a high-voltage network).

With regard to the production of samples in pilot production, it is also difficult to specify general rules. Each production is unique in its own way, even though pilot productions are much more versatile than the main (serial) ones. However, R&D organizers and managers need to understand that pilot production has a number of features that require understanding and attention.

First of all, you need to remember the specifics of the technological capabilities of pilot production. It allows more weight for low-performance, but requiring higher qualification operations performed manually or on universal equipment. At the same time, a technology that requires expensive labor-intensive tooling such as models for large or complex castings, heavy dies or complex molds is hardly applicable to pilot production (unless this tooling is designed with great confidence and manufactured immediately for the main production). However, in the design of objects such as tractors and automobiles, casting is used exclusively for the manufacture of some parts such as bodies.

Therefore, based on the results of manufacturing samples, it is not worth evaluating the manufacturability of the designed product. But it is necessary to monitor whether the pilot production technology will distort the results of future testing of samples, and in any direction - both for better and for worse. So, in mechanical engineering, as a rule, the reliability of samples is somewhat higher than that of mass-produced products (except for primary failures, due to which design changes are made in the course of debugging). And in electronic instrumentation, it is rather the opposite - the reliability of samples assembled with manual soldering is lower than that of mass-produced products with machine soldering.

Finally, speaking about testing samples, we immediately note the obvious variety of goals, methods and means. It is clear that testing an aircraft has little in common with testing a sample of a household electrical appliance. At the same time, all and all trials have one common feature They should be as comprehensive as possible. This means that as a result of the tests carried out, all answers to all questions should be obtained. The general and mandatory rule is that each test begins with the development of a program-method, is carried out in strict accordance with it and ends with a reporting document with conclusions containing unambiguous answers to all the questions posed and recommendations for further work, including on adjusting the design documentation for products for production.

The second general rule is that trials should have a clear purpose. It is she who determines the content of the program-methodology. For samples of products scheduled for production, first of all, the compliance of the sample with the requirements recorded in the TOR should be checked. In this case, design flaws that cause non-compliance with these requirements should be identified.

In a number of cases, the goal arises of obtaining experimental data for entering into the working, technological or operational documentation of information that cannot be obtained by preliminary calculation with sufficient reliability. These, for example, may include the diameters of throttle openings in hydraulic or pneumatic systems, the stiffness of some springs, resistance and capacitance in electrical circuits, the position of the tuning elements of some mechanisms. To obtain these data, special tests are organized (we note that they are mainly subjected to component parts of products, although situations in which it is necessary to test products as a whole are not excluded). Subsequently, on the basis of such tests, control and acceptance tests can be introduced into the production technology of products in order to properly configure the product or its component, both with the help of adjustments and with the help of replaceable elements (jets, thermal compensating packages, springs, resistors, capacitors, etc. .P.).

The third general rule is that tests should produce reliable results. This is also ensured by the program-method through the conditions for conducting tests, the means used to collect and process the information obtained in the course of them, as well as the envisaged scope of tests.

Planning, or rather, the entire organization of ROC, may be accompanied by some particular restrictions. They may relate to the content of the TOR and the order in which the R&D stages are completed. Only a few examples can be shown here. So, when developing modifications of a manufactured product, they strive to minimize the number of changes to the basic model. When developing a new product, they strive not only to use parts and components of the previous model in it, but also, if possible, to ensure the so-called technological continuity, in which the same technological processes and equipment are used. This is especially true for its expensive types.

Of course, all of the above does not exhaust all the features of the preparation of technical specifications and the organization of R&D. It is only important to understand that all information about how the product should turn out and according to what rules and subject to what restrictions R&D should be carried out should be known before it starts. Only then can it be expected to obtain the planned result.