Kamkina Olga

The paper gives a clear concept of the category of homonyms in the Russian language, their types, classification.

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Municipal treasury educational institution

"Ingalinskaya secondary school"

NOU "Dawn"

Educational and research work on the Russian language

Homonyms and their types

Head Sysova Valentina

Aleksandrovna teacher

Russian language and literature

Ingaly 2012

Introduction 3

§ 1. History of the question. five

§ 2. The concept of homonymy. Lexical homonymy 6

§ 3. Language phenomena similar to lexical homonymy 10

§ 4. The emergence of homonyms in the Russian language…………………………….12

§ 5. Use in speech…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… § 5 § 5 § 5 § 5 § 5 § 5 § 5

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….19

References……………………………………………………………20

Annex 1………………………………………………………………….21

Annex 2………………………………………………………………….23

Introduction

Between the words that form the vocabulary of the Russian language, certain relationships are found both in the nature of the meanings they express, and in their phonetic design, that is, the similarity of their sound composition.

In the vocabulary of the Russian language, there are three types of relationships between words:

1. homonymous (according to sound correspondence)
2. synonymous (according to the proximity of the expressed values)
3. antonymous (by opposition of expressed meanings)

The presence of these relations allows us to speak about a certain organization of words in the vocabulary, about the existence of a lexical system of the language. The essence of the phenomena of homonymy, synonymy and antonymy is as follows: with homonymy, there is an identity (that is, coincidence) of sounding with a difference in the meaning of words, with synonymy - identity or similarity of meaning with a complete difference in sounding (that is, sound composition), with antonymy - the opposite meaning with a difference in the sound of the words.

In this paper, we consider the phenomenon homonymy. The phenomenon of homonymy is a topic that has been covered in linguistic literature for a very long time. It is considered by such scientists as V.V. Vinogradov, Fomina M.I., Popov R.N., Akhmanova O.S., Lipatov A.T., Rakhmanova L.I. and others. Their disputes concern the understanding of the essence of homonymy, its occurrence in the Russian language, its use in speech, the distinction between homonymy and polysemy, homonymy and related phenomena. Based on the foregoing, we believe that until the controversy on this issue stops, it should be considered relevant.

The purpose of this work- based on the analysis of linguistic literature, to give an idea of ​​how in modern science the phenomenon of homonymy is highlighted. With this goal in mind, we are faced with the following tasks:

Analyze different approaches in the definition of homonymy;

To get acquainted with the history of coverage of this issue;

Create didactic material for Russian language lessons on homonymy.

Subject of study: lexical-linguistic analysis of the category of words.

Object of study: phenomenon of homonymy.

Research methods: analysis scientific literature, generalization and systematization of the information received; methods of continuous sampling of observation and analysis.

the presence of a linguistic sign of two or more meanings. A linguistic sign is a two-sided unit of language, which is a unity of the content plan (signified) and the expression plan (signifier), but, despite the interdependence of the two sides of the sign, they obey the general law of asymmetry in the language, a special case of which is ambiguity.

Ambiguity manifests itself in the fact that different signifieds correspond to one signifier. The main types of such correspondence are polysemy (or polysemy) and homonymy. Polysemy is the presence of a language unit of two or more meanings between which there is a connection; for example, the word needle may refer to a sewing tool ( sewing needle), a metal rod with a pointed end (gramophone needle), a leaf of a coniferous tree ( pine needle), a prickly formation on the body of some animals ( hedgehog needles), but in all cases there is a common component of meaning: "something long and sharp". Homonymy is the sound and graphic coincidence of different language units, the meanings of which are not related to each other, for example marriage"marriage" and marriage"product defect". Since in languages ​​with a written language, the signifier has oral (sound) and written (graphic) forms, in addition to homonymy, homophony is also distinguished - a sound match when the spelling of language units is different ( horn And rock) and homography - a graphic match with a difference in the pronunciation of language units ( atlas And atlas).

The types of ambiguity of signs A and B can be schematically represented as follows:

writing					____ № ____
sounding							____ № ____
meaning			____ № ____		____ № ____		____ № ____
	polysemy		homonymy		homophony		homography

Ambiguity manifests itself at all language levels, where significant units are distinguished: at the level of morphemes, word forms, words, phraseological units, phrases and sentences.

Moreover, the term "ambiguity" is also used in graphics - a section of linguistics that studies the relationship between phonemes and graphemes - one-dimensional (without a content plan) language units. There is no one-to-one correspondence between phonemes and graphemes in any letter, i.e. such a ratio, when each grapheme conveys only one phoneme, and each phoneme is conveyed by only one grapheme. Usually, one grapheme can denote different phonemes, and vice versa, one phoneme can be denoted by different graphemes.

The use of one grapheme to denote different phonemes is called polyphony (polysemy) of the grapheme. So, in English, the letter g before front vowels denotes the sound ( pa g e, G erman), in other positions - [g] ( g ood, ba g ); letter in french g before front vowels denotes a sound, before vowels but , about and before consonants - [g] ( g rand), in the final position is not pronounced at all ( san g ); in German letter s before a vowel denotes the sound [z] ( S ack), before consonants p And t – [š] ( s pizza, s till), before other consonants and at the end of the word - [s] ( au s ); in Russian, the same consonant letter can denote consonant sounds that are paired in hardness / softness and sonority / deafness, for example, the letter h in words h arya, h erno,ra h ,re h b denotes the sounds [s], [s "], [s] and [s"], respectively. Polyphony sometimes leads to homography of words.

On the other hand, the possibility of denoting the same phoneme or a differential feature of a phoneme by different graphemes is called polygraphemic. So, in English, the phoneme [s] can be conveyed by letters c (c inema) and s (s inger); in French, the phoneme [v] is also denoted by the letter v (v oyage), and a letter w (w agon); in German, letters are used to denote the phoneme [f] f (F abrik), v (v ier) and letter combination ph (Ph oto); in Russian words ka from ka And uka h ka letters from And h transmit the same hollow sound. Polygraphemism can lead to homophony of words.

Maslov Yu.S. Homonyms in the dictionary and homonymy in the language. - In the book: Questions of the theory and history of language. Leningrad, 1963
Jordan L.N. Syntactic homonymy in Russian(in terms of automatic analysis and synthesis). - NTI, 1967, No. 5
Vinogradov V.V. Selected Works: Studies in Russian Grammar. M., 1975
Kim O.M. Transposition at the level of parts of speech and the phenomenon of homonymy in modern Russian. Tashkent, 1978
Soboleva P.A. Derivative polysemy and homonymy. M., 1980
Gladky A.V. Syntactic structures of natural language in automated communication systems. M., 1985
Akhmanova O.S. Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language, 3rd ed. M., 1986
Dreyzin F.A. Syntactic homonymy. – In: Machine Translation and Applied Linguistics. M., 1988
Malakhovskiy L.V. Theory of lexical and grammatical homonymy. Leningrad, 1990

To find " AMBIGUITY" on the

1. What words are called homonyms?

2. How do homonyms differ from polysemantic words?

3. What is the difference between the ways of designating homonyms and polysemantic words in explanatory dictionaries?

As you know, the appearance of words differs in a set of sounds, their sequence.

But there are words in which the sound composition, including stress, completely coincides. The spelling of such words also coincides, for example: translate (someone across the street) and translate (from one language to another); thin (skinny) and thin (leaky); motive (melody) and motive (reason).

Such words are homonyms in the language. The term homonym goes back to the Greek elements: omos - the same and onym - name. They outwardly coincide with polysemantic words, but differ significantly from them. Homonyms are different words that denote different, in no way similar objects, signs, actions; between the lexical meanings of these words there is no common elements meaning.

The polysemantic word also means miscellaneous items, signs, actions, but similar in any respect; between the lexical meanings of polysemantic words there is a common element of meaning.

Homonyms as a phenomenon of the language dictionary, in addition, are characterized by the following mandatory features: belonging to the same part of speech, the same pronunciation and spelling, for example: start (business) and start (some kind of animal); dashing (year) and dashing (rider); current (electrical) and current (ground for threshing). If at least one of these features is missing, the words cannot be called homonyms. So, the words oven (a building for heating a room and cooking) and oven (cooking in the heat) are not homonyms, as they refer to different parts of speech.

From homonyms it is necessary to distinguish homographs, homophones and omophorions.

Homonyms, as you know, appear in the language in different ways: a) as a result of borrowing words from different languages, for example: block (union of states, party) from French and a block (mechanism) of in English, borrowing someone else's word in the presence of a native Russian word (for example: club - a room from the English language and club (smoke) - Russian word); b) as a result of the formation of new words from the same root words with the help of different or identical suffixes (for example: wallet - wallet for paper money and wallet - worker in the paper industry).

At the same time, the language in many cases avoids the formation of homonyms if it already contains words that are identical in sound and spelling. So, men - residents of the valley of the Kuban River - are called Kuban, and for the parallel name of women - residents of the Kuban - there is no similar word, since there is a word Kuban in the meaning of "special headdress".

Homonyms in speech, like polysemantic words, differ in context, that is, in verbal environment.

In explanatory dictionaries, homonyms are indicated by numbers at the top right. There are special dictionaries of homonyms.

Exercise 276.

Determine the meaning in which the highlighted homonyms are used.

1. In a clean field, in the silvery light of the moon, immersed in her dreams, Tatyana walked alone for a long time. (A. Pushkin). 2. I traveled around the world a lot (from the song). 3. The fox lay on its back and plays like a dog. (BUT.

Chekhov). 4. Fried chanterelles are delicious. 5. Small tangerine trees bring up to four thousand fruits every year. (K. Paustovsky). 6. The governor sent to them nine officials, or mandarins, with an entourage. (I. Goncharov). 7. In the whole world there is no more beautiful city in which you were born and live. 8. Peace will win the war.

Exercise 277.

Explain the different meanings of similar-sounding nouns.

1. The situation required great endurance. The atmosphere of the apartment was conducive to sincere conversation.

2. An athlete injured his knee during training. The dancer masterfully performed a knee in the dance.

3. Elephants do useful work with their trunks. During artillery fire, the trunk of the gun was damaged.

Exercise 278.

Find puns. Explain how they are built: on the use of homonyms or on the use of the same word in different meanings.

1. The area of ​​​​rhymes is my element, and I easily write poetry, without hesitation, without delay, I run to the line from the line. I even refer to the Finnish brown rocks with a pun ...

2. Poetry has always been my element, my first verse sounded freely, truthfully, but, not sure of censorship, I became silent and now I write poetry only for friends.

3. Once a coppersmith, forging a basin, said to his wife, yearning: I will give the children a task and I will disperse the longing.

Exercise 279.

Read the article about homonyms. Make sentences containing homonyms.

Homonyms are words that sound the same but have different meanings. Onion-weapon and onion-vegetable are the most obvious example of homonyms. You can make dozens of comic phrases using various homonyms. Well, at least these: A few drops on the window glass. Three times I told you: three times this glass is clean. Let's drag this beam into that deep beam. To know, it was not necessary to climb into him to know. Once I said that I had no time, but now there is more than enough time. Hail fell on the city of Peter. I told her, they say, come to the pier.

There are whole chains of homonyms. For example, the word scythe has four meanings. You can compose a phrase where all of them will be applied. “On the river spit, a girl sharpened her scythe; everything was good in the girl: both the face, and the camp, and the long braid, but, unfortunately, she was a braid.

(S. Narovchatov)

Exercise 280.

Make sentences with the following words.

1. Simple - uncomplicated and simple - a forced break in work. 2. The world is the universe and the world is the absence of enmity. 3) Transfer - move to another place and transfer - exterminate. 4) Forge - a blacksmith's hearth with bellows and a blower, for incandescent metal and a horn - a brass wind instrument, a signal horn.

Exercise 281.

Read an excerpt from a poem by Karol Korda, find homonyms, explain their meaning.

Strange things in nature happen:

The leg of the chair, but the chair does not step,

Often the clock strikes, but we have not heard

To offend someone.

The key, the one that quenches thirst in the forest,

The door to the apartment does not open,

The key to the apartment - ordinary, door -

Do not give us spring water to drink.

Linguistic tests.

A) Match and write homonyms.

Furnace, hearth for incandescence and remelting of metals, for firing ceramic products		Permanent composition of employees
Expression of love, tenderness		A sense of proportion in behavior, in actions
Motivating cause, reason, reason for any action		The one who leads or has the most influence in any area
In some foreign federal states: administrative-territorial unit		brass musical instrument
Metric musical unit, rhythm		A small predatory animal with a thin and flexible body
Section of a printed work marked by numbering or heading		The simplest rhythmic unit of a melody, usually consisting of 2-3 sounds

B) In the left column are the words of the Czech language, and in the right - their meanings in no particular order. Considering the family ties of the Czech and Russian languages, match the words and their meanings; justify your answer.

(Reference: in Czech the combination of letters ch denotes a sound similar to the Russian sound [x], the letter h is the same sound as in the words ogo, yeah; the letter y denotes a sound similar to Russian [ы], č - a sound similar to Russian [h]).

C) Is it possible to form a simple comparative degree from the word bitter? If yes, how is it formed?

D) Write the words that contain the roots of obsolete words (their meanings are given in brackets): soon (skin), fat (fat), rattle (splinter), molded (beautiful), st (passage).

E) In which Russian root is the alternation s//o//a observed? Give examples of words with this root.

II. Linguistic tasks.

A) Read the sentences, find all the words with the same root and explain your answer.

1. The hammer thrower assessed the distance to the metal fence with a trained eye.

2. An inconspicuous path led the Methodists into the building, where they had to map out the objectives of the seminar.

B) Determine the meanings of the highlighted words in this text and explain their origin: “Some ... flaunt in velvet and ride on gold, while others go around in shabby clothes and sit for days without eating. [Ivanushka] ... filled the mammoth with chaff - and he was right ... ”(M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin“ Virtues and Vices ”).

C) In the XVIII-XIX centuries. the word hall had variants of other genders. Based on the analysis of examples from the literature, write these options and comment on the answer.

- Welcome to the hall, - he suggested, shaking his wet coat (M. Gorky "The Life of Klim Samgin").

- I’m sitting alone in the hall and I want to write down what I don’t have ... but no, however, even out of negligence, I didn’t add it to my journal (I. A. Bunin “Diaries”).

- This room was probably formerly a hall (L. N. Tolstoy "War and Peace").

D) Explain the reason for spelling errors: broth, mayor, yog.

E) Replace the foreign words antithesis, security, imitation, force majeure, parity, credo, briefing with Russian synonyms. Make up sentences with these borrowed words.

E) Make sentences with phrases to submit documents, provide documents; submit a report submit a report

G) Compose complex sentences, in which the allied word like attaches different types of subordinate parts, indicate the types of subordinate clauses.

h) Read the text. Replace the dots with the most appropriate word from those given in brackets. Which of the italicized words is not synonymous? Prove it.

And the conversation turned again about the war, about Bonaparte and ... (today's, present, current) generals and ... (official, state, state) people. The old prince, it seemed, was convinced not only that all the current leaders were boys, not ... (conscious, catching, savvy, understanding) and the alphabet ... (military, military, military) and state affairs, and that Bonaparte was ... ( small, insignificant, insignificant, petty) Frenchman who had ... (good luck, success, happy ending, happiness) only because there were no Potemkins and Suvorovs to oppose him; but he was even convinced that there were no political ... (difficulties, difficulties, difficulties) in Europe, there was no war, but there was some kind of puppet comedy played by today's people, ... (simulating, pretending, pretending, pretending to disguise) that they are doing the deed. Prince Andrei cheerfully ... (endured, endured, endured, withstood, worried) his father's mockery of new people and with apparent joy ... (called, provoked, encouraged, ignited) his father to talk and listened to him. (L.N. Tolstoy)

I) Indicate the basis on which these pairs of words are combined into one row. Continue with your examples.

Go around the fields - go around the horse; have a bite to eat sandwiches - have a bite to eat a wire, sawing firewood - a nail file; sweep the floor - sweep the seams ...

K) Continue with a series of words. Explain your decision.

Beauty - beauty, care - worries, depth - depths ...

L) On what grounds can one of the given words be considered “third wheel”?

To impose, to possess, to clothe.

M) Determine what part of the word is the letter combination -ey in the following words, and group them: rains, sons, friends, sews, sparrows, sleighs, steppes, more beautiful, snakes.

H) Divide these words into 2 groups based on one constant morphological feature of the verb. Explain your answer.

Bitter, pepper, salt, sour, sweeten.

A) Find the common meaning of the borrowed words: recipe, receptor, recipient.

P) Explain if there is a difference in the meaning of the phrases “Turkish coffee” and “Turkish coffee”, “factory workers” and “factory workers”, “apartment twelve” and “twelfth apartment”.

P) In the book of the philologist G. Huseynov, an example is given of how the meaning of a number of words is transformed in the minds of people. This happened with the word “kopeck piece”: earlier it was two kopecks, closer to the nineties of the twentieth century - a two-room apartment. Give your own examples of such words. Comment on the changes in the meaning of each.

C) Why words whitewashed And confidentially have different suffixes, although both have a prefix before-

T) Explain how the meaning of the poem changes depending on the continuous or separate spelling of the words enclosed in brackets. Which option do you think is correct and why?

My first friend, my priceless friend!

And I blessed fate

When my yard is secluded

covered in sad snow,

Your bell has rung.

Gives (the same, too) consolation,

May he illuminate the prison

Beam lyceum clear days!

Y) Write down the adjective 352-year-old without using numbers and disassemble it by composition.

F) Describe the sentence: Forewarned means forearmed.

X) Find the predicate in the sentences and determine its type. Explain your decision.

Let's watch. I'll go take a look. I will look into my eyes. I look, I don't look.

C) Indicate the lexical and grammatical features that distinguish the words in each of the selected pairs.

1. Grandmother trains dinner. She is always delicious trains.

2. Grandmother cuts meat, but the knife is dull and bad cuts.

3. Grandmother looks for the grandchildren who watching television.

W) Determine the morphemic status of the selected parts of words. Prove your point.

1) You decide And those this task? – Resh And those example!

2) fox uy tail - winter uy day

3) go those- let's go those

Sh) In some Russian dialects, the word key, which means "order, beauty". Remember and name a common word that is often used to refer to an awkward, clumsy, clumsy person. A hint can be a line of a famous children's song, where an adverb formed from this word is used.

Щ) What, besides the meaning, is the difference between the words Wednesday (“environment, setting”) and Wednesday (“third day of the week”)?

E) Alyosha hurried up and allowed in the dictation to write one word in non-standard graphic design: “The new teacher is getting to know the class.” Explain the reasons for choosing the spelling. Restore the initial form of the misspelled word in Alyosha's spelling. Determine what part of speech this word belongs to, judging by its spelling in Alyosha. What could have caused this error? Is the spelling of Alyosha phonetically adequate?

Yu) Linguistic terms have a long and interesting story. What is the meaning of synonymous terms abewega And initial letter in the famous "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. Dahl?

Z) What tasks do the "dictionaries of language difficulties" perform? Name dictionaries of this type known to you and their authors.

1) Determine what part of speech the word is one in sentences:

A) All the time she was talking quietly with one elderly lady. (F.M. Dostoevsky).

B) I am guided by only good feelings for this girl. (M.P. Pogodin).

C) Eh, barchuk, barchuk, and as soon as you managed to treat the Kirghiz in one day. (I.A. Bunin).

D) Sometimes it begins to seem that you and the car are one powerful creature. (V. Sayanov).

D) I only want you to be happy. (A.N. Ostrovsky).

2) What idiom is found in these texts? Explain its meaning. Highlight the borrowed word. Do you know what it means? What number was this word used in Old Russian?

Look: Mikhailov, Petrov, Semyonov, Alekseev, Stepanov ... you can't count: our name is legion! (Goncharov I. A. "Oblomov"). Yes, if there are many artists like me, -

Raisky said, - then there are even more artists like you: their name is legion! (Goncharov I. A. "Cliff"). This dear Sviyazhsky, who keeps thoughts to himself only for public use and, obviously, has some other, secret to Levin, foundations of life, and at the same time he is with the crowd, whose name is legion, guiding public opinion with thoughts alien to him ... (Tolstoy L. N. "Anna Karenina")

3) The Russian language uses such fixed expressions as a frightened crow and

shot sparrow. What is common and different in their meanings?

4) Tell what functions it performs capital letter In russian language.

Show with examples.

5) In the comic poem "A Soft Sign" O. Vygotskaya writes:

He is in the word "mother", and in the word "daughter",

And in the quiet lunar word "night".

To not upset anyone

He tries to soften everything.

Cut - cut! Eat - eat!

5) Give examples of the use of the apostrophe (sign ’) in modern Russian.

6) What rule did N.V. Gogol “break” in constructing sentences with homogeneous members? For what purpose is this done?

1. The governor was a good-natured man and sometimes even embroidered on tulle himself.

2. Agafya Fedoseeva wore a cap on her head, three warts on her nose and a coffee

hood with yellow flowers.

7) What does the next row of pairs of words mean? Mutasitsya-To bore. Bored-Negorazd. Unobvious-Wrap. Wrap-Dalble. Odale-Oset. Osets-Get away. Ochuchit-Pervachok;

8) Determine what types of dictionaries are represented by these dictionary entries. Briefly indicate what information can be obtained from these sources? (Students are offered fragments of dictionary entries)

9) In Russian, the word shadow has an unusual property, thanks to which linguists concluded that in ancient times this word was not feminine, but male. Specify what this property is.

10) What sound is pronounced in place of the highlighted letters and why? ABOUT asis, b about ah, flam e nko, wat e polo, in e then, for the sake of about.

11) How is the word once formed? Give a few more words formed with the same suffix. What value does it have? What is its origin?

In these cases, we are no longer talking about lexical homonyms, but about morphological ones. Different forms of words that coincide in sound appearance are called homoforms. With lexical homonymy, sound coincidence extends to homonym words (spit And scythe, drown And drown), with morphological homonymy, separate, and, moreover, quite definite, forms of words of one or another grammatical class coincide. For example: know And mouth - nouns and know And mouth - Verbs, simple - adjective and simple - noun, saw(noun denoting instrument) and saw(past tense of the verb), braid - noun and braid - short adjective from oblique, my - pronoun and my- imperative form of the verb three - numeral and three - imperative form of the verb sing - perfect look to sing And sing - mature, mature.

Both polysemy and homonymy, from the point of view of the history of the semantic system of the language, represent different stages in the development of polysemy in a word, one of the ways in which homonyms arise. Homonyms and arise in the language most often through the collapse of polysemy, through the formation of two independent nominative meanings in the word.

Along with the formation of homonyms through the disintegration of the polysemy of a word, another way of forming homonyms is also possible. The second way to form homonyms is the sound convergence of different words.

Lexical homonyms (Greek homos - the same + onima - name_ are two or more different in meaning, coinciding in spelling, pronunciation and grammatical design. For example, block1- union, agreement of states and block2 - the simplest machine for lifting weights; key1 - a specially shaped metal rod for unlocking and locking the lock and key2 - a source springing from the earth, a spring.

In lexicology, two types of homonym words are distinguished - complete and incomplete (or partial).

("7") Full lexical homonyms include such words of the same part of speech, in which the entire system of forms coincides. So, the above homonyms block1 And block2, key1 And key2 are complete homonyms.

Incomplete (partial) lexical homonyms include words of the same part of speech, which do not have the same system of forms. For example, words plant1 - industrial plant and plant2- a device for actuating - a mechanism (the second word does not have a plural number): world1- the totality of all forms of mothers in the earthly and outer space and world2 - consonant relations, calmness, absence of enmity, wars, quarrels (the second word is also not used in the plural form).

Homonymous words are characterized primarily by the fact that they correlate with one or another phenomenon of reality independently of each other, therefore, there is no associative conceptual and semantic connection between them, which is characteristic of different meanings of polysemantic words. When realizing the lexical meaning of homonymous words, their mixing is practically impossible. For example, no one will think that we are talking about vein like"spring, source", if, standing at the door, they ask to give key, i.e. "device for actuating the lock." The conceptual and thematic correlation of words is completely different, and the use of one of the homonymous words in the text (or in live speech) excludes the use of the other. (Unless, of course, there is a deliberate collision with a certain stylistic task).

So, lexical homonymy is observed among the words of the same empty speech. At the same time, two or more lexical homonyms (full or partial) are characterized by the absolute identity of the sound and orthographic complex, i.e., the external structure (cf .: defend1 - stay until the end defend2-- protect, defend3- to be at some distance, etc.) and all (or part) of grammatical forms (cf. a similar change in cases, the presence of the same forms of the number v of three words that are full lexical homonyms: bank1- vessel, bank2 - shallow, bank3 - special. transverse seat in the boat).

The emergence of homonyms in Russian

In progress historical development dictionary, the appearance of lexical homonyms was due to a number of reasons.

One of them is semantic splitting, the disintegration of a polysemantic word. In this case, homonyms arise as a result of the fact that initially different meanings of the same word diverge and become so distant that in modern language perceived as different words. And only a special etymological analysis helps to establish their former semantic connections. on some features common to all values. In this way, homonyms appeared in ancient times light- lighting and light- Earth, world, universe.

In 1972, for the first time, the homonymy of words was recognized and recorded in the Ozhegov Dictionary duty - duty and duty- borrowed. In the 50s, these words were considered as variants of the same word with different meanings. . This indicates the duration of the process of splitting a polysemantic word and the transformation of its meanings into independent homonyms, the inevitability of the appearance of "intermediate, transitional cases" when it is difficult to give an unambiguous semantic description of the word. For example, words are treated differently in different dictionaries to knit(tighten with rope) and to knit(knitting, crochet), wave(something) and wave(go somewhere) fire(to burn with flame) and fire(shoot in volleys), etc.

The discrepancy between the meanings of a polysemantic word is observed in the language not only among native Russian words, but also among words borrowed from any one language. Interesting observations are given by comparing the homonymy of etymologically identical words: agent - representative of the state, organization, etc. and agent - the effective cause of certain phenomena (both words from lat. ages, agentis-from agere- act); openwork - see-through mesh fabric and openwork- keeping accounting books, documents until the last day (from fr. a ajour- through: summarized).

It should be noted that there is no consensus in modern lexicology on the role of the disintegration of a polysemantic word in the formation of homonyms. So, in the article "On the submission of homonyms in the dictionary" (see: Questions of Linguistics, 1907, No. 3), he expressed the idea that new homonyms, their "reproduction is mainly due to polysemy." -Fedoruk in the article “On the issue of homonyms in the Russian language” also considered one of the productive ways of forming homonyms “separation of the meaning of words”. However, he noted the unproductiveness of this method of formation, considering that “even fewer homonyms owe their formation to the semantic disintegration of a single lexeme into several homonymous lexical units of the type light- universe, and light- lighting . argued that in the Russian language "the most homonyms that arose due to borrowings", although he also recognized the fact that the process of derivative homonymy is active. called random sound coincidences the main source of replenishment of the language with homonyms . , recognizing the sufficient activity of homonyms. arising as a result of the dispersed polysemy, pointed at the same time to the great difficulties associated with the search for objective criteria for evaluating the completion of the homonymization process. Did these articles, as well as a number of other written and oral presentations, serve as a stimulus for the ongoing discussion on the issues of homonymy?

It seems to us most appropriate to consider that the method of splitting meanings is quite active, although its productivity is not the same for different structural types of homonyms. The above examples testify to this. This is also indicated by 248 cases of dispersed polysemy, noted from among 2360 homonymous words cited by her in the Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language.

Homonymy can be the result of the coincidence of sound, spelling and full or partial coincidence of the form change of the original word and the borrowed one. For example, Russian (which has now become regional in use) lava - raft, platform and Russian lava - slaughter with a continuous development system coincided in sound with the words lava - battle order in the ranks (from Polish, fawa- row, line) and lava- molten mineral mass erupted by a volcano (from Italian. lava), Russian felling - dissection into parts coincided with the word felling - an enclosed space on the upper deck of a ship or ship's superstructures (from hol. roef- cabin); Russian horn-"blacksmith" coincided with bugle -"horn" (from it. Horn) etc. But there are relatively few such examples in the language.

Homonyms also appeared as a result of the fact that two or more words borrowed from different languages ​​(often in different time), due to certain phonetic reasons, turned out to be consonant in Russian. This is the way of the emergence of the already mentioned homonyms block- union (from the French. block- association), a block machine for lifting weights (from the English. block). There is eule and a third word block - railway post. Where is the train control center located? to block- close, block), etc.

Often homonymous in Russian are different words borrowed from the same language. For example: banquet - gala dinner, reception (from French) banquet- feast) and banquet- 1) military a small elevation near the trench, arranged for the convenience of rifle shooting, 2) maritime and railway recess along top edge slope (from the French. banquette- reduce from bane- curtain): quarry - the fastest run of a horse (from the French. corriere- running) and quarry special open-pit mining of shallow deposits of fossils (from the French. carriere- quarry); massage - massage (French) masser- massage) and massaging - special to concentrate troops, aviation, etc. in one place (from the French. masse- mass, block, lump) etc.

The coincidence of the sound of Russian and borrowed words sometimes does not occur immediately. Words that were once pronounced and written differently in the process of the historical development of the language coincide both in spelling and in pronunciation. For example, the words onion - garden plant (ancient borrowing from the Germanic languages) and onion - hand weapon for throwing arrows (goes back to the Old Russian word, in which, in place of the vowel at there was a nasal sound o). With the disappearance of the nasal o from the alphabet, these words became homonyms, although incomplete (the first word has no plural forms).

The result of the "phonetic coincidence of etymologically different Slavic words with a non-derivative basis" is considered the appearance of homonymy of words world1 - universe and world2 - peace; par1- gas, air and steam2- unsown field. But there are few such homonyms in the language. (Note, however, that the homonymy of words world1 And world2 is rather a consequence of graphic changes, the result of the disappearance of different spellings of letters And and i.)

According to the structure, homonyms are simple, or not derivatives, and derivatives. Non-derivative homonyms are most often found in the circle of nouns. These are homonyms that, as already noted, arose as a result of the coincidence of native and borrowed words, through phonetic transformations of native Russian words, as well as in the process of word formation. In the derivative homonymy of nouns and verbs, researchers usually distinguish the following varieties:

1) homonymous derived bases each consist of two (or more) homomorphemes of the same type, for example: lezgin-k-a(cf. Lezgins) h lezgin-k-a(dance), hoody(follower of the doctrine) and hoody(shirt of a special cut);

homomorphemes and (gr. homos- identical - t - rnophe- form) call phonetically coinciding morphemes (affixes, inflections), different in meaning (i.e., homonymous morphemes). For example, the suffix -in- in words straw, bead, pea(singularity value), domina, shrpicina(magnifying value), freak(pejorative swear word), pork, lamb(gives meaning "animal meat"): prefix from- in verbs drive out(delete value) and use up(action exhaustion value): end -but in words wall(them. falling units of number), Houses(them. falling. plural numbers), gone(verb ending singular f. r.), etc.

2) homonymous derived stems consist of morphemes that do not match in sound design, for example: wallet(paper industry worker) and bunazh-nick(purse for papers), drummer(working in a percussive way) and drummer(shutter part).

("8") 3) in a homonymous pair of words, the derivative of the stem is felt only in one of the words, while the other (or others) undergoes a morphological process of simplification, cf .: besiege - besiege(besieged, i.e., surrounded by troops), besiege-besiege(separate the constituent part of the sediment), besiege - upset(i.e., force to slow down at full gallop, lean back, crouching a little),

4) one of the homonymous bases has a derivative character. the other is non-derivative, for example: mink(reduce to Nora) And mink(animal and animal skin).

he calls such types of derived homonyms “words with a pronounced morphological structure” and distinguishes five subtypes among them: 1) homonymy of the bases: pungent(look, grass, mockery) and pungent(sugar, firewood); 2) homonymy of affixes: Finnish(to Finn) and Finnish(knife): 3) omoni. mission with varying degrees of articulation: straighten(galley) and straighten(passport): 4) homonymy with different internal structure: crossbow(type of weapon that fires itself) and crossbow(one who shoots himself): 5) homonymy of different parts of speech: bake(noun) and bake(infinitive).

Derivative homonymy among verbs (the process most active in the modern language) “occurs in such cases when in one verb the prefix merges with the stem, losing its morphological separability or separability, and in another, homonymous with the first, it retains its semantic functions of a separate morpheme . For example: name"call someone what" (cf. title) And call(many people) start talking"to speak teeth" (cf. conspiracy) And to speak(to speak, start speaking).

Many of the derived homonymous verbs are partial lexical homonyms. Wed homonymy of derived verbs bury - from dig And bury - from drip, fall asleep - from sleep And fall asleep - from sprinkle. The formation of such homonyms is largely due to the homonymy of word-forming affixes, i.e., homomorphemes.

If the complete coincidence of the external form of two or more words is violated, and the words in the speech stream converge according to one or another linguistic feature, then it may not be about. lexical homonymy, but about phenomena that are only somewhat similar to it, but completely independent.

Linguistic phenomena similar to lexical homonymy

Homonymy as a linguistic phenomenon is observed not only in vocabulary. In the broad sense of the word, I sometimes call homonyms) different language units (in terms of content, structure, levels of belonging), coinciding in sound (i.e., in terms of expression). Unlike proper lexical (or absolute) homonyms, all other consonances and various kinds of coincidences are sometimes called relative, although here it would be more correct to speak not about homonymy in the broad sense of the word, and not even about relative homonymy, but about the homonymous use of various types of homophones, which, how indicates that "all kinds of unanimities or consonances are included - both in whole constructions, and in conjunctions of words or their parts, in separate segments of speech, in separate morphemes, even in adjacent sound combinations."

Therefore, the broad concept of homophony (Gr. homos- the same phone- voice, sound) covers the consonance of a variety of language units. For example: 1. The coincidence of the pronunciation of words (the so-called homophones proper, or phonetic homonyms): flu. - mushroom, labor - tinder, dog - dock etc. 2. (Coincidence of the word and phrases: mute - not mine. skid- for braids days - with ducks(a kind of homophony). 3. The coincidence of individual forms of words (the so-called om o forms, or grammatical homonyms): saw(noun) - saw(verb in past tense); flying(from fly) - fly(from treat), young man - caring for a young mother etc.

Often homonymy also includes homographs (Greek. homos +graph6- I write), i.e. words that coincide in spelling. but differing in pronunciation, in particular stress. This clearly distinguishes them from both homophones and lexical homonyms. To such words, modern researchers include more than a thousand pairs of words like iris(candies) - iris(type of threads), while considering different types of homographs: lexical - atlas And atlas, lexico-grammatical- village(verb) and village(noun), running(verb) and running(from run)(noun), grammatical- addresses And addresses, houses And Houses", stylistic -- compass(lit.) and compass(maritime), etc.

In modern research, manuals, dictionaries a tendency has been established to use double names of those phenomena that are built on various kinds of coincidences, consonances. For example: homophones - phonetic homonyms, homoforms - grammatical homonyms, homomorphemes - morphological homonyms (or derivational homonyms). Sometimes. the following terms are also used: omosyntagms -: syntactic homonyms, omostylemes. - stylistic homonyms. It seems that, despite the critical attitude of researchers to this kind of double terminology, in particular to terms-collocations such as "syntactic homonymy" and the like, its use does not cause confusion, but, on the contrary, makes it possible to more clearly define one or another linguistic phenomenon. And the point here is not how to name the phenomenon, but what kind of understanding is embedded in the name, what is hidden behind it.

So, proper lexical homonymy (full and partial) “cannot be confused or even brought together” (as he notes) with homophony in the broadest sense of the word, that is, with all consonances and. similarities that occur in speech. Phenomena of purely graphic coincidence, i.e., homography, should be clearly distinguished from lexical homonymy proper and from different types of homophony. The combination of these completely different linguistic phenomena is possible only with their deliberate play on, i.e., homonymous use in speech, which is no longer associated with the actual lexicological problems of homonymy, but with an analysis of its functional and stylistic role.

Homonymy and polysemy in Russian

The distinction between different homonymous words and one word with many meanings, as already noted, causes many difficulties and cannot always be carried out unambiguously.

The difficulty of distinguishing between these phenomena and the complexity of their clear, consistent definition is also indicated by modern lexicographic practice. So, many words that are given as polysemantic in one dictionary are considered in another (or others) as different words, homonymous to each other.

All of the above testifies, first of all, to the complexity of the very problem of distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy, and sometimes to an insufficiently strict and consistent approach to this issue, to an excessive passion for homonymization, which he rightly pointed out: “In the recent past, in our lexicography, there has been a tendency to transform en masse polysemy to homonymy. Let's say Kind in the sense of "good" ("good afternoon") and Kind in opposite evil be regarded not as two meanings of the same word, but as two different words.

What are the ways to distinguish homonymy from polysemy?

One of them is the substitution of synonyms for each homonym or for all meanings of the polysemantic, and then comparing the selected synonyms with each other. If they turn out to be semantically close to each other, we have a polysemantic word, if not - homonyms. For example, let's compare the synonyms matched to the words fight1 - battle and fight2 - servant boy (in foreign hotels, institutions). Words battle And servant they have no similarity in semantics, therefore, fight1 And fight2 - homonyms, i.e. different lexical units.

If, however, to reveal the meaning of the word with synonymous substitutions the battle(in phrases like sea ​​battle(battle), fist fight(fight, duel) bullfight(competition, battle), etc., it is easy to see the semantic proximity of the selected synonyms (battle - fight-competition), which confirms that this case we have different meanings of the same word. This is also reflected in modern dictionaries. Consider the article on the word fight1 in ALS (given with abbreviations):

The battle. 1. A clash of hostile armies, detachments, military units, etc., a battle, a battle. 2. Fight, competition; single combat, duel. 3. Fight, carnage. 4. Economic, commercial, etc. slaughter of animals. 5. Sound, ringing. 6. Breaking, breaking, damage (usually about utensils, glass, stone, etc. pSila. Direction of firearms. 8. Old fire, fire fight - firearms, cannons, etc. 9. Colloquially. , nimble.

("9") The comparison of the word forms of each of them, the selection of related (single-root) words, i.e., the establishment of their derivational connections, helps to delimit a polysemantic word from homonymous ones. If the word forms are the same or similar and there are related words, which are identical in terms of the type of education, and there is a semantic proximity between them, we can talk about polysemy. For example, almost all meanings of the word discussed above the battle have similar word forms (boi, o fight, in fight. pl. the battle etc.) and related entities (combat, fighter, fighter, fighter and etc.). If the word forms are different or (when they coincide) are semantically clearly delimited from each other, and the word-formative connections of words are singled out quite clearly and do not lose their derivational significance in the language, we should talk about homonymy. For example, none of the derivatives above are related to the word fight2 with the meaning "boy-servant", since in Russian it does not have cognate words.

To distinguish between homonymy and polysemy, etymological information about words is useful, i.e., clarifying their origin. So, the etymology of the above words is different: fight1 - with all the meanings goes back to the common Slavic verb beat, but fight2 came from English (boy- boy).

Of great benefit is the comparison of the translation of Russian homonyms into other languages. This noticeably refines the idea of ​​real homonymization.

Of no small importance in the case of distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy is the identification of the thematic reference of a word and the definition of typical models of lexical compatibility (micro context), as well as the semantics of the entire context as a whole (macro context). Establishing the specificity of the compatibility of the words being compared, i.e., the characteristics and syntactic possibilities, makes it possible to identify the semantic difference in the formation of larger (than syntagma) syntactic constructions with these words. This feature can also serve as one of the criteria for distinguishing similar linguistic phenomena.

Thus, in order to reasonably distinguish between homonymy (and polysemy), it is necessary to use as much comparative data as possible, which will make it possible to identify which features prevail: similar over distinctive or vice versa - distinctive over similar. However, the decisive features for the stages of analysis (comparison of synonymous replacements, selection of word forms, establishing derivational relationships, translating into other languages, defining the boundaries of lexical compatibility and comparing the syntactic construction of macrotexts) are still proper semantic ones.It is they, as noted by modern researchers, that should be recognized as the main ones when distinguishing homonymy from polysemy, it is they that should be present in all other distinguishing comparisons.

Functional and stylistic role of homonymy and related phenomena

The functioning of homonyms in speech, as a rule, does not cause any particular difficulties. Their values ​​do not collide with each other. Nevertheless, the combination of the meanings of homonymous words is possible. However, in this case it is due to a certain stylistic goal, and this goal is different in different styles of speech. In poetry, the collision of homonyms serves as a means of creating an image, an expressive speech situation, sharpness, and publicism.

Intentional combination of two incomplete lexical homonyms adventure - incident and adventure - verb action adventure uses D. Granin in the novel "Searchers":

“Here, in the Administration, was the brain of all stations, networks, construction, repair plants - the entire complex gigantic economy of the system. Directors of enterprises came here to agree on connecting a new workshop, a new house. Housewives bustled about their counters. Management farms came with complaints about poor voltage. " The conversation took place at the door with the inscription "Department adventure." Andrey understood the true meaning of these words, but, looking at the sad employee of this department, he smiled, It's a pity that such a fascinating, exciting department really does not exist in the world. adventure!.. And suddenly this funny inscription somehow illuminated in a new way both his arrival at the laboratory and his journey through the Administration building. Amazing events began in his life.

Often there is a collision or even a combination in one text of both homonymous words and words that accidentally coincide in sound (homophones, homoforms, etc.). It is interesting to compare the intentional collision of partial homonyms eat -"to be" and eat -"to take food", in the translation of "Healthy toast" by Robert Burns:

Which eat, what eat - sometimes they can't eat,

And others may eat, yes sit without bread

And we have here eat, what eat, yes at the same time eat, how eat, -

So, we have to thank the sky!

The technique of combining various kinds of consonances is especially often used in poetic puns (fr. calembour- play on words). In them, such a collision also performs different functions. For example, it can be used for educational and explanatory purposes. We find a similar use in many comic poetic puns by Y. Kozlovsky, in particular in a series of poems under the general title "About the words of various - the same, but different." For example:

Alena has a good braid

Alena has a good braid.

And the grass in the meadow is her scythe.

Soon the meadow will pass the spit:

The time for mowing approaches.

("10") March

Snow said: - When I flock,

There will be a river of doves,

It will flow, shaking the flock,

Reflected doves.

In this case, full lexical homonymy is used (braid1 - hair woven together and braid2 - agricultural tool), homophony of words and phrases (by scythe-mowing). Homoformia ( flock from melt - melt And flock - dates pad. noun flock of pigeons comparative adjective blue And pigeons - genus. pad. pl. noun number doves).

Such comparisons illustrate the possibility of creating so-called homonymous situations. However, as already noted, not every time when consonant, words turn out to be correspondingly lexical homonyms. Texts in which homonymous words are used, as a rule, are easily perceived by native speakers of the same language. However, when translating them into another language, difficulties may arise. Yes, in books. “Vremennik of the Pushkin Commission” (1939) we read about how P. Merimee, translating The Queen of Spades, used instead of the word dragged on -"smoking, deeply sucked in tobacco smoke", the phrase pulled the sash i.e. "he dragged on, pulling his sash on himself."

Tomsky lit his pipe, dragged on and continued

At P. Merite

Tomsky lit up tightened the sash and continued.

This inaccuracy was pointed out to Prosper Merimee in 1851 by Lev Pushkin. And later it was removed.

For a more in-depth study of the semasiological essence of homonymous words, it is necessary to know the relevant dictionaries well.

Homonym dictionaries

Homonymy is quite fully represented in modern explanatory dictionaries. However, as already mentioned, not all cases of homonymization of words are given in them equally consistently and clearly, which is explained by the lack of development of many theoretical issues of homonymy and the lack of generally recognized criteria for distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy.

In 1974, the first in Russian lexicographical practice, the Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language, compiled (hereinafter Akhmanova's Dictionary) was published. The dictionary includes over 2000 entries containing pairs (or groups) of homonyms. Each article contains:

1) an indication of one of the three main types of education and its types: derivative homonymy of words with a pronounced morphological structure, primordially different words, dispersed polysemy;

2) grammatical information about words,

3) stylistic characteristics,

4) etymological data;

("11") 5) translation of each of the homonymous words into three languages: English, French, German:

6) examples of the use of homonyms in phrases or sentences.

The dictionary is supplemented by the "Index of homonyms related to different types of homonymy" and two Appendixes. Appendix 1 gives a dictionary of the so-called functional homonymy (such as: Patients entered the room And My brother has bad legs i.e., such words, the homonymization of which occurs when they function in speech. Appendix II contains a dictionary of homographs. Akhmanova's Dictionary contains a large interesting stuff, for the first time a translation of homonymous words into other languages ​​is given, an attempt is made to distinguish . the phenomena of proper homonymy and functional homonymy, etc.

All this makes this dictionary a valuable tool, especially for students of translation faculties.

In 1976, the Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language, compiled (under the editorship of N M. Shansky), was published in Tbilisi. containing four thousand homonyms. The phenomenon of homonymy is understood somewhat broadly and includes all words “with different lexical and / or grammatical meaning, but with the same (identical) spelling and / or pronunciation”, i.e. lexical homonyms, homoforms, homophones and homographs. The dictionary identifies various groups of absolute and relative homonyms, which take into account the homonymy of significant and functional words. All cited words are provided with an interpretation of the meaning, etymological marks, stresses. Examples of their use in the text or phrases are not given. There are also no stylistic marks.

In 1978, the 2nd edition of this dictionary was published, which differs significantly from the previous one. Homoforms of the type are excluded from the dictionary oblique(tv. fall. dry. well. river) and oblique(adj. masculine r.), but many new homonyms have been introduced. Interpretations of the meanings of words are clarified, accents in homographs are affixed, stylistic marks are given. The new edition of the dictionary (as, indeed, the dictionary of 1976) will be very useful to everyone who actively masters and creatively uses the lexical riches of the Russian language.

Definitions of the phenomena of homonymy and homonyms belonging to different linguists

1. a) “Homonymy Spanish homonimia. The sound match of two 1or more different linguistic units. Homonymy is sound. Homonymy is lexical. Homonymy of endings. Homonymy of case forms. Homonymy of phraseological units. Partial homonymy...

b) Homonyms (equivalent words) English homonyms, fr. homo lnymes, German homonyme. Two (or more) different language units that match in sound (i.e., in terms of expression). Russian ink - ink, key (in the castle) - key (spring) "(O. S. Akhmanova. Dictionary of linguistic terms).

2. “Homonyms are words that are the same in sound, but different in meaning.

(...) Homonyms can be of different types (...) Homonyms of the first type are usually called lexical (key And key), homonyms of the second type - morphological (three And three). A special and more complex case is lexico-grammatical homonyms [such as flow And flow]» (. Introduction to the science of language).

3. “A special phenomenon important for the nature of language is homonymy. Homonyms name two or more words that sound the same but have completely different meanings. Homonymy can have different degrees of completeness - starting from the homonymy of only individual forms (Russian, I'm flying 1st l. units h. from “fly” and “treat” (...)) and ending with a coincidence in the entire system of forms: (...) scythe: 1) "agricultural tool"; 2) "hair dressing" (...)" (L. A. Bulakhovsky. Introduction to linguistics. Part 2).

4. “Homonyms are words that differ in meaning, but are the same in sound and spelling.

Homonyms are divided into lexical and lexico-grammatical.

Lexical homonyms are words of different meanings that have the same sound and spelling in all grammatical forms x. For example, the words outfit(clothes) and outfit(order) ...

Lexico-grammatical homonyms include words that do not coincide in sound and spelling in all grammatical forms. Among the lexico-grammatical homonyms, there are those in which the same grammatical forms coincide. For example, nouns shelf(action on the verb to weed) and shelf(horizontal board) match in their sound and spelling all case forms of the singular. There can be no such coincidence in the plural, since an abstract noun shelf forms plural does not have" {, . Modern Russian literary language).

5. “The term "homonymy" should be applied to different words, to different lexical units that coincide in sound structure in all their forms.

(...) If homonyms are different in their semantic structure, and sometimes in morphological composition, but identical in sound structure in all their word forms, then homonyms should be distinguished not only from consonant homophonic or matching speech chains or syntactic segments of a different quality, but also from homophonic morphemes.

However, it goes without saying that transitional and mixed types are possible here. In relation to them, you can. apply the term "partial homonymy"" (. On homonymy and related phenomena).

6. “Words that sound the same, but are in no way related to each other in meaning, are called homonyms, and the very phenomenon of coincidence in one sound of completely different words in meaning is called homonymy.

("12") So, club(organization, premises) and club(smoke) - homonyms, like words simple(simple, ordinary, easy) and simple(inaction, stop at work)" (L. V. Kalinin. Vocabulary of the Russian language).

7. “If you define homonyms (Greek. homonyma from homos- the same and entanglement - name) as words with different lexical and/or grammatical meanings, but with the same (identical) spelling and/or pronunciation, it is objectively possible to distinguish the following types of them.

1) Homonyms having different lexical and grammatical meanings, but identical spelling: excellent (1. Adverb. 2. Short neuter adjective) (...)

2) Homonyms that have different lexical (but the same grammatical) meaning and identical spelling and pronunciation: onion (1. Plant. 2. Weapon) (...)

3) - Homonyms that have different grammatical (but the same lexical) meaning and identical spelling and pronunciation; Georgians (1. Nominative noun ;) singular. 2. The same noun in the genitive plural form) (...)

4) Homonyms that have different lexical and grammatical meanings and the same spelling (with non-identical pronunciation): squirrel (1. Feminine noun in singular nominative form. 2. Masculine noun in the genitive singular) (...)

5) Homonyms that have different lexical, but the same grammatical meaning and the same spelling (with non-identical pronunciation): Organ and organ (...)

6) Homonyms that have different grammatical, but the same lexical meaning, and the same spelling (with non-identical pronunciation): waves and waves (...)

7) Homonyms that have different lexical and grammatical meanings with identical pronunciation (but different spellings): forests and fox (...)

8) Homonyms that have different lexical, but the same grammatical meaning with identical pronunciation (but different spelling): illuminate and consecrate (...)

9) Homonyms that have different lexical, but the same grammatical meaning with identical pronunciation (but different spelling): ninety and ninety (...)

The named types of homonyms form two main groups 1. Absolute homonyms (1-3) and 2. Relative homonyms. consisting of homographs (4-6) and homophones (7-9) (...) (N. P. Kolesnikov. Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language).

8. “(...) Homonyms are different words that have the same sound composition. Within homonymy in a broad sense, one should distinguish between:

1) Homophones, i.e. cases such as pond And rod, words that sound the same in the nominative and accusative cases, but have a different composition of phonemes, which is found in other forms of these words and in derivatives: pond rod (...).

2) Homoforms, i.e. cases when two words have the same pronunciation and composition of phonemes, and only in one form or in separate forms, for example, three- "3" and three! - imperative from verb to rub...

3) Actually homonyms, which, in turn, can fall into significantly different groups:

a) Genuine homonyms, ie. words that sound the same, have the same composition of phonemes and morphological composition (the same affixal morphemes, but different roots) and at the same time in the inflectional forms of an elephant, but have a different origin from two words that did not previously coincide in meaning, for example: ...llama-"hoofed animal" and lama -"Tibetan priest" ... .

b) Those cases when "the same words" are formed from the same roots or stems, independently of each other, that is, in the same part of speech and the same inflection matches, for example: stuffed cabbage - blue paint and stuffed cabbage -"meat-stuffed cabbage dish"...

c) Finally, there may be cases where the same word is borrowed at different times, with different meanings and, obviously, from a source that is not completely identical, for example: from Italian banda- gang - "gathering of bandits" and later, from the jargon of Italian musicians, banda-"brass band playing in the opera on stage" (whose members ... not bandits, but bandits).

d) A special type of homonymy are cases of the so-called conversions[given in footnote: conversion - from Latin conversio- "conversion". - M. F.], when a given word passes into another part of speech without changing its morphological and phonetic composition, for example, evil - a short adjective of the middle gender and evil - an adverb ... " (. Introduction to linguistics).

("13") 9. "Homonyms (from Greek. homos- identical + onima, onoma - name). Words that belong to the same part of speech and sound the same but have different meanings. Marriage(marriage) and marriage(damaged product)...

Homonyms are full (absolute). Homonyms that have the same entire system of forms. Key(for the castle) - key(spring) ...

Homonyms are partial. Homonyms that do not have the same sound in all forms. weasel(animal) - weasel(show of tenderness) (disperse in the form genitive plural: caresses - caresses) ...

Homonyms are simple. Non-derivative words that sound the same. Club(smoke) -club(factory)...

Homonyms are derivatives. Homonyms arising in the process of word formation. force(furniture, furnish) - force(force) (...)" (D. E. Rosenthal And . Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms).

10. "From various lexical meanings of a polysemantic word, it is necessary to clearly delimit the words that are in homonymous relations with each other ...

(...) Homonyms are words that sound the same. but having completely different meanings, not now deriving one from the other, which coincide with each other both in sound and in writing in all (or in a number) of their inherent grammatical forms. Homonyms, therefore, are words of the same grammatical class" (. Lexicology of the modern Russian language).

11. From polysemantic words, i.e. words that in different contexts (in other words, depending on the lexico-semantic positions in which they appear) have different meanings, it is customary to delimit homonymous words. (...)

(...) Homonyms are words that sound the same, are identical in form, but whose meanings are in no way related to each other, that is, they do not contain any common elements of meaning, no common semantic features. Homonyms are separate, independent words, twin words. (...) (D.N. Shmelev. Modern Russian language. Vocabulary).

Literature

Linguistic Dictionary And Modern Russian Language: Arseniev's Lexicology and Lekant's Omnimy Reference Book on Modern Russian Language Kodukhov in Linguistics Petrov Language: Vocabulary, Phonetics. word formation