The influence of the elected council. Elected Rada (term as a governing body). Fall of the Chosen Rada

By the end of the 1540s, under the young ruler Ivan IV, a circle of figures was formed, to whom he entrusted the conduct of affairs in the state. Later, Andrei Kurbsky called the new government “The Chosen Rada.” Its most famous members were Adashev Alexey Fedorovich, confessor Sylvester, Mikhailovich - the head and several other noble princes.

Reforms of the Chosen Rada

The first steps towards reforms were meetings of nobles and governors. In 1549, the February Meeting took place, which became the first Zemsky Sobor. The main political strategy of the Elected Rada was the centralization of the Russian state according to the civilizational model of the West. A change in strategy required a set of reforms. The reforms of the Chosen Rada had an anti-boyar orientation. It relied on landowners, nobles, and townspeople, and therefore expressed exclusively their interests.

The elected council, whose reforms took place in 1549-1560, implemented changes in all spheres of society. The changes affected the administrative, church, legal, financial, tax and other systems.

Reforms of the Elected Rada in the legal and administrative systems

By decision of the Council of Reconciliation in 1549, a new set of laws was being prepared. The revised Code of Laws was established in 1550. The relationship between feudal lords and peasants has not changed; the same norms and laws have been preserved. At the same time, the power of local feeders was somewhat limited, and the process of forming orders was accelerated. Orders are the first functional governing bodies that were in charge of individual areas of government affairs (otherwise they were called chambers, courtyards, etc.). The most famous were the Petition, Streletsky, Posolsky and other orders.

At the same time, local government was centralized. Viceroyal administrations were replaced by an elected administration. These and other innovations strengthened the position of the nobles in society and united the provincial nobility into service towns.

Army reform

In the mid-50s of the 16th century, the “Code of Service” was adopted. A strict order of service was established. All landowners, regardless of the size of their holdings, became service people. The government organized and formed a detachment of archers to guard the king. As a result of military reforms, tens of thousands of soldiers now have weapons, equipment and food.

Church reforms of the Elected Rada

In 1551, Stoglav was adopted, in which one hundred chapter-articles were published on the answers of Ivan the Terrible about the structure of the church. Stoglav strengthened general discipline in the church and regulated life. The Tsar intended to confiscate the land from the church, but these intentions were not approved by the Elected Rada. The Church tried in every possible way to strengthen its authority, which was steadily declining in the eyes of the people.

Reforms of the Elected Council in the financial system

No administrative reforms could be carried out without perestroika tax system. In 1550, a census of the entire population was carried out. Household taxation was replaced by land taxation. In the central territory, a tax unit called the “big plow” was introduced, its value varied depending on the position of the landowners. The payment of taxes by the population became increasingly centralized. The “feeding income” was replaced by a nationwide “feeding tax”.

In general, the reforms of the Chosen Rada under Ivan the Terrible were controversial. They were of a compromise nature. The reforms helped strengthen power and improve the position of the nobility. Their implementation was interrupted due to the resignation of the Elected Rada in 1560.

One of the secrets of Ivan the Terrible

The elected Rada is a concept that refers to the unofficial body of 1547-1560 under Ivan IV, which was the de facto state government. The reason for the emergence of this system was the awareness by the king and aristocrats of the urgent need for reforms in the state. The understanding of this was prompted by popular riots in Moscow in 1547, as a result of which the townspeople did not hesitate to kill

royal relatives. In the same year, a circle of people formed around the monarch - the Elected Rada, the purpose of which was to prepare and carry out reforms to restore order in the state, as well as develop the state apparatus, centralize power and take control of the situation in the country. This body included noble boyars, nobles, who then represented themselves as courtyard royal and boyar servants, clergy, and also, obviously, some government officials: Prince Kurbsky, confessor Sylvester, nobleman Adashev, Metropolitan Macarius, clerk Viskovaty and others. The full composition of this unofficial government is unknown to us. And the name comes from a later work by Andrei Kurbsky on Polish language while fleeing.

The elected Rada and its reforms

Its main actions were the following:

Creation of a legal code that went down in history under the name “Code of Laws of 1550”.

The power of the tsarist administration was strengthened, and court fees were regulated. The same code of law establishes new types of orders: petition, local, robbery, printed and others.

Religious reform: unification of church canons in all Russian lands. Usury is prohibited among priests.

Military reform of 1556, in connection with which new regular troops were created - archers and gunners. A uniform order of service was established.

Local government reform in 1556.

The Chosen Rada and the Oprichnina

The reason for this unofficial fall was disagreements with the tsar over issues of centralization of power. If Ivan the Terrible intended to achieve this goal as quickly as possible, to accelerate the processes of absolutization of the monarchy, then the Elected Rada mainly advocated evolutionary changes regulated by reforms. This issue has become the most global controversy. The growing personal hostility of the government and the tsar also played a role here. Thus, the Elected Rada had disagreements with his first wife Anastasia Yuryeva, after whose quick death the tsar accused members of the government of driving her away from the world. All this prompted the fall of the Rada, the last reforms of which occurred in 1560. Five years after the elimination of this body, during the Livonian War, one of the prominent participants in the former Elected Rada- Andrei Kurbsky - goes over to the side of the Poles. The reason that prompted the defector was the increasing centralization of power in the country and the opinion that the tsar was trampling on the ancient liberties of the boyars. In response, the tsar creates another, more obedient, in contrast to the Elected Rada, and a corps of guardsmen that meets his aspirations. Over the next few years, an unprecedented struggle began in the Moscow state to eliminate the boyar layer. Such actions had both a moral foundation and methods of physical violence.

Around 1549, a government circle formed around Tsar Ivan IV (the Terrible). He went down in history as Elected Rada. It was a kind of (unofficial) government under the leadership of Alexei Fedorovich Adashev. He himself was one of the Kostroma nobles, and had noble relatives in Moscow. The Elected Rada included:: priest of the court Cathedral of the Annunciation Sylvester, Metropolitan of Moscow and All Rus' Macarius, Prince Kurbsky Andrei Mikhailovich, head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz Viskovaty Ivan Mikhailovich and others.

The prerequisite for the creation of an unofficial government was the unrest of 1547, called the Moscow Uprising. Ivan IV at this time was only 17 years old. The cause of the uprising was the aggravation of social contradictions in the 30-40s. At this time, the arbitrariness of the boyars was very clearly manifested in connection with the early childhood of Ivan IV. The Glinsky princes set the tone, since the mother of the crowned boy was Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya.

There was growing dissatisfaction among the broad masses with taxes, which were unbearable. The impetus for the uprising was a fire in Moscow at the end of the second ten days of June. It was huge in size and caused irreparable damage to the well-being of Muscovites. Embittered people, who had lost all their property, took to the streets of the capital on June 21, 1547.

Rumors spread among the rebels that the city was set on fire by the Glinsky princes. Allegedly, their wives cut out the hearts of the dead, dried them, crushed them, and sprinkled the resulting powder on houses and fences. After this, magic spells were cast and the powder burst into flames. So they set fire to Moscow buildings in which ordinary people lived.

The angry crowd tore to pieces all the Glinsky princes who came to hand. Their estates, which survived the fire, were looted and burned. The indignant people began to look for the young tsar, but he left Moscow and took refuge in the village of Vorobyovo ( Sparrow Hills, in years Soviet power were called Lenin's mountains). A huge mass of people went to the village and surrounded it on June 29.

The Emperor came out to the people. He behaved calmly and confidently. After much persuasion and promises, he managed to persuade the people to calm down and disperse. People believed the young king. Their indignant ardor died down. The crowd moved to the ashes in order to somehow begin to organize their life.

Meanwhile, by order of Ivan IV, troops were brought to Moscow. They began to arrest the instigators of the uprising. Many of them were executed. Some managed to escape from the capital. But the Glinskys' power was irrevocably undermined. The situation was aggravated by unrest in other Russian cities. All this made it clear to the king that the existing government system was ineffective. That is why he gathered around himself a progressive thinking people. Life itself and the instinct of self-preservation forced him to do this. Thus, in 1549, the Elected Rada began its work on reforming government system in the Moscow kingdom.

Reforms of the Elected Rada

The unofficial government ruled the state on behalf of the king, so its decisions were equated with the royal will. Already in 1550, military reform began to be carried out. Streltsy troops began to form. This was a guard whose task was to protect the sovereign. By analogy, the Streltsy can be compared to the royal musketeers of France. At first there were only 3 thousand people. Over time, the number of archers increased significantly. And Peter I put an end to such military units in 1698. So they existed for almost 150 years.

Order was restored conscription. In total, there were two categories of service people. The first category included boyars and nobles. As soon as the boy was born, he was immediately registered for military service. And he became suitable for it upon reaching the age of 15 years. That is, all people of noble birth had to serve in the army or some other public service. Otherwise, they were considered “underage”, regardless of age. It was a shameful nickname, so everyone served.

The other category included commoners. These are archers, Cossacks, artisans associated with the manufacture of weapons. Such people were called recruited “by appointment” or by recruiting. But the military of those years had nothing in common with today's military personnel. They did not live in barracks, but were allocated plots of land and private houses. Entire military settlements were formed. In them, the servicemen lived a normal, measured life. They sowed, plowed, harvested, got married and raised children. In case of war, the entire male population was put under arms.

Foreigners also served in the Russian army. These were mercenaries, and their number never exceeded a couple of thousand people.

The entire vertical of power was subjected to serious reform. They established strict control over local government. It was not the population but the state that began to support it. A unified state duty was introduced. Now only the state collected it. A single tax per unit area was established for landowners.

The unofficial government held and judicial reform. In 1550, a new Code of Law was published - a collection of legislative acts. He regulated cash and in-kind fees from peasants and artisans. Tightened penalties for robbery, robbery and other criminal offenses. Introduced several harsh articles on punishment for bribes.

The elected Rada paid great attention to personnel policy. The so-called Yard Notebook was created. It was a list of sovereign people who could be appointed to various high positions: diplomatic, military, administrative. That is, a person fell into a “clip” and could move from one high post to another, bringing benefit to the state everywhere. Subsequently, this style of work was copied by the communists and created the party nomenklatura.

The central state apparatus was significantly improved. Many new orders have appeared (from ministries and departments, if translated into modern language), since the functions of local authorities were transferred to officials of the central apparatus. In addition to national orders, regional ones also emerged. That is, they oversaw certain territories and were responsible for them.

At the head of the order was the clerk. He was appointed not from among the boyars, but from literate and unborn service people. This was done specifically in order to contrast the state apparatus with the boyar power and its influence. That is, the orders served the king, and not the noble nobility, who had their own interests, sometimes at odds with the state ones.

In foreign policy, the Elected Rada was oriented primarily to the east. The Astrakhan and Kazan khanates were annexed to the Moscow kingdom. In the west, the Baltic states fell into the zone of state interests. On January 17, 1558, the Livonian War began. Some members of the unofficial government opposed it. The war dragged on for 25 long years and caused a severe economic crisis (1570-1580), called Porukha.

In 1560, the unofficial government ordered long life. The reason was disagreements between Ivan the Terrible and the reformers. They accumulated for a long time, and their source lay in the exorbitant lust for power and ambitions of the Moscow Tsar. The autocrat began to feel burdened by the presence next to him of people who had independent and independent views.

While the tsarist power was weak, Ivan the Terrible tolerated the reformers and obeyed them in everything. But, thanks to competent transformations, the central apparatus has become very strong. The Tsar rose above the boyars and became a true autocrat. Adashev and the rest of the reformers began to interfere with him.

The reforms of the Elected Rada did their job - it was no longer needed. The king began to look for a reason to alienate his former friends and devoted assistants. The relationship between Sylvester and Adashev with the closest relatives of the tsar’s first and beloved wife, Anastasia Zakharova-Yuryeva, was tense. When the queen died, Ivan IV accused his former favorites of neglecting the “youth.”

Foreign policy disagreements, aggravated by the Livonian War, added fuel to the fire. But the most serious were internal political conflicts. The Elected Rada carried out very deep reforms, lasting for decades. The king needed immediate results. But the state apparatus was still poorly developed and did not know how to work quickly and efficiently.

At this stage historical development All the shortcomings and shortcomings of the central government could only be “corrected” by terror. The Tsar followed this path, and the reforms of the Elected Rada began to seem backward and ineffective to him.

In 1560 he was exiled to Solovetsky Monastery Sylvester. Adashev and his brother Danila went by royal decree as governors to Livonia. They were soon arrested. Adashev died in prison, and Danila was executed. In 1564 he fled to the Grand Duchy Lithuanian prince Kurbsky, who led the troops in Livonia. He was on friendly terms with Adashev and understood that disgrace and execution awaited him.

The fall of the Chosen Rada marked the beginning of one of the most terrible periods of Russian history - oprichnina. The events of the first half of the 60s became its background.

The formation of a select circle of people around the tsar occurred after the Moscow events of the summer of 1547: the fire and the subsequent Moscow uprising. According to Kurbsky’s version, during these events Archpriest Sylvester came to the king and “he threatened the king with a terrible curse from the Holy Scriptures,<…>to<…>stop his riots and moderate his violent temper.” .

Compound

The composition of the “Elected Rada” is the subject of debate. Definitely, the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin, the confessor of the Tsar Sylvester and a young figure from a not very noble family, Alexey Adashev, participated in the “Rada”.

On the other hand, some historians deny the existence of the Elected Rada as an institution led exclusively by the above-mentioned persons.

Reforms of the Chosen One:

1549 The First Zemsky Sobor is a body of class representation that ensures the connection between the center and the localities; Ivan IV's speech from the front: condemnation of the wrong boyar rule, announcement of the need for reforms.
Code of Law of 1550 - development of the provisions of Code of Law of Ivan III, limitation of the power of governors and volostels, strengthening of control of the tsarist administration, uniform amount of court fees, preservation of the right of peasants to cross on St. George’s Day.
Formation of the order system (reforms of central government): The Code of Law of 1550 establishes a system of order management, the basic framework of which remained until the end of the 17th century. Orders are established to provide basic state needs: Petition, Posolsky, Local, Streletsky, Pushkarsky, Bronny, Robbery, Pechatny, Sokolnichiy, Zemsky orders, as well as quarters: Galitskaya, Ustyug, Novaya, Kazan order.
The Council of the Hundred Heads in 1551 - the unification of church rituals, the recognition of all locally revered saints as all-Russian, the establishment of a rigid iconographic canon, requirements for improving the morals of the clergy, and the prohibition of usury among priests.
Military reform of 1556 - the Code of Service was adopted: restriction of localism for the period of hostilities, in addition to the mounted local militia, organization of a standing army - archers, gunners, a unified order of military service.
In 1556, a reform of local government was carried out - the feeding system was abolished. The place of feeders was taken by the bodies of zemstvo self-government - heads and kissers. Granting rights to the provincial nobility.

The reforms of the Elected Rada outlined the path to strengthening and centralization of the state and contributed to the formation of an estate-representative state.

Fall of the Chosen Rada

The reason for the royal disfavor by some historians [ Who?] is seen in the fact that Ivan IV was dissatisfied with the disagreements of some members of the Rada with the late Anastasia Zakharyina-Yuryeva, the Tsar’s first wife. This is also confirmed by the fact that after the death of his second wife, Maria Temryukovna, Ivan the Terrible also carried out executions of those disliked by the queen and accused the boyars of “harassing” (poisoning) Maria.

In 1553, Ivan the Terrible fell ill. The illness was so severe that the question of transfer of power arose in the Boyar Duma. Ivan forced the boyars to swear allegiance to their infant son, Tsarevich Dmitry. But among the members of the Rada, the idea arose to transfer the Moscow throne to the Tsar’s cousin, Vladimir, Prince Staritsky. In particular, Sylvester noted that Vladimir’s quality is that he loves advisers. However, Ivan recovered from his illness, and the conflict, at first glance, was settled. But the king did not forget this story and subsequently used it against Sylvester and Adashev.

The main contradiction was the radical difference in the views of the Tsar and the Rada on the issue of centralization of power in the state. Ivan IV wanted to speed up this process. The elected Rada chose the path of gradual and painless reform. [ officials, but the best election of new ones..."

For Kostomarov, the influence of the “circle of favorites” is such that “without consulting with the people of this elected council, Ivan not only did not arrange anything, but did not even dare to think”, in this influence the historian sees a “bitter humiliation” for the autocracy of Ivan IV.

Historian A.I. Filyushkin questions the very existence of the Elected Rada as an informal government under Ivan the Terrible.

INTRODUCTION

Major milestone political development was the uprising in Moscow, which occurred shortly after the coronation of Ivan the Terrible.

Contemporaries considered the cause of the unrest in Moscow, first of all, to be abuses by the authorities, which caused discontent among the people. Considering the uprising of 1547 as a phenomenon of class struggle, researchers expressed the opinion that the mass of the townspeople, the townspeople, and serfs took part in it. As for the nobility, from among them “impoverished boyar children”, that is, declassed elements, could participate in the movement.

The question of the government of the 50s of the 16th century and the nature of its policies are traditionally associated with the question of the “elected Rada”. Controversy on the question of what the “elected Rada” was, the interests of which classes it expressed, what relation its policy had to the reforms of the 50s, etc. , began the very next day after the events that were attributed to the activities of the “elected Rada” - in correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Kurbsky. There are 2 main points of view on the “elected Rada”. The first of them originates from Ivan the Terrible himself, who in his letters to Kurbsky described Sylvester and Adashev as consistent conductors of the boyar-princely policy, and the time of the reign of Sylvester and Adashev as the greatest flowering of the power of the boyars and princes. The power seized by Sylvester rested on the support of the boyar class and on the deception of the tsar. The boyars nominated Sylvester, knowing his conceit, and through this trait of his character they carried out their affairs, destroying everything that was created by the grandfather and father of Ivan the Terrible. During the reign of the “elected Rada,” it was possible to introduce the order of the times of Vasily the Dark.

However, there is another point of view on this issue, put forward by I.N. Zhdanov. He pays great attention to the activities of Sylvester and Adashev and speaks out against the traditional view of the “elected Rada”. In his opinion, the main task of the “elected Rada” is the organization of “Stratilate ranks,” as Kurbsky put it, i.e. organization of the service class. The “Chosen Rada” played a prominent role, fighting for the transition of princely and patrimonial Rus' into royal and local Rus'.

I.N. For the first time in historiography, Zhdanov brought the issue of the “elected Rada” to the level of studying the reforms of the 50s. Now the question of the “elected Rada” could not be resolved by choosing between two opposing assessments of Sylvester and Adashev - Ivan the Terrible and Kurbsky. The nature of the assessment of the activities of the “elected Rada” was determined, firstly, by the nature of the assessment of the reforms of the 50s, and secondly, the nature of the assessment of the attitude towards these reforms on the part of the “elected Rada”.

Elected Rada

"The Chosen Rada"- a term introduced by Prince A.M. Kurbsky to designate the circle of people who made up the informal government under Ivan the Terrible in 1549 - 1560.

The creation of the Elected Rada was a reflection of the mood in society. During the boyar rule, during the years of intrigue, rampant corruption and devastation, ideas about strong royal power became popular among the people. Further development of the country required the strengthening of statehood, centralization of power, as well as progressive reforms. The nobility expressed particular interest in reforms.

Ivan Semenovich Peresvetov can be considered the ideologist of the noble movement. He was a talented publicist of his time. He wrote petitions to the Tsar, outlining his program of reforms. Peresvetov condemned boyar self-government, and considered strong royal power based on the nobility to be the ideal of government. In 1549, a new government was formed from those close to Tsar Ivan IV. This government was called the Elected Rada.

As mentioned above, in the years 1545-1547 several events were carried out designed to emphasize the transfer of full power to the young sovereign. Ivan Vasilyevich began to go on military campaigns, married Anastasia Romanovna Zakharyina, and took the title of “tsar.”

The young tsar’s insufficient ability to govern the state and the need to carry out many reforms led to the creation of a kind of government group of compromise between various layers of the ruling class, later named by Prince Andrei Kurbsky in the Lithuanian manner “The Elected Rada”.

The role is most bright figures it was composed of people who did not shine with nobility and were not closely related either to the royal house or to any of the powerful aristocratic clans. Consequently, no one was afraid that they would seize power.

So, the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin, Sylvester, and the royal bed-keeper Alexey Fedorovich Adashev came to the political forefront of the times of the “Elected Rada”. Besides them in " Elected Rada“Prince Kurlyatev, Prince Andrei Mikhailovich Kurbsky, clerk Ivan Mikhailovich Viskovaty and some other representatives of the aristocracy entered (the opinions of scientists differ on the question of the goals of this circle and the people who were part of it).

Platonov claims that this was a company of boyars who united with the goal of mastering Moscow politics and ruling it in their own way, that is, the “Elected Rada” expressed the interests of the people included in it: “... A private circle created by temporary workers for their purposes, and appointed they are near the king not in the form of an institution, but as a meeting of “well-wishing” friends.” Another group of scientists, in particular Zimin and Smirnov, believes that this group of boyars expressed the interests of the nobility and far-sighted circles of the boyars: “The elected Rada...was the conductor of noble interests.”

The “Elected Rada” was destined to exist for just a decade. But during this short period, the state and social structure of Russia underwent such strong changes that had not occurred during centuries of quiet development. The “Elected Rada” arose no earlier than 1549, and in 1560 it no longer existed. Based on this, the “Elected Rada” was pro-noble in nature. This association could not express its own interests, since the changes carried out in the state in the 1550s were too significant to be a by-product of activities aimed at their own prosperity.

The “Elected Rada” has developed a reform project. At the same time, publicist Ivan Semenovich Peresvetov submitted his petitions to the Tsar. He advised looking for support in the nobility at the expense of the boyars. The reform program was based on Peresvetov’s petitions.

The starting point in carrying out reforms was the speech of Ivan IV on February 27, 1549 at a meeting Boyar Duma, which represented the main directions of state policy: a sharply negative assessment of boyar rule was given; the issue of boyar children and their interests, who suffered from “forces”, “grievances”, “sales”, was considered; boyars when deciding cases of lands and slaves and other “many matters”, and the boyars were considered a source of “strength”, “grievances” and “sales”. Consequently, the reforms of the 50s were pro-noble.

As a result, Ivan IV's speech gave impetus to a broad program of government reforms.

Around 1549, a new group called the Chosen Rada came to power. One of the prominent figures who headed the Chosen Rada was priest Selivester, who served in the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The author of the famous "Domostroi" Ivan Selivester addressed teachings to the tsar, accusing the young monarch of "riotousness" and "childish frantic morals." Another figure of the Chosen Rada was Alexey Fedorovich Adashev from a not very noble family, but “good”; he undoubtedly had intelligence and talent, was stern and domineering, distinguished by religiosity and asceticism. Perhaps the circle was unofficial and did not have a firm name. It included princes Kurbsky and Kurlyatev.

During this period there was intense reform activity. The first orders began to be created, bodies that governed individual sectors of state life; at that time they were called “izbas”.

One of the first - Ambassadorial order, which was headed by clerk Ivan Mikhailovich Viskovichi - led foreign policy for about 20 years.

Adashev was in charge of the Petition Hut. This institution was supposed to accept petitions addressed to the king and conduct investigations into them. It was the highest control body. The local order was in charge of the distribution of estates among service people. The discharge order was a kind of headquarters of the armed forces. The robber order was engaged in the fight against “robberies” and “dashing people”. The Zemstvo Prikaz ruled Moscow and was responsible for order in it. In 1550, a code of laws, the Code of Laws, was created, systematized and edited, and for the first time penalties for bribe-takers were introduced. The church of a single state also needed more severe centralization. There was a need to unify rituals that remained different in different lands. Since, in addition to the all-Russian and Moscow saints, each locality also had its own: Yaroslavl, Novgorod, Metropolitan Macarius created an all-Russian pantheon covering everyone.

In 1551, a church council was convened, which went down in history as the Hundred-Glavy Council; its decisions were summarized in 100 chapters. In addition to the above, the goal was also to improve the morals of the clergy and raise their authority.

The tsar himself played an active role in this council; the decisions of the council were even entitled “royal questions and conciliar answers about the many different church ranks.” Very serious reforms concerned the organization of the feudal class. One of them was the limitation of localism - i.e. dispute between feudal lords regarding their place in the hierarchy of official positions.

Bowing more and more to the significance of a single ruler and autocrat, the members of the squad, now taking the name of service people, jealously guarded their family honor during official clashes with each other, the number of parochial cases increased significantly.

Historically, it turned out that during the strengthening of the Moscow principality, the squad of the princes of Moscow was replenished with newcomers, the service was new, and the official relations of the ancestors were in the memory of everyone, without giving rise to a dispute about the appointment to the place. But the older the service became, the larger number Generations passed in this service, the more numerous the sovereign's court, the more confusing the relations between service people became, and the more frequent were parochial "cases" - disputes over appointment to a position. Service people tenaciously clung to their parochial position, since the parochial account was based on precedents - “cases” and, by accepting an “inappropriate” appointment, a service person caused damage to his descendants and other relatives.

The Tsar received petitions “in the fatherland about the bill.” The king used localism to elevate those who were "in time", i.e. close and humiliate those who were in disgrace. However, localism created great inconvenience during hostilities, when there was no time to dismantle family advantages and caused damage to the sovereign's expanding service of officials. Therefore, in 1550, a service order was introduced - a decree on where to serve the boyars and governors by regiment. It followed from it that, firstly, the number of cases in which governors of different regiments could intercede was limited, and secondly, the right of young servicemen of noble origin to intercede with governors of less noble origin was destroyed before they themselves became governors. The subordinate service had no influence and was not considered a precedent. That. localism was limited to either refusing the applicant any position at all, or indicating that this appointment was not a precedent. The “verdict” preserved localism, but weakened its negative consequences in practice. In 1555-1556, the “Code of Service” was adopted, which introduced the exact procedure for the service of feudal lords. A standard was established for how much land - an estate or fiefdom - one warrior on horseback should leave.

According to this reform, local power passed into the hands of elected representatives from the local population. The charters, which gave the volosts the right to be governed by their electives, were called “tenders,” the volost paid off the governors and volosts with a certain amount. The government gave her the right to pay off as a result of her request, but if she did not strike, and considered the new order unprofitable for herself, then she remained with the old one.

The Elected Rada apparently did not have a carefully developed program of action; ideas were born to the rulers during the very process of transformation.

Not everything the Elected Rada managed to accomplish. The question of the degree of personal participation of Ivan IV in government activities of the 50s remains open, because in official documents it is impossible to separate what was done by Ivan himself from the results of the activities of advisers. And, although, having parted ways with the Elected Rada, Ivan IV accused it of usurping power and refused to implement some of the reforms, the main thing was that he called for the rule of such politicians as Adashev and Selivester and apparently submitted to their influence. Perhaps it is no coincidence that from these years of the life of the formidable king there is no news of outbursts of anger, executions, etc.

In 1560, the government circle of Selivester and Adashev was removed from power, and its leaders themselves fell into disgrace. Disagreements and mutual displeasure led to a logical conclusion. Significant attention was given to an incident that occurred back in 1553, when a seriously ill young king raised the question of an heir. The Tsar wanted the boyars to swear allegiance to their then only son, who was only about five months old, as the heir. Disagreements began among those close to him; it was proposed that the Staritsa Prince Vladimir Andreevich become the heir, and among those who supported this candidacy were some Rada figures.

After some time, the incident was settled: everyone swore allegiance to the baby, including Prince Vladimir Andreevich himself, the Tsar recovered, and the Tsarevich himself did not live to see a year. But the sediment remained, and 12 years later Ivan the Terrible wrote to Kurbsky that “Selivester and Adashev, having forgotten the royal benefits, wanted to destroy our baby by making Prince Volodimer king.” When the government of the Elected Rada fell, Selivester was tonsured as a monk and sent first to the Kirillo-Belozersky and then to the Solovetsky Monastery. Alexey Adashev and his brother Danilo were sent to serve in Livonia, where the war was going on. After some time, Alexei was no longer alive, and Danilo was imprisoned and executed two years later. It was believed that the differences between Ivan and the Elected Rada lay in the area foreign policy. Tsar Ivan accused Selivester and Adashev of opposing Livonian War and in "supraword". Adashev and Selivester, smart and gifted politicians, could, after the outbreak of the conflict with Livonia, when it became clear that the Grand Duchy of Livonia and Poland would be Russia’s opponents in this war, become convinced of the futility and advise the tsar to find ways to get out of the difficult situation with honor. A sense of reality did not allow the former eastern direction of foreign policy to be pursued in the south. Selivester and Adashev knew what was behind them Crimean Khanate stood mighty Ottoman Empire. Only defense, no offensive actions against Crimea - this option was the only possible one. It is not without reason that in his messages to Kurbsky, Tsar Ivan did not dare to repeat the lie that Adashev had quarreled Russia with the Crimean Khan.

Ivan the Terrible connects his break with his advisers with the death of his first wife, Tsarina Anastasia, directly accusing yesterday's temporary workers of murder. The relatives of Anastasia - Zakharyina were in bad relations with the leaders of the Elected Rada. The court quarrels between the Zakharyins and the temporary workers after the death of the queen acquired an ominous shade in the eyes of the tsar; he was especially willing to recall the guilt of others. However, the discord over Anastasia was only the last straw in the discord between the king and his advisers. It was the cooling of relations that made Ivan IV believe the absurd accusations. The psychological conflict lay in the fact that Adashev and Selivester and their associates were very powerful people with a strong will. But Tsar Ivan was also extremely power-hungry. As a person easily susceptible to impressions, Tsar Ivan could for some time tolerate submission to someone else’s will: I am autocratic, I can even allow myself to listen to the advice of my subjects. But just as easily he became attached to people, he just as easily dealt with his former favorites. Adashev and Sylvester must have overestimated their influence on the tsar and did not notice the moment from which the tsar began to obey them with increasing reluctance. And then the king’s affection for his advisers turned into burning hatred.

But this psychological conflict was a consequence of another conflict - between different ideas about methods of centralizing the country. The structural reforms carried out by the government of the Elected Rada, like all structural reforms, proceeded slowly, and their fruits did not ripen immediately. To an impatient man, like Tsar Ivan, it seemed that there were no results, that nothing had been done.

The accelerated path of centralization in the conditions Russia XVI century was possible only through the use of terror. And, first of all, because the apparatus of state power has not yet been formed. During the reign of the Elected Rada, the court of local feeders was replaced by management through elected officials from the local population, but provincial and zemstvo elders performing their administrative duties, actually on a voluntary basis, are not yet an apparatus of power. Central government was weak, did not have its own agents in the field.

Cruelty and terror are an indicator of the weakness of power, its inability to achieve its goals through conventional means. Instead of the long and complex work of creating a state apparatus, Tsar Ivan tried to resort to the most “simple” method: “if they don’t do it, order it,” “if they don’t obey, execute it.” But this path of terror was unacceptable for the leaders of the Elected Rada. And, although the severity and cruelty of punishments fit into the system of values of the century: people were hanged even on suspicion of robbery, confessions were extracted through torture, officially legalized, life imprisonment was considered the only type of imprisonment, unquestioning obedience was required from serving people, this was not an atmosphere of mass terror , general fear, mass denunciation.

This is where Sylvester and Adashev resist one or another of the tsar’s initiatives and persist in carrying out their own plans. The conflict was resolved by the fall of the Elected Rada.

Why is an elected council needed?

Reforms of the elected council

Ivan the Terrible can safely be called a reformer tsar. During his reign, the following were carried out: church reform (Stoglavy Cathedral), military reform (strengthening the armed forces), legal reform (Code Code of 1550), administrative reform(streamlining of orders), local government reform (limitation of localism, transfer of functions from feeders to elected officials), monetary reform (creation of a unified monetary system in the country). The meaning of all transformations is the strengthening of autocratic power.

In 1547 there was an unusually dry summer. Fires have become more frequent in Moscow. The largest of them destroyed most of the wooden city. Several thousand residents died in the fire, tens of thousands were left homeless and foodless. Rumors arose that the fires were caused by arson and witchcraft. The authorities took the most savage measures against the “lighters”: they were tortured and during torture they talked about themselves, after which they were executed. On the second day after the “great fire,” a boyar commission was formed to punish those responsible for the disaster. On June 26, the boyars gathered people in front of the Assumption Cathedral and found out who was setting Moscow on fire. The mob accused Anna Glinskaya of arson. The people came out of obedience and carried out reprisals against boyar Yu.V. Glinsky. On June 29, the mob moved to Vorobyovo, demanding that the Tsar’s grandmother Anna Glinskaya be handed over for execution. But the uprising was dispersed and its instigators were punished.

Frightened by the riot in the capital and the murder of one of the family members, the Glinskys tried to flee to Lithuania. Boyar Prince P.I. was sent in pursuit of them. Shuisky. At the last moment M.V. Glinsky eluded his pursuers and turned himself in to Moscow. As a result, he was arrested and forever lost the highest title of equestrian. What political consequences did the fall of the Glinskys have? The period of boyar rule came to an end.

The main consequence of the uprising was that the Tsar’s maternal relatives, the Glinskys, were forced to give up their place at the court to the Tsarina’s relatives, the boyars Zakharyins, who occupied high position at the court of Ivan III and Vasily III. But they lost it after the death of guardian M.Yu. Zakharyin. The Tsar's marriage to Anastasia returned the Zakharyins to their former influence under the Tsar.

In 1547-1550, unrest occurred in other cities. The situation of its people worsened further due to the poor harvest of 1548-1549.

Popular protests showed that the country needs reforms. Further development of the country required the strengthening of statehood and centralization of power.

Moscow completed the unification of Russian lands at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries. It turned out to be impossible to manage a vast state with the help of archaic institutions and institutions that developed in small principalities during the period of fragmentation. The All-Russian Code of Law of 1497 is hopelessly outdated. The source of constant discontent among the boyar children was the boyar court, famous for its abuses. Only with the help of noble detachments could popular unrest be stopped. These facts also tell us about the need for Russian reforms.

Thus, it is clear that in the middle of the 16th century Russia needed to strengthen statehood and centralize power. The need for reforms in governing the country was obvious.

The elected council lasted until 1560. She carried out transformations that were called reforms of the mid-16th century.

Reforms of the Chosen One: