Towards a methodology of analysis and measurement. Principles and methods of analysis. Methods used in scientific research

Scientific research can be defined as purposeful knowledge. Conducting research means studying, cognizing patterns, systematizing facts.

Scientific research has a number of distinctive features: the presence of a clearly formulated goal; the desire to discover the unknown; systematic process and results; justification and verification of the obtained conclusions and generalizations.

It is necessary to distinguish between scientific and everyday knowledge. Scientific knowledge, unlike everyday knowledge, involves the use of special research methods. In this regard, there is a need to constantly search for new methods for studying unexplored objects.

What are research methods

Research methods are ways to achieve a goal in scientific work. The science that studies these methods is called “Methodology”.

Any human activity depends not only on the object (what it is aimed at) and actor(subject), but also on how it is carried out, what means and methods are used. This is the essence of the method.

Translated from Greek language"method" means "way of knowing." A correctly chosen method contributes to faster and more accurate achievement of the goal and serves as a special compass that helps the researcher avoid most mistakes while making his way.

The difference between method and technique and methodology

Very often there is confusion in the concepts of method and methodology. A methodology is a system of ways of knowing. For example, when conducting sociological research, quantitative and qualitative methods can be combined. The entire set of these methods will constitute a research methodology.

The concept of methodology is close in meaning to the research procedure, its sequence, and algorithm. Without qualitative methodology Even the right method will not give a good result.

If methodology is a way of implementing a method, then methodology is the study of methods. In a broad sense, the methodology is

Classification of scientific research methods

All methods of scientific research are divided into several levels.

Philosophical methods

The most famous among them are the most ancient methods: dialectical and metaphysical. In addition to them, philosophical methods include phenomenological, hermeneutic, intuitive, analytical, eclectic, dogmatic, sophistic and others.

General scientific methods

Analysis of the process of cognition makes it possible to identify the methods on which not only scientific, but also any everyday human cognition is based. These include theoretical level methods:

Analysis is the division of a single whole into separate parts, sides and properties for their further detailed study.
Synthesis is the combination of individual parts into a single whole.
Abstraction is the mental selection of any essential properties of the subject under consideration while simultaneously abstracting from a number of other inherent features.
Generalization is the establishment of a unifying property of objects.
Induction is a method of constructing a general conclusion based on known individual facts.

Examples of research methods

For example, by studying the properties of certain liquids, it is revealed that they have the property of elasticity. Based on the fact that water and alcohol are liquids, they conclude that all liquids have the property of elasticity.

Deduction– a way of constructing a particular conclusion based on a general judgment.

For example, two facts are known: 1) all metals have the property of electrical conductivity; 2) copper is a metal. We can conclude that copper has the property of electrical conductivity.

Analogy- a method of cognition in which knowledge of a number of common characteristics of objects allows one to draw a conclusion about their similarity based on other characteristics.

For example, science knows that light has properties such as interference and diffraction. In addition, it was previously established that sound has the same properties and this is due to its wave nature. Based on this analogy, a conclusion was made about the wave nature of light (by analogy with sound).

Modeling– creation of a model (copy) of the object of study for the purpose of its research.

In addition to methods at the theoretical level, there are methods at the empirical level.

Classification of general scientific methods

Empirical Methods

Method	Definition	Example
Observation	Research based on the senses; perception of phenomena	In order to study one of the stages of children's development, J. Piaget observed children's manipulative games with certain toys. Based on observation, he concluded that the child’s ability to put objects together appears later than the motor skills necessary for this.
Description	Recording information	The anthropologist records all the facts of the life of the tribe without exerting any influence on it
Measurement	Comparison based on general characteristics	Determining body temperature using a thermometer; determining weight by balancing weights on lever scales; determining distance using radar
Experiment	Research based on observation in conditions created specifically for this purpose	On a busy city street, groups of people in various numbers (2,3,4,5,6, etc. people) stopped and looked up. Passers-by stopped nearby and also began to look up. It turned out that the percentage of those who joined increased significantly when reaching experimental group 5 people.
Comparison	Research based on the study of similarities and differences between objects; comparison of one object with another	Comparison of economic indicators of the base year with the past, on the basis of which a conclusion is drawn about economic trends

Theoretical level methods

Method	Definition	Example
Formalization	Revealing the essence of processes by displaying them in a symbolic form	Flight simulation based on knowledge of the main characteristics of the aircraft
Axiomatization	Application of axioms to construct theories	Euclid's geometry
Hypothetico-deductive	Creating a system of hypotheses and drawing conclusions from this	The discovery of the planet Neptune was based on several hypotheses. As a result of their analysis, it was concluded that Uranus is not the last planet solar system. Theoretical justification for finding new planet in a certain place, then confirmed empirically

Specific scientific (special) methods

Any scientific discipline uses a set of specific methods that belong to different “levels” of methodology. It is quite difficult to tie any method to a specific discipline. However, each discipline relies on a number of methods. Let's list some of them.

Biology:

genealogical - the study of heredity, compilation of pedigrees;
historical - determining the relationship between phenomena that took place over a long period of time (billions of years);
biochemical – study chemical processes body, etc.

Jurisprudence:

historical and legal – gaining knowledge about legal practice, legislation in different periods time;
comparative legal – search and study of similarities and differences between state legal institutions of countries;
legal sociological method – research of reality in the field of state and law using questionnaires, surveys, etc.

In medicine, there are three main groups of methods for studying the body:

laboratory diagnostics – study of the properties and composition of biological fluids;
functional diagnostics – study of organs according to their manifestations (mechanical, electrical, sound);
structural diagnostics – identifying changes in the structure of the body.

Economy:

economic analysis - the study of the components of the whole being studied;
statistical-economic method – analysis and processing of statistical indicators;
sociological method - questionnaires, surveys, interviews, etc.
design and calculation, economic modeling, etc.

Psychology:

experimental method - creating circumstances that provoke the manifestation of any mental phenomenon;
observation method - a mental phenomenon is explained through organized perception of a phenomenon;
biographical method, comparative genetic method, etc.

Analysis of empirical research data

Empirical research is aimed at obtaining empirical data - data obtained through experience and practice.

The analysis of such data occurs in several stages:

Description of the data. At this stage, summarized results are described using indicators and graphs.
Comparison. Similarities and differences between the two samples are identified.
Studying dependencies. Establishing interdependencies (correlation, regression analysis).
Reducing volume. Studying all variables if there are a large number of them, identifying the most informative ones.
Grouping.

The results of any research conducted - analysis and interpretation of data - are drawn up on paper. The range of such research work wide enough: test papers, abstracts, reports, term papers, theses, dissertations, dissertations, monographs, textbooks, etc. Only after a comprehensive study and evaluation of the findings are the research results used in practice.

Instead of a conclusion

A. M. Novikov and D. A. Novikova in the book “” also distinguishes methods-operations (a way to achieve a goal) and methods-actions (solving a specific problem) in methods of theoretical and empirical research. This specification is not accidental. A more rigid systematization of scientific knowledge increases its effectiveness.

Research methods as they are updated: February 15, 2019 by: Scientific Articles.Ru

System analysis is a methodology for solving innovative problems based on the concept of systems.

At the center of the system analysis methodology is the operation of quantitative comparison of alternatives to select one to be implemented. To achieve the final result, it is necessary to quantify the quality of alternatives. This can be achieved if all elements - alternatives - are taken into account and correct assessments are given to each element. Hence the need arises to combine all the elements associated with a given problem into a system that solves the problem.

The system has, in addition to the above general properties near characteristic features, including:

the unity of the system, the presence of a common goal, a general purpose;
the integrative nature of the system, characterized a large number functions performed, inputs and outputs;
complexity of system behavior, i.e. in the presence of intertwining and overlapping relationships between variables, a change in one variable entails a change in others;
irregular arrival of external influences;
the presence in most cases of adversarial, competing parties.

A system is defined by specifying system objects. System objects are input, output, process, feedback and constraint.

Login an object that changes as it flows is called this process. Input may take forms such as: a) sequentially associated with data; b) the result of a previous process, randomly associated with data; c) the result of the process of a given system, which is reintroduced into it.

Exit called the object (result) or the final state of the process. In other words, the output is the goal to achieve which system objects, properties and connections are connected together.

Process called the transformation of input to output (property of a given process). Between the input of one process and the output of another there is connection. To identify systems means to identify all the processes that form a given output.

Feedback– this is a function of the subsystem that compares the output with the criterion (for the purpose of process control).

As noted above, any system consists of subsystems and, in turn, is a subsystem of some system. The system boundary is determined by a set of inputs from the external environment. External (environmental) environment is a set of natural and artificial systems for which this system is not a functional subsystem.

Problem- This is a situation that requires resolution. Identifying problem situations is the problem of decision making. Decision-making must result in concrete results and is divided into a number of mandatory stages: determining the purpose of the study and the criterion for achieving it; wording specific tasks; selection of methods, techniques, methods and means for solving assigned problems. Yes, the process rational decision problems can be presented in the form of a diagram (Fig. 5.13).

Rice. 5.13.

At the same time, the stages of system analysis shown in the diagram are abstract, general character. A more in-depth sequence of work to find a rational solution to problems is presented in Table. 5.1.

Table 5.1

Finding rational solutions to problems

	Scientific tools for systems analysis
I. Problem analysis
1. Detection of the problem. 2. Precise formulation of the problem. 3. Analysis of the logical structure of the problem. 4. Analysis of the development of the problem (past and future). 5. Determination of external connections of the problem (with other problems). 6. Identification of fundamental solvability and problems	Methods: “scenarios”, diagnostic, “goal tree”, economic analysis
II. System Definition
1. Task specification. 2. Determination of the observer's position. 3. Definition of an object. 4. Isolation of elements (determination of the boundaries of the system partition). 5. Definition of subsystems. 6. Definition of the environment	Methods: matrix, cybernetic models
III. System structure analysis
1. Determination of hierarchy levels (in BS). 2. Definition of aspects and languages (in SS). 3. Definition of function processes (in DS). 4. Definition and specification of management processes and information channels (in the management system). 5. Specification of subsystems. 6. Specification of processes, functions of current activities (routine) and development (targeted)	Methods: diagnostic, matrix, network, morphological, cybernetic models
IV. Formulating the overall goal and criteria of the system
1. Determination of goals and requirements of the supersystem. 2. Determining the goals and limitations of the environment. 3. Formulating a common goal. 4. Definition of criterion. 5. Decomposition of goals and criteria into subsystems. 6. Composition of the general criterion from the criteria of subsystems	Methods: expert assessments (Delphi method), "tree of goals", economic analysis, morphological, cybernetic models, regulatory operational
V. Decomposition of the goal, identification of needs for resources and processes
1. Formulation of goals - top rank. 2. Formulation of goals - current processes. 3. Formulation of goals - efficiency. 4. Formulation of goals - development. 5. Formulation of external goals and restrictions. 6. Identify resource and process needs	Methods: “goal trees”, network, descriptive models, simulations
VI. Identification of resources and processes, composition of goals
1. Assessment of existing technologies and capacities. 2. Evaluation current state resources. 3. Evaluation of ongoing and planned projects. 4. Assessing the possibilities of interaction with other systems. 5. Assessment of social factors. 6. Composition of goals	Methods: expert assessments (Delphi method)
VII. Forecast and analysis of future conditions
1. Analysis of sustainable trends in the development of the system. 2. Forecast of development and environmental changes. 3. Prediction of the emergence of new factors that have a strong influence on the development of the system. 4. Analysis of future resources. 5. Comprehensive analysis interaction of factors of future development. 6. Analysis of possible shifts in goals and criteria	Methods: “scenarios”, expert assessments (Delphi method), “goal tree”, network, economic analysis, statistical, descriptive models
VIII. Evaluation of ends and means
1. Calculation of scores based on the criterion. 2. Assessing the interdependence of goals. 3. Assessing the relative importance of goals. 4. Assessment of scarcity and cost of resources. 5. Assessing the influence of external factors. 6. Calculation of complex estimates	Methods: expert assessments (Delphi method), economic analysis, morphological method
IX. Selection of options
1. Analysis of goals for compatibility and inclusion. 2. Checking the goals for completeness. 3. Cutting off redundant targets. 4. Planning options for achieving individual goals.	Methods: “goal tree”, matrix, economic analysis, morphological
5. Evaluation and comparison of options. 6. Combining a set of interrelated options
X. Diagnosis of the existing system
1. Modeling of technological and economic processes. 2. Calculation of potential and actual capacities. 3. Analysis of power losses. 4. Identification of shortcomings in the organization of production and management. 5. Identification and analysis of measures to improve the organization	Methods: diagnostic, matrix, economic analysis, cybernetic models
XI. Building a comprehensive development program
1. Formulation of activities, projects and programs. 2. Determining the priority of goals and measures to achieve them. 3. Distribution of areas of activity. 4. Distribution of areas of competence. 5. Development of a comprehensive action plan within the constraints of time and resources. 6. Distribution by responsible organizations, managers and performers	Methods: matrix, network, economic analysis, descriptive models, normative operating models
XII. Designing an organization to achieve goals
1. Setting the goals of the organization. 2. Formulation of the functions of the organization. 3. Design organizational structure. 4. Design of information mechanisms. 5. Design of operating modes. 6. Design of mechanisms of material and moral incentives	Methods: diagnostic, “goal trees”, matrix, network methods, cybernetic models

Note. Informal methods: method of “scenarios”, method of expert assessments (Delphi method), diagnostic methods. Graphical methods: “goal tree” method, matrix methods, network methods. Quantitative methods: methods of economic analysis, morphological methods, statistical methods. Modeling methods: cybernetic models, descriptive models, normative operating models (optimization, simulation, game).

Let us note the following aspects.

1. Formulation and description of the problem situation is the starting point of the study. Identification of the problem, its correct and accurate description is the first stage of systemic research.

First, it is necessary to determine the external signs of the manifestation of the problem, its time parameters, the sources of the problem, the factors causing it, the nature of the problem’s influence on the main elements of the object of study, possible studies of the development of the problem situation.

As a research tool, you can use an analysis of the logical structure of the problem, study it in a retrospective aspect, evaluate possible development paths in the future and in connection with other problems.

When analyzing complex problems, decomposition techniques, matrices of system characteristics, “black box” models, etc. are used.

2. At the stage of defining the system, tasks are set that need to be solved to obtain the final results; the composition of the elements included in the system is established, thereby defining the object of study.

The observer's position determines the criterion for solving the problem. The result of the second stage of solving the problem is the development of a scientific model for studying the object-system.

For this purpose, matrix, cybernetic, information, synergetic simulation and other models can be used.

3. At the stage of analyzing the structure of the system, the hierarchy levels of the system object are determined, all elements (subsystems) are identified, and their connections and relationships are established.

Then a structural and functional analysis of the object of study is carried out, a graphic description of the process of functioning of the system elements is given, their specificity and information connections with the external environment are determined based on the development of the structure of goals, etc. Methods of logical construction, diagnostics, and synthesis are used as a research tool. The analysis is carried out on the basis of constructing graphical, matrix, network, morphological, cybernetic and synergetic models.

The result of this stage of work is the construction of a structural and functional model of the system object.

4. Formulation of a general goal, determination of system criteria, goals and limitations of the external environment, decomposition of goals and criteria of subsystems represent a complex logical procedure within the framework of the concepts of general systems theory.

At this stage of the research, the following methods are used: expert assessments, network structures of goals, optimization, gaming, simulation models and etc.

The result of the analysis at this stage is a description of the research conditions of the research object as a system, the establishment of a criterion for targeted development and the composition of resource support for complete life cycle, as well as determining the principles for decomposing the goals of the system and the conditions for maintaining its integrity.

5. Linking the goal with the means of its implementation is carried out by decomposing goals and their formulation, determining current processes, the effectiveness of the functioning of subsystems of each level, sustainable dynamic development, external conditions and restrictions.

This stage is central to systems analysis. As a result of its implementation, it is necessary to link goals with the means of achieving them both within the system and outside it.

For this purpose, the methods of “goal tree”, system state modeling, network, descriptive models, etc. are used.

6. Identification of resources and processes, composition of goals are carried out in the traditional way, starting with an analysis of the current situation, the achieved level and a consistent forecast. In this case, methods of expert assessments, “tree of goals”, forecast calculations, etc. are used.
7. Forecasting and analysis of the conditions for the development of an object-system begins with assessing the influence of various factors both within the system and external influences. Analyzed possible options changes in goals and trends in the development of the system, the state of resource provision for future development, a forecast and analysis of future conditions are made. For this purpose, methods of “scenarios”, expert assessments, “tree of goals”, statistical, descriptive models, etc. are used.
8. Assessing goals and means of achieving them is one of the most labor-intensive stages of system analysis, at which a mechanism for matching goals and their achievement is developed, evaluation criteria are determined, and evaluation methods are selected. After the criterion is formed, i.e. a way to compare alternatives has been found, selection and optimization problems are set, a system for a comprehensive assessment of the compliance of goals and means is created, and the parameters of the evaluation mechanism are determined.

Considering that system analysis, as a rule, deals with objects devoid of quantitative assessments; methods of export assessments, the morphological method, etc. are used as methodological tools.

9. At the stage of selecting options, a comparison of goals and means is carried out, their optimization is the cutting off of those goals that are considered insignificant or do not have the means to achieve the final result. Goals are clarified and adjusted based on the operating conditions of the system object.

In order to be able to compare alternatives, it is necessary to develop a preference criterion.

In the analysis process, modeling methods, “goal tree”, matrix, etc. are used.

10. Diagnostic analysis of an existing system object is aimed at identifying adaptation conditions for a new system.

A calculation is also made of the potential for resource provision, and changes in the problem situation are predicted.

At subsequent stages, a comprehensive program (action plan) is built to implement the research results, and the conditions for their application are designed.

Thus, the approach to solving problems involves sequential implementation of the following tasks.

1. Analysis of the problem (statement of the problem): determination of the essence of the problem, its precise formulation, analysis of the logical structure of the problem, analysis of the development of the problem (assessment of the past state and forecast), identification of external connections, assessment of the fundamental solvability of the problem.
2. Definition, design of the system: determination of goals and objectives, formulation of the observer’s position, determination of system objects, identification of subsystems, determination of the external environment.
3. Analysis of the system structure: determination of hierarchy levels, aspects of consideration, processes, determination of specifications of subsystems, processes and functions.
4. Formulation of the general goal and criterion of the system: determination of the goals of higher order systems, goals and limitations of the external environment, formulation of the general goal, definition of the criterion, decomposition of the goals and criteria of subsystems.
5. Decomposition of the goal, identification of the need for resources and processes: formulation of top-level goals, goals of current processes and development goals.
6. Resource assessment: assessment of existing technologies and capacities, the existing state of resources, interaction with other systems, social factors.
7. Forecast and analysis of future conditions: analysis of stable trends in the development of the problem, forecast of development and changes in the environment, forecast of the emergence of new factors influencing the system; analysis of future resources, analysis of possible shifts in goals and criteria.
8. Assessing goals and means: calculating ratings based on criteria, assessing the interdependence of goals, assessing the relative importance of goals.
9. Formation of alternatives for solving a problem and selection of options: evaluation of alternatives based on criteria, comparison and selection of options.
10. Construction of a comprehensive solution program: formulation of project and program activities, determination of the priority of goals and activities to achieve them, distribution of areas of activity, distribution of areas of competence, development of an action plan under resource and time constraints, distribution of responsibilities to organizations, managers and performers.
11. Designing an organization to achieve a goal: assigning the purpose of the organization, assigning the functions of the organization, designing the organizational structure, information flows, operating modes, material and moral incentives.

The specified list of works is approximate. In each specific case of problem solving, a research plan is developed based on the content of the task.

Problem- this is a type of question (non-paradigmatic situation) that has a specifically stated goal, but the ways to achieve the goal are still unknown. A task is a type of question for which solutions to achieve a goal are known.

2. Methodology analysis

2.1 Concept and types

Analysis is the mental division of the phenomenon being studied into its component parts and the study of each of these parts separately. Through synthesis, economic theory recreates a single complete picture.

Widespread: induction and deduction. Through induction (guidance), a transition is ensured from the study of individual facts to general provisions and conclusions. Deduction (inference) makes it possible to move from general conclusions to relatively private ones. Analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction are applied in unity by economic theory. Their combination provides a systematic (integrated) approach to complex (multi-element) phenomena of economic life.

An important place in the study of economic phenomena and processes is occupied by historical and logical methods. They do not oppose each other, but are applied in unity, since the starting point of historical research coincides, in general, with the starting point of logical research. However, the logical (theoretical) study of economic phenomena and processes is not a mirror reflection of the historical process. In the specific conditions of a particular country, economic phenomena may arise that are not obligatory for the prevailing economic system. If they actually (historically) take place, then they can be ignored in theoretical analysis. We can take our minds off them. A historian cannot ignore this kind of phenomenon. He must describe them.

Using the historical method, economics studies economic processes and phenomena in the sequence in which they arose, developed, and were replaced by one another in life itself. This approach allows us to concretely and clearly present the features of various economic systems.

Historical method shows that in nature and society development proceeds from simple to complex. In relation to the subject of economics, this means that in the entire set of economic phenomena and processes it is necessary to highlight first of all the simplest ones, those that arise earlier than others and form the basis for the emergence of more complex ones. For example, in market analysis, such an economic phenomenon is the exchange of goods.

Economic processes and phenomena are characterized by qualitative and quantitative certainty. Therefore, economic theory (political economy) widely uses mathematical and statistical techniques and research tools that make it possible to identify the quantitative side of processes and phenomena of economic life, their transition to a new quality. In this case, computer technology is widely used. The method of economic and mathematical modeling plays a special role here. This method, being one of the systematic research methods, allows us to formally determine the causes of changes in economic phenomena, the patterns of these changes, their consequences, opportunities and costs of influence, and also makes forecasting economic processes realistic. Using this method, economic models are created.

An economic model is a formalized description of an economic process or phenomenon, the structure of which is determined by its objective properties and the subjective target nature of the study.

In connection with the construction of models, it is important to note the role of functional analysis in economic theory.

Functions are variables that depend on other variables.

Functions found in our Everyday life, and we most often do not realize it. They take place in technology, physics, geometry, chemistry, economics, etc. In relation to economics, for example, we can note the functional relationship between price and demand. Demand depends on price. If the price of a good rises, the quantity demanded for it, other things equal conditions decreases. In this case, price is an independent variable, or argument, and demand is a dependent variable, or function. Thus, we can briefly say that demand is a function of price. But demand and price can change places. The higher the demand, the higher the price, other things being equal. Therefore, price can be a function of demand.

Economic-mathematical modeling as a method of economic theory became widespread in the 20th century. However, the element of subjectivity in constructing economic models sometimes leads to errors. Laureate Nobel Prize French economist Maurice Allais wrote in 1989 that for 40 years economic science had been developing in the wrong direction: towards completely artificial and divorced from life mathematical models with the predominance of mathematical formalism, which is, in fact, a big step back.

Most models and principles of economic theory can be expressed graphically, in the form of mathematical equations, so when studying economic theory it is important to know mathematics and be able to draw up and read graphs.

Graphs are depictions of the relationship between two or more variables.

The dependence can be linear (i.e. constant), then the graph is a straight line located at an angle between two axes - vertical (usually denoted by the letter Y) and horizontal (X).

If the graph line goes from left to right in a descending manner, then there is an inverse relationship between the two variables (for example, as the price of a product decreases, the volume of its sales usually increases). If the graph line is ascending, then the connection is direct (so, as the production costs of a product increase, prices for it usually increase -). The dependence may be nonlinear (i.e., changing), then the graph takes the form of a curved line (for example, as inflation decreases, unemployment tends to increase - the Phillips curve).

Within the framework of the graphical approach, diagrams are widely used - drawings showing the relationship between indicators. They can be circular, columnar, etc.

The diagrams clearly demonstrate the indicators of the models and their relationships. When analyzing economic problems, positive and normative analysis are often used. Positive analysis gives us the opportunity to see economic phenomena and processes as they really are: what was or what could be. Positive statements do not have to be true, but any dispute regarding a positive statement can be resolved by checking the facts. Normative analysis is based on the study of what should be and how it should be. A normative statement is most often derived from a positive one, but objective facts cannot prove its truth or falsity. In normative analysis, assessments are made - fair or unfair, bad or good, acceptable or unacceptable.

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Perspective. The second task is to assess how organizations use their material, labor and financial resources. The most rational and efficient use of resources is the most important economic task. Based on economic analysis, an assessment is made of the effectiveness of the use of material, labor and financial resources. In industry, for example, the effectiveness of...

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The method of science is its inherent way of penetrating into the content of its subject. The scientific basis of the method of all sciences about nature and society is the dialectical method of research, which involves: the study of the real world in its formation and development; revealing the dialectical contradictions of this development, the struggle between the new and the dying, the universal interconnection and interdependence of individual phenomena; definition driving forces and objective laws of development. Scientific knowledge is achieved through observation, sensory perception, comparison, abstraction, measuring relationships, modeling and experimentation, a combination of analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, a historical and logical approach to the study of reality.

The dialectical method of research is used in the study of their subject by all natural and social sciences. At the same time, each of them develops a special approach to the study of its subject, which makes it possible to implement the general provisions of this method in relation to the specifics of its subject.

Economic analysis of the activities of business entities has also developed its own method, based on dialectics and being a way of applying it to the study of its subject.

From a philosophical point of view, analysis is a way of studying a subject by dividing it into parts. Analysis translated from Greek means decomposition, division into parts.

Through analysis, an ever more detailed decomposition of the parts of an object, which at first seem indecomposable, is achieved, and an ever closer approach to knowledge of its essence. At the same time, the internal inconsistency and interconnection of all parts of the subject are revealed, causing their fusion into a single whole. However, it is impossible to know an object and the complex and contradictory processes occurring within it using only decomposition. Any part cannot be correctly understood without its connection with other parts and with the whole. Correct perception of the subject is achieved by generalizing the knowledge obtained as a result analytical research its parts, i.e. analysis is combined with synthesis. The fact that the term “analysis” is included in the name of the science is a reflection of the sequence of studying economic activity: first, analysis is carried out, and then synthesis.

The analysis uses a deductive research method, when it begins with general indicators of all activities, which is characteristic of the financial-economic and financial-investment type, or inductive, when first the study of activities is carried out within individual divisions of economic entities (teams, workshops, production units or individual types of products), and then the materials are summarized throughout the economic system, which is typical for technical, economic and functional cost analysis. In the process of analytical study of the activities of economic entities, all types of analysis are combined, therefore deduction and induction are used in unity.

In the method of analysis, all the provisions of dialectics are fully realized. The contradictory influence on the analyzed activity and its results of certain groups of factors - objective and subjective, depending on external circumstances or on the object of analysis itself - is revealed and studied. An abrupt transition from quantity to quality is revealed. For example, in an industrial enterprise, the number of deviations from the approved production technology leads to irreparable (final) defective products or, conversely, the improvement of individual parameters of use value improves the quality of the product so much that it receives a new consumer purpose. At the same time, an improvement or deterioration in quality affects quantity, since sales volume in value terms depends not only on the quantity of goods sold, but also on their prices, which reflect premiums and discounts for quality. The requirement to study real world phenomena in their formation and development is also implemented in analysis, for example, when studying performance indicators in dynamics, considering them separately for new and obsolete products, when comparing the efficiency of organizing work by team contracting and by previously used forms of labor organization.

Consequently, the method of analysis is based, as indicated above, on the dialectical theory of knowledge.

The characteristic features of the method of economic analysis are: the use of a system of indicators that comprehensively characterize economic activity, the study of the reasons for changes in these indicators, the identification and measurement of the relationship between them in order to increase socio-economic efficiency.

The dialectical approach to the study of economic processes involves their consideration in formation and development. They are characterized by the pattern of transition from quantity to quality, the emergence of a new quality, the negation of the negation, the struggle of opposites, the withering away of the old and the emergence of a new, more progressive, i.e. all methods and techniques of dialectics are manifested in the study of economic processes, economic activities at all levels.

It is advisable to note the characteristic features of the method of economic analysis. The first such feature is the use of a system of indicators in the study of economic phenomena and processes. This system is usually formed during planning, during the development of systems and subsystems of economic information, which does not exclude the possibility of calculating new indicators during the analysis itself.

The second characteristic feature of the method of economic analysis is the study of the reasons that caused changes in certain economic indicators. Since economic phenomena are determined by causality and causal dependence, the task of analysis is to uncover and study cause-and-effect relationships. The economic activity of an enterprise, even a single indicator, can be influenced by numerous and varied reasons. It is very difficult to identify and study the effect of absolutely all causes, as noted earlier, and it is not always practical. The task is to establish the most significant reasons that decisively influenced this or that indicator. Thus, a precondition, a prerequisite for correct analysis is an economically sound classification of the causes affecting economic activity and its results.

The characteristic features of the method of economic analysis include the identification and measurement of the relationship and interdependence between indicators, which are determined by the objective conditions of production and circulation of goods. It is impossible to impose them artificially. The volume of industrial output depends, for example, on three groups of factors related to the use of labor, tools, and objects of labor. Each group is divided into constituent elements. Thus, factors associated with the use of labor are divided into quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative refers to the number of workers, while qualitative refers to the productivity of their labor (output per worker). The average output per worker per year depends, in turn, on the average number of days worked by one worker per year, the average number of hours worked by one worker per day, and the average output per man-hour worked. Each of the listed indicators also depends on a number of reasons. The average number of days worked by one worker per year depends, for example, on the provision of additional vacations, absences due to illness, business trips, all-day downtime due to the fault of the enterprise, absenteeism, etc. Consequently, a certain chain of dependence of one indicator on another is obtained, where each factor has its own significance. The exclusion of one or another factor from the economist’s orbit of attention, and sometimes a violation of the sequence of consideration of factors, makes the analysis economically untenable.

The above list of some factors influencing the volume of industrial production indicates that not a single economic concept, the economic indicator should be considered in isolation; they are all connected. However, this circumstance does not at all exclude the possibility and necessity of their logical isolation in the process of economic calculations. A very common methodological technique is to determine the degree of influence of a given factor, all other things being equal, i.e. when other factors are considered supposedly unchanged.

Many theorists of analysis did not consider it necessary to give a general definition of the method of analysis.

The point of view according to which economic analysis of the activities of economic entities does not have an independent method was shared by many authors and was motivated by the applied nature of science. These authors did not consider it necessary to formulate a general definition of the method, but limited themselves to listing individual techniques and methods. Refusal to formulate definitions of the subject and method of analysis essentially means refusal of its independent development, since these definitions are fundamental in the theory of any science.

In the 50s of the XX century. analysis of economic activity has already reached such a degree of scientific maturity that its further development through theoretical development scientific foundations became objectively necessary.

An attempt to give such a definition was made back in 1954. Later, in a textbook for students economic specialties“Economic analysis of the economic activities of enterprises and associations” was formulated following definition method of analysis: “The method of analysis is a method of systemic comprehensive study, measurement and generalization of the influence of individual factors on the implementation of economic plans and on the dynamics of economic development, carried out by processing plan indicators, accounting, reporting and other sources of information using special techniques.”

The positive aspects of this definition are its generalizing nature, the emphasis on a systematic integrated approach to the study, measurement and generalization of data on the subject of analysis. At the same time, a serious drawback of this definition is its one-sidedness: we are not talking about studying the activities of an economic entity and its results, but only about the factors influencing them. Therefore, this definition is not precise enough.

More precisely, the method of economic analysis should be understood dialectical method an approach to the study of economic processes in their formation and development, the characteristic features of which are: the use of systems of indicators that comprehensively characterize economic activity, the study of the reasons for changes in these indicators, the identification and measurement of the relationship between them in order to increase socio-economic efficiency.

The advantage of this definition of a method of analysis is that it emphasizes the importance of the development and use of a system of indicators as the most characteristic feature of the method of analysis. This attracted the attention of a wide range of specialists to the problems of improving the system of indicators for assessing the efficiency of the analyzed object, for measuring the degree of use of economic potential and identifying reserves for increasing business efficiency.

At the same time in modern conditions it is necessary to more clearly emphasize the systematic and comprehensive nature of the analysis. A systematic integrated approach takes into account the integrity of the activity of an economic entity, the interrelation and interaction of its individual parties and their contradictory influence on the final results of this activity.

Thus, the method of analysis is a systematic, integrated approach to studying the results of the activities of an economic entity, identifying and measuring the contradictory influence of individual factors on them, summarizing the analysis materials in the form of conclusions and recommendations based on processing with special techniques all available information about the results of this activity.

In or among other factors must be listed research methods. Selecting suitable methods, applying them in the process of writing a paper and correctly describing them in the introduction is not an easy task. It is further complicated by the fact that each area of research: psychology, medicine, finance, pedagogy and others, uses its own, narrowly focused methods. Below we will reveal their essence and name their general and special types.

What are research methods?

This is the first question that needs to be addressed. So, research methods are the steps that we take on the way to our work. These are ways that help us solve our problems.

Due to their huge number, there are different classification of research methods, divisions into types, associations into groups. First of all, they are usually divided into two categories: universal and private. The first category is applicable to all branches of knowledge, while the second has a narrower focus and covers those methods that are used strictly in one or another field of science.

Let's consider the following classification in more detail and highlight their types: empirical, theoretical, quantitative and qualitative. Next, we will consider methods applicable in specific areas of knowledge: pedagogy, psychology, sociology and others.

Empirical research methods

This type is based on empirical, that is, sensory perception, as well as on measurement using instruments. This is an important component of scientific research in all fields of knowledge from biology to physics, from psychology to pedagogy. It helps to determine the objective laws in accordance with which the phenomena under study occur.

The following empirical research methods in coursework and other student works can be called basic or universal, because they are relevant for absolutely all areas of knowledge.

Studying various sources of information. This is nothing more than a basic collection of information, that is, the stage of preparation for or course work. The information you will rely on can be taken from books, the press, regulations and, finally, from the Internet. When searching for information, you should remember that not all finds are reliable (especially on the Internet), therefore, when selecting information, you should treat them critically and pay attention to the confirmation and similarity of materials from different sources.
Analysis of the information received. This is the stage that follows the collection of information. It is not enough to simply find the necessary material, you also need to carefully analyze it, check for logic, reliability, etc.
Observation. This method is a focused and attentive perception of the phenomenon under study followed by the collection of information. In order for observation to bring the desired results, you need to prepare for it in advance: make a plan, outline factors that require special attention, clearly define the timing and objects of observation, prepare a table that you will fill out during the work.
Experiment. If observation is a rather passive research method, then experiment is characterized by your active activity. To conduct an experiment or series of experiments, you create certain conditions in which you place the subject of research. Next, you observe the reaction of the object and record the results of the experiments in the form of a table, graph or diagram.
Survey. This method helps you look deeper into the problem being studied by asking specific questions of the people involved. The survey is used in three variations: an interview, a conversation and a questionnaire. The first two types are oral, and the last is written. After completing the survey, you need to clearly formulate its results in the form of text, chart, table or graph.

Theoretical research methods

Methods for conducting this type of research are abstract and general. They help to systematize the collected material for its successful study.

Analysis. To better understand the material, it is necessary to decompose it into its component units and study each in detail. This is what analysis does.
Synthesis. Contrasted with analysis, necessary to unite disparate elements into a single whole. We resort to this method to get general idea about the phenomenon being studied.
Modeling. To study a research subject in detail, sometimes you need to place it in a specially created model.
Classification. This method is similar to analysis, only it distributes information based on comparison and divides it into groups based on common characteristics.
Deduction. In the best traditions of Sherlock Holmes, this method helps to move from the general to the specific. This transition is useful for deeper penetration into the essence of the phenomenon being studied.
Induction. This method is the opposite of deduction; it helps to move from a single case to the study of an entire phenomenon.
Analogy. The principle of its operation is that we find certain similarities between several phenomena, and then build logical conclusions that other features of these phenomena may coincide.
Abstraction. If we ignore the striking properties of the phenomenon being studied, we can identify those characteristics of it that we have not previously paid attention to.

Quantitative Research Methods

This group of methods helps to analyze phenomena and processes based on quantitative indicators.

Statistical methods focus on initially collecting quantitative data and then measuring it to study large-scale phenomena. The obtained quantitative characteristics help to identify general patterns and eliminate occasional minor deviations.
Bibliometric methods make it possible to study the structure, interconnection and dynamics of development of phenomena in the documentation and information fields. This includes counting the number of publications made, content analysis, and citation index, i.e. determining the volume of citations from various sources. Based on them, it is possible to track the circulation of the documents being studied and the degree of their use in various fields of knowledge. Content analysis deserves special mention because it plays important role when studying a large volume of various documents. Its essence comes down to counting the semantic units that can become certain authors, works, and book release dates. The result of research using this method is information about the information interest of the population and general level their information culture.

Qualitative Research Methods

The methods combined in this group are aimed at identifying the qualitative characteristics of the phenomena being studied, so that on their basis we can reveal the underlying mechanisms of various processes in society, including the influence of means mass media on the consciousness of an individual or certain features of the perception of information by different segments of the population. The main area of application of qualitative methods is marketing and sociological research.

Let's consider the most important methods of this group.

In-depth interview. Unlike an ordinary interview, which is empirical, here we are talking about a conversation where a short answer “yes” or “no” is not enough, but detailed, reasoned answers are required. Often, an in-depth interview is conducted in the form of a free conversation in an informal setting according to a pre-drawn plan, and its purpose is to explore the beliefs, values and motivations of respondents.
Expert interview. This conversation differs from its in-depth counterpart in that the respondent is an expert competent in the field of interest. Possessing knowledge about the specific aspects of the phenomenon being studied, he expresses a valuable opinion and significantly contributes to scientific research. Often, government officials, university employees, managers and employees of organizations participate in conversations of this kind.
Focus group discussions. Here the conversation takes place not one on one, but with a focus group consisting of 10-15 respondents who are directly related to the phenomenon being studied. During the discussion, its participants share their personal opinions, experiences and perceptions of the proposed topic, and based on their statements, a “portrait” of the social group to which the focus group belongs is compiled.

Methods of pedagogical research

In pedagogy, research is carried out using both universal and specific methods necessary to study specific pedagogical phenomena, as well as search for their relationships and patterns. Theoretical methods help to identify problems and evaluate the collected materials for research, including monographs on pedagogy, historical and pedagogical documents, methodological manuals and other documents related to pedagogy. By studying the literature on the chosen topic, we find which problems have already been solved and which are not yet sufficiently covered.

In addition to theoretical ones, pedagogical research also welcomes empirical methods, complementing them with its own specifics. Thus, observation here becomes a focused and attentive perception of pedagogical phenomena (most often these are ordinary or open lessons in schools). Questioning and testing are often used with both students and teaching staff to understand the essence of educational processes.

Among the private methods that relate specifically to pedagogical research are the study of student performance results (tests, independent work, creative and graphic work) and the analysis of pedagogical documentation (student progress logs, their personal files and medical records).

Methods of sociological research

Sociological research is based on theoretical and empirical methods, supplemented by specification of topics. Let us consider how they are transformed in sociology.

Analysis of various sources to obtain the most accurate information. Books, manuscripts, videos, audio, and statistical data are studied here. One type of this method is content analysis, which transforms the qualitative factors of the sources being studied into their quantitative characteristics.
Sociological observation. Using this method, sociological data is collected by directly studying a phenomenon in its normal, natural conditions. Depending on the purpose of observation, it can be controlled or uncontrolled, laboratory or field, included or uninvolved.
Questioning, which in this area turns into a sociological survey. Respondents are asked to fill out a questionnaire, on the basis of which the researcher subsequently receives an array of social information.
Interview, that is, an oral sociological survey. During a direct conversation between the researcher and the respondent, personal psychological relationships, which contribute not only to obtaining answers to the questions posed, but also to studying emotional reaction respondents to them.
A social experiment is a study of a particular social process in artificial conditions. It is carried out to test the hypothesis and test ways to control related processes.

Methods of psychological research

Research methods in psychology– these are general scientific empirical and theoretical, as well as private, narrowly focused ones. Mostly research here relies on modified observation and experiment.

Observation in psychology consists of studying mental activity by recording physiological processes and behavioral acts of interest. This oldest method is most effective in the first steps towards studying a problem, since it helps to preliminarily determine the important factors of the processes being studied. The subject of observation in psychology can be the characteristics of people’s behavior, including verbal (content, duration, frequency of speech acts) and non-verbal (facial and body expression, gestures).

Observation is characterized by a certain passivity of the researcher, and this is not always convenient. Therefore, for a more intensive and in-depth study of areas of interest mental processes an experiment is used, which in a psychological context is joint activities researcher and subject (or several subjects). The experimenter artificially creates the necessary conditions, against which, in his opinion, the phenomena being studied will manifest themselves as clearly as possible. If observation is a passive research method, then experiment is active, because the researcher actively intervenes in the course of the research and changes the conditions for its conduct.

So, we have looked at various research methods that are worthy not only of mention in or, but also of active application in practice.