Altruism and morality as the essential values of a person in the work of a practicing psychologist. Altruism: A Socio-Psychological Analysis Causes of Altruism
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Altruism
Altruism is a moral principle that prescribes selfless actions aimed at the benefit (satisfaction) of other people. The good of another is more significant for the altruist than his own "I". The term itself was introduced by the French philosopher O. Comte (1798-1857) as opposed to the concept of "egoism". Egoism is a more primary, almost natural principle, characteristic of all people, while altruism appears gradually, in the course of the social evolution of mankind.
Geneticist and philosopher V.P. Efroimson believed that in the hereditary nature of a person there is something that eternally attracts him to justice, to exploits, to selflessness.
Man has enormous, albeit contradictory, potentialities for doing good, which are inherent in his very hereditary nature by the influence of special biological factors that played an essential role in the mechanisms of natural selection in the process of evolution of our ancestors. And those who believe that only egoism is inherent in man are wrong.
Otherwise, one would have to conclude that all ethical principles in a person are generated only by upbringing, religion, faith, conviction that they are features that are each time acquired anew under the influence of the environment in the course of individual development, that is, non-hereditary. But outbreaks of mass violence- not only the result of bad upbringing and cultivation, but it is also a return to animal instincts, to primitive animal instincts, suppressed from century to century, but precisely natural properties.
Herds and hordes of subhumans and clans, tribes of the first people could for some time do without any collectivist and altruistic instincts. They could win and procreate, but they were doomed to perish, they were the dead ends of evolution, its withering branches. Only cubs of flocks, hordes, clans, tribes with sufficiently developed instincts and emotions, aimed not only at personal protection, but also at instinctive, semi-conscious or conscious protection of offspring, protection of the collective as a whole, had a chance to survive. Under prehistoric and even historical conditions, individuals who lacked these instincts and communities in which they were rare were continuously eliminated by natural selection at the expense of the small number of surviving cubs.
The complex of ethical emotions and instincts picked up by natural selection under the conditions of that specific existence turns out to be unusually wide and complex. Many unnatural, from the point of view of vulgar social Darwinism, types of behavior turned out to be in fact completely natural and hereditarily fixed. Therefore, the human desire to perform noble, selfless deeds is not a simple pose (in front of oneself or others), is not generated only by the calculation of compensation by heaven in heaven, ranks, money and other blessings on earth, is not only a consequence of education. Altruism is not just a religious ideal, it is an indispensable need of humanity as a whole.
V.P. Efroimson could not prove the existence of an innate predisposition to altruism, relying on facts, but he is absolutely right that without altruistic motives for the behavior of at least a small part of people, humanity as a whole could not have survived.
Altruism, expressed primarily as pity, compassion for another person, is a feeling mysterious and mysterious in nature. How is it possible, asked A. Schopenhauer, that it is not my suffering that becomes a motive for me and induces me to action? How is it possible that at the sight of someone else's suffering, I myself suffer? This phenomenon, Schopenhauer believed, is the great mystery of ethics.
Vl. Solovyov, commenting on these statements of Schopenhauer, did not see anything mysterious in the manifestation of compassion. In his opinion, there is a natural, organic connection of all beings as parts of one whole. This is the data of experience, and not just a speculative idea, and therefore the psychological expression of this connection - the inner participation of one being in the suffering of others, compassion or pity - is something understandable from an empirical point of view - as an expression of a natural and obvious solidarity everything that exists. “This participation of beings in each other corresponds to the manifest meaning of the universe, is completely in accordance with reason or is completely rational. Meaningless or irrational, on the contrary, is the mutual alienation of beings, their subjective separateness, which contradicts objective inseparability. This fact of internal egoism, and by no means mutual participation between the parts of a single nature, is really something mysterious and enigmatic in the highest degree, something that the mind cannot give a direct account of, and the foundations of this phenomenon cannot be found by experience.
Solovyov formulated two rules of altruism - negative and positive: do not do anything to another that you do not want from others; do to others all that you yourself would like from others. In short and simpler, these two rules, usually combined together, are expressed as follows: do not offend anyone and help everyone as much as you can. The first, negative, rule is called the rule justice, second - mercy. True, Soloviev believed, such a distinction is not entirely accurate. Indeed, the basis of the second rule is also justice: if I want others to help me in need, then it is fair that I help them. On the other hand, if I don’t want to offend anyone, it’s because I recognize in others the same living and suffering beings as myself, but in this case, of course, I will try, as far as possible, to rid these beings of suffering. I do not offend them because I pity them, but if I pity them, then I will help them. Mercy presupposes justice, and justice requires mercy, these are just different sides, different ways of manifesting one and the same principle.
Between these two sides or degrees of altruism there is a real difference, but there is not and cannot be a contradiction, Solovyov believed. Not helping others means offending them, a consistently just person will certainly fulfill the duties of mercy, and a truly merciful person cannot be unjust at the same time.
General rule altruism: do with others as you want them to do with you - does not at all imply material or qualitative equality of all subjects. Such equality, according to Solovyov, does not exist in nature, and it would be senseless to demand it. It is not about equality, but only about the equal right to the existence and development of their positive forces. The wild Papuan has the same right to exist and improve in his field as Francis of Assisi or Goethe had. We must respect this right equally in all cases - the murder of a savage is the same sin as the murder of a genius or a saint, but it does not follow from this that they were equal in all respects, and that we should treat them equally outside the limits of this universal rights. The logical requirements of altruism are all-encompassing, the mind knows no predilections and partitions, and in this it coincides with the feeling on which altruism is psychologically based. Pity, as we have seen, is also universal and impartial, and in it a person reaches “likeness to God”, because he embraces with the same participation all without distinction: both good people, and “enemies of truth”, and people, and demons, and even “nature reptiles."
| Table of contents |
|---|
| Basic moral concepts. Professional and applied ethics. |
| DIDACTIC PLAN |
| BASIC LIFE POSITIONS AND MORAL PRINCIPLES |
| Asceticism |
| selfishness |
| Altruism |
| Amoralism |
| Immoralism |
| Utilitarianism |
| Pragmatism |
| Nihilism |
| asceticism |
| Dedication |
a system of orientation of the value personality, in which the central motive and criterion of moral evaluation are the interests of another person or a social community. The term was introduced by the French philosopher O. Comte as opposed to the concept of egoism. The central idea of altruism is the idea of selflessness as a non-pragmatically oriented activity performed in the interests of other people and not involving real reward. Altruism can become a conscious value orientation that determines the behavior of the individual as a whole; then it becomes the meaning of a person's life. The absolutization of altruism is just as erroneous as its underestimation. The real significance of an individual's altruistic behavior is determined by the nature of the values underlying relationships with other people. Altruism can act as a socio-psychological manifestation of humanity, as well as in everyday communication and activities of people (-> collective identification). The mechanism for the manifestation of altruism may be a situational altruistic attitude, actualized in specific dangerous situations (for example, saving a child at the cost of own life). In the concept of Z. Freud, the manifestations of altruism are considered as a neurotic need of the subject to weaken the feeling of guilt, or as compensation for the primitive egoism subjected to repression.
ALTRUISM
from lat. alter - another).
1. The rule of moral activity, recognizing the duty of a person to put the interests of other people and the common good above personal interests; attitude, expressed in the willingness to make sacrifices for the benefit of neighbors and the common good. The term "A." introduced fr. philosopher Auguste Comte. Against, the term is "selfishness". A. is also called the behavior of a person (group), based on the specified rule. Altruistic behavior is manifested in voluntary assistance to another person, despite the risk or sacrifice with which this assistance is associated.
AT psychological research by means of a survey, it was established that the "feeling" of happiness (satisfaction with oneself and one's life) positively correlates with a propensity for altruistic actions. B. Rimland called this dependence "A paradox".
1. In recent decades, the term "A." began to be used in ztologsh and sociobiology in relation to animals, however, significant adjustments have been made to the very concept of A.. Richard Dawkins in his book "The Selfish Gene" considers that the main feature of altruistic behavior is that it increases the well-being of another being to the detriment of one's own well-being, while selfish behavior leads to the opposite result. Dawkins insists on an objectivist understanding of A.: “It is important to understand that the above definitions of A. and selfishness are not subjective, but relate to behavior. I am not interested in the psychology of motives. altruistic acts, do so in the name of secret or subconscious selfish ends.(...) My definition concerns only whether the outcome of a given action increases or decreases the prospective altruist's survival chances and the prospective beneficiary's chances of survival" (Dawkins, 1993). In strict accordance with this understanding, real altruists can. machines and domestic animals that serve human well-being are recognized. Under natural conditions, many animal species exhibit altruistic behavior. In particular, it has been observed in ravens, dolphins and monkeys. (B. M.)
Altruism
altruism) In the special language of evolutionary biologists, altruistic behavior is such a behavior of one organism that reduces the chances of survival of itself or its offspring in favor of other individuals of the same species. The normative interpretation of such behavior is that it is beneficial to the gene pool of the population protected by the adaptive behavior, but not to the individual. Therefore, altruistic behavior occurs more often, the higher the total heredity; close relatives show more altruism than distant ones, and families are more altruistic than non-family groups, and so on. A. is consistent with the theory of group selection, which states that evolution occurs at the group level, and not at the individual level; groups, to which altruistic behavior is inherent, in fact, should have a better chance of survival. The term itself - A. - was invented by Auguste Comte to explain the integration of social. elements; A. in his understanding means selfless concern for the welfare of others and is not necessarily accompanied by damage to the altruist himself. A., like imitation, suggestion (suggestion) and sympathy, was used at the initial stage of the formation of sociol. as the main social explanations. behavior. Like all these terms, the term A. fell into disuse after the abandonment of single explanation about-va; however, ousted from sociology, this word eventually entered our everyday language. A. became a separate topic of experiments. social psychology and is studied under the general heading of social behavior. Researchers' interest in this topic has increased markedly after the appearance of numerous publications on antisocial behavior, in particular aggression. The reduction of aggression was seen as an important task along with the expansion of prosocial behavior. Especially a lot of effort has been spent on studying two types of human action: helping behavior and the intervention of bystanders. In each of these areas, research the conditions for the manifestation of such behavior must be precisely determined: we know that people help others and intervene in emergency events in some situations and do not do this in others, so the question of finding a universal does not arise here. In this light, altruistic behavior can be viewed as exchange behavior, as a function of relationships - that is, as dependent on the degree of kinship, familiarity with the situation and the presence of other persons capable of resp. behavior. See also Need for Affiliation, Alienation, Love K. W. Beck
Altruism (biological)
Literally, any action by one organism that increases the chances of survival of another organism while decreasing its own chances. Females shielding their offspring from predators and vampire bats sharing food with hungry members of their own species are examples of altruistic behavior in animals. The fact that some animals may sacrifice themselves or otherwise endanger themselves is a clear threat to Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. According to this theory, in the process of natural selection, preference is given only to those modes of behavior that allow animals to have more abundant offspring and thus contribute to the survival of the species. Altruistic behavior does not fit into this framework and, therefore, is contrary to natural selection. Here are two main explanations for altruistic behavior that fit it into the broad framework of natural selection theory: 1. Kin selection: Animals can make more copies of their genes to help close genetic relatives. According to this explanation, self-sacrifice favors natural selection, as it potentially saves more genes for the next generation. 2. Reciprocal altruism: An animal may exhibit altruistic behavior in the expectation that this "favor" will be returned later. Since altruism is rewarded in the long run, this behavior is potentially beneficial.
Altruism (human)
A kind of social behavior (see Social norms), when one person voluntarily helps another with certain costs for himself. Basic driving force altruistic behavior is considered to be a desire to improve the well-being of another person, and not the expectation of some reward (cf. the previous section on animal altruism) or any other reason that can be seen as self-interest. The following explanations of human altruism are offered: 1. The reason for our desire to help other people is empathy (empathy). We help others because we share their mental suffering (the empathic altruism hypothesis). 2. We help others because we strive to overcome the negative state in which we ourselves are. The sight of human grief or suffering upsets us, and we want to get rid of it. Selflessly helping another person, we eliminate the source of our own unpleasant feelings (the negative state relief model). 3. In sociobiological theories, attention is focused on the fact that although it seems to us that there is no self-interest in the actions of an altruist, in fact it is often hidden. Altruistic behavior is seen as a strategy developed in the process of natural selection. By showing altruism to close genetic relatives (for example, to children), we help to preserve the human gene pool (kin selection). When helping someone today (for example, by letting another car into the queue in front of us), we assume that this service will be returned to us later. Cultural theories focus on the development of norms of altruism. This refers to the norm of social responsibility (helping those who need it) and the norm of mutual responsibility (helping those who helped you). Adherents of these theories argue that social evolution has a much greater impact on human altruism than biological evolution implied by sociobiological theories.
ALTRUISM
1. Greater importance of the well-being, happiness, interests, or even survival of others over one's own. 2. Behavior aimed at ensuring the safety, satisfaction or improvement of the lives of others while endangering oneself. The first meaning is more general and more commonly used; it signifies and
cycle, and action. This meaning is also the main one in modern ethology, although here the use of the term is limited to circumstances in which the behavior does not benefit either the individual or his direct offspring. This value has interesting connotations. So in many species, behavior is observed that seems altruistic, although from the point of view of ethology it is not. For example, in the case of altruism towards the family, some individuals violate their own safety by their actions, but ensure the safety of their own family, therefore, such behavior can also be considered as an action in their own interests, as a result of which the probability of the survival of their own genes increases. Similarly, in the case of reciprocal altruism, actions are often based on the fact that those who provide support today can receive it tomorrow. It should be distinguished from helping behavior in which no risk is assumed.
Altruism
- valid) - a reaction of a person, characterized by duality in relation to a person or phenomenon, while simultaneously accepting and rejecting it. For example, in the jealousy of an adult there is a union of feelings of love and hatred. In accordance with the theory of Z. Freud, the ambivalence of emotions can dominate the pregenital phase of a child's mental development. In this case, the most characteristic is that aggressive and sexual desires simultaneously arise.Altruism
from lat. alter "other") - a person's behavior, which is focused on satisfying the interests of others without taking into account the benefits for themselves.
Trying about the happiness of others, we find our own (Plato).
He who willingly gives, even if he gives a lot, Feels joy in giving, and rejoices with his heart (Hesiod).
He who does good to others, he himself tastes joy from this (Margarita of Navarre).
... I discovered a simple, old truth that I know like no one knows it: I discovered that there is immortality, that there is love, and that in order to be eternally happy, one must live for others (L. Tolstoy, Letters ).
I prefer to make life easier for others and be happy myself (B. Prus, Doll).
An act of virtue, sacrificing one's interests and oneself is the need of a noble soul, the pride of a generous heart and, in a sense, egoism of a great nature (S. Chamfort).
Rich is not the one who acquired a lot, but the one who distributed a lot (John Chrysostom).
Wed vicarious pleasure.
Altruism is a concept that is in many ways similar to selflessness, when a person shows selfless concern for the well-being of other people. In fact, altruistic behavior is the direct opposite of selfishness, and in psychology it is also considered as a synonym for prosocial behavior. But the concepts of altruism and selfishness are not so inseparable, because they are both sides of the same coin.
In psychology, altruism is defined as social phenomenon, and for the first time this term was formed by Francois Xavier Comte - the founder of sociology. In his interpretation, altruism meant life for the sake of others; over time, the understanding of this concept has not changed significantly. However, such a principle of moral behavior does not always become an expression of disinterested love for one's neighbor. Psychologists note that often altruistic motives arise from the desire to be recognized in one area or another. The difference between altruism and love is that the object here is not some specific individual.
In the works of many philosophers, one can see the justification of altruism by pity as a natural manifestation of human nature. In society, altruistic behavior can also bring certain benefits, expressed, for example, in an increase in reputation.
Main theories
Today there are three main theories of altruism. The first of them is related to evolution and is based on the opinion that altruistic impulses are initially programmed in living beings and contribute to the preservation of the genotype. The theory of social exchange considers the manifestations of altruism as a form of deep egoism, since, according to the supporters of this theory, by doing something for others, a person still calculates his own benefit. The theory of social norms is built on the principles of reciprocity and social responsibility.
Of course, none of the theories put forward reliably and fully explains the true nature of altruism, perhaps because such a phenomenon should be considered not in the scientific, but in the spiritual plane.
Forms
If we consider the works of philosophers and psychologists, altruism can be moral, meaningful, normative, but also pathological. In accordance with the theories described above, the following types of altruism can also be distinguished:
Manifestations in life
To get closer to understanding true altruism, we can look at examples from life. A soldier who covers his comrade with his body during military operations, the wife of a drunken alcoholic who not only tolerates her husband, but also seeks to help him, mothers of many children who do not find time for themselves - all these are examples of altruistic behavior.
In the daily life of every person, manifestations of altruism also take place, expressed, for example, as follows:
- family relationships. Even in a normal family, manifestations of altruism are an integral part of a strong relationship between spouses and their children;
- present. To some extent, this can also be called altruism, although sometimes gifts can be presented and not entirely for selfless purposes;
- participation in charity. A vivid example of disinterested concern for the well-being of people in need of help;
- mentorship. Altruism often manifests itself in the fact that more experienced people teach others, for example, their less experienced work colleagues, etc.
The literature also contains several clear examples. So, samples of altruistic behavior were described by Maxim Gorky in his work “The Old Woman 
Izergil", in the part where the hero Danko managed to lead the tribe out of the dead forest, tearing his own heart out of his chest and lighting the way for suffering people who were forced to make their way through the endless jungle. This is an example of selflessness, real altruism, when a hero gives his life without receiving anything in return. Interestingly, Gorky in his work showed not only the positive aspects of such altruistic behavior. Altruism is always associated with the rejection of one's own interests, but in everyday life such feats are not always appropriate.
Quite often people misunderstand the definition of altruism, confusing it with charity or philanthropy. Altruistic behavior usually has the following features:
- sense of responsibility. An altruist is always ready to take responsibility for the consequences of his actions;
- unselfishness. Altruists do not seek personal gain from their actions;
- sacrifice. A person is ready to incur certain material, time, intellectual and other costs;
- freedom of choice. Altruistic actions are always a personal choice of the individual;
- priority. An altruist puts the interests of others in the first place, often forgetting about his own;
- feeling of satisfaction. By sacrificing their own resources, altruists do not feel deprived or disadvantaged in any way.
Altruism in many ways helps to reveal the potential of the individual, because a person can do much more for other people than for himself. In psychology, it is even widely believed that altruistic nature feel much happier than egoists. However, in its pure form, this phenomenon practically does not occur, so many individuals quite harmoniously combine both altruism and egoism.
Interestingly, there are some differences between the manifestations of altruism in women and men. The former usually tend to show long-term behavior, such as taking care of loved ones. Men are more likely to commit single acts, often violating generally accepted social norms.
When it comes to pathology
Unfortunately, altruism is not always a variant of the norm. If a person shows compassion for others in a painful form, suffers from delusions of self-blame, tries to provide help, which in fact only brings harm, we are talking about the so-called pathological altruism. Such a condition requires observation and treatment by a psychotherapist, since pathology can have very serious manifestations and consequences, including altruistic suicide.
“However selfish a man may be in our opinion, it is obvious that there is something in his nature that makes him interested in the well-being of others and in their happiness, although he himself receives nothing from this, except pleasure, which brings him their contemplation."- Adam Smith. Theory of moral feelings./
1. Introduction
In our time, a contradiction between the altruistic and egoistic aspirations of people is becoming more and more distinct. On the one hand, the role of altruism and generally helping behavior is growing due to the fact that over the past decades in Russian society (and not only in it) the number of people in need of support has increased - the disabled, many elderly people, refugees, migrants, the unemployed, the homeless, etc. On the other hand, capitalist and market relations, the spirit of profit and personal well-being lead to an increase in individualistic sentiments, an increase in indifference and selfishness, and a decrease in the desire to help. According to a sociological survey of residents of our country, 59% of them believe that it is not people who should help the suffering and needy, but the state. Thus, the problem of helping behavior is very relevant for our society.
The change in the socio-economic system in our country, which occurred after 1991, significantly changed the relationship between people. Instead of collectivism, cooperation, mutual assistance, individualism, competition, rivalry are preached. All this leads to the fact that altruism, selfless help is no longer regarded as a virtue, but as a lack of pragmatism in a person, and sometimes as a manifestation of stupidity. Hence, with all its acuteness, the problem of the correlation between the manifestations of altruism and egoism, philanthropy and misanthropy arises in man and society, since there is a great danger of human loss of humanity.
Is it possible to move the current attitude towards altruism in society off the dead center? Is it possible to develop this quality in yourself and then “instill” it in other people? To answer these questions, you need to understand the essence of the very concept of altruism and find out which of its varieties are most relevant today.
2. Altruism
2.1 Interpretations of altruism
Altruism(from lat. Alter - another, others) - a concept with the help of which the activity associated with disinterested concern for the well-being of others is comprehended; correlates with selflessness, - sacrificing one's own benefits in favor of the good of another person, other people, or in general - for the common good; in some senses can be seen as the opposite of selfishness; in psychology it is sometimes used as a synonym or part of prosocial behavior.
According to some foreign researchers, prosocial behavior- these are actions aimed at the benefit of others; act of kindness (or helping behavior) is an action aimed at the benefit of another, but not bringing external reward to the helper. Other sociologists refer to prosocial behavior as actions performed by a person not only solely for the sake of another, but also for their own benefit. In their opinion, such behavior can include any action related to the provision of assistance: an act benefits both the other person and the one who helps. For example, psychopathologist V. A. Zhmurov believes that “helping behavior is the provision of assistance to someone, excluding, in contrast to altruism, any sacrifice to one’s own interests.”
Thus, there is no exact and unambiguous definition of this concept in the literature. Most often, prosocial behavior refers to any action aimed at the well-being of other people. Their range ranges from fleeting kindness through charitable activities to helping a person in danger, in a difficult or distressed situation, up to saving him at the cost of his own life. Despite the proximity of the concept of prosocial behavior with the concepts of altruism and helping behavior, there are certain differences between them.
Actions performed solely in the interests of another person, undivided dedication to the interests of another person or the interests of society, when one's own interests are not taken into account at all, refer to the manifestation of altruism. So all three terms are: "prosocial behaviour", "helping" and "altruism"- define the same type of behavior aimed at the benefit of another person, but differing depending on the motives underlying the action in each specific case.
To the question about origin of altruism there are different points of view. Some consider altruism to be a specifically human, socially formed quality, while others consider it an innate, genetically fixed result of natural selection. The evolutionary approach is associated with the search for biological and social conditions that can contribute to the formation of altruistic behavior.
The term "altruism" was introduced by the founder of sociology, Auguste Comte, who believed that under the influence of positivism, society develops in the direction of humanistic values. AT in general terms altruism in Comte's understanding reflects the principle of “living for the sake of others” as a program for building a perfect human society; he saw the meaning of human life in "serving humanity by improving ourselves." However, altruism existed and was recognized as a moral principle much earlier. Socrates also argued that “not to take, but to give, is the essence of the moral law that balances the egoistic will of each person. And the more spiritual and sincere a person is, the stronger the desire to give and serve people is in him.
Psychologists Charlie L. Hardy, Mark van Vugt, David Millery, and David Kelly have shown in their research that altruism and altruistic behavior although not related to direct benefits or combinations of different benefits, but ultimately in the long run create more benefits than was spent on altruistic actions.
AT philosophy and ethics altruism- a moral principle based on the recognition of the natural connectedness of people through an innate sense of sympathy. Hence, according to the saying of the philosopher V. S. Solovyov, altruism is "moral solidarity with other human beings." E. Durkheim, the founder of the French sociological school, wrote that altruism- a social state in which the individual is completely absorbed by the group and does not have his own goals that differ from the goals of the group; performance of duty and adherence to group norms are considered the highest values.
According to psychologist Jonathan Seglow, altruism- this is a voluntary, free act of the subject, which, however, cannot be carried out without the committed altruistic action losing its altruistic nature.
The American psychologist B.F. Skinner analyzed such a phenomenon as altruism and came to the following conclusion: “We respect people for their good deeds only when we cannot explain these deeds. We explain the behavior of these people by their internal dispositions only when we lack external explanations. When external causes are obvious, we proceed from them, and not from personality traits.
Some have expressed the opinion that gifts can also be called a manifestation of altruism. However, this cannot be accepted unconditionally. After all, we often give things that turn out to be completely unnecessary, useless for others and for ourselves, just wanting to get rid of them. What kind of altruism are we talking about here?
As can be seen from the above, there are many scientific definitions of altruism, the content of which depends on the scientific discipline that the defining author represents.
There is no single and generally accepted interpretation of the concept of altruism. This is the case for the reason that different psychologists and sociologists draw their conclusions, guided by their own subjective criteria. This is where “conflicts” of diametrically opposed ideas arise, and at the same time, a gradually increasing variety of interpretations of the term “altruism”, which will be discussed in more detail in the next paragraph of the abstract.
In my opinion, only from the standpoint of a selfish mind, an altruistic act can be regarded as stupidity, illogicality, irrationality, sacrifice, self-renunciation etc. Indeed, in fact, the altruist does not consider his choice to be sacrificial, but does so at the call of his heart only because he simply cannot do otherwise at this moment. We can say that an altruistic act for him is a state of mind, the fulfillment of the call of conscience, but not a sacrifice. But the efforts of an egoist who wants to develop this “helping quality” in himself is accompanied by large quantity loss and deprivation due to the sacrifices made. The unwillingness to develop altruistic tendencies in oneself, on the contrary, creates a reason to justify egoism in one's actions and in the actions of other people in every possible way, thereby motivating the presence of a share of egoism (benefit) in the process of their commission.
Altruism is largely due not to external social pressure and not the presence of a person who is able to appreciate the nobility of the subject's act. This is behavior that is due to the presence of a number of spiritual qualities in a person - compassion, caring, a sense of duty, responsibility - and the absence of qualities that do not contribute to the manifestation of altruism - suspicion, greed, skepticism.
It seems to me that egoist and altruist- it's like two different "civilizations", between which there is a huge information gap. It is he who does not allow them to sincerely understand each other. This gap is determined by a large number of new ideas necessary for an egoist (provided that he strives to become more altruistic) so that, each time overcoming these tendencies of egocentrism in himself, he listens more passionately to the call of conscience and, overcoming the outdated and time-tested patterns of behavior, to do with each choice more human behavior. This desire of him is caused by a subconscious desire to experience states of joy and happiness from the selfless good done.
2.2 Varieties of altruism
Depending on the share of egoism in an altruistic decision taken by a person, egoism and altruism can be mixed in very different proportions. Thus, various interpretations and types of altruism are formed.
self-sacrifice It is the sacrifice of oneself for the good of others. Self-sacrifice is associated with extreme situations, with the salvation of other people (direct or indirect) and requires the person who carries it out to have a sense of duty and courage, heroism. No wonder people often talk about heroic self-sacrifice. From the history of medicine, there are cases when doctors, developing a vaccine against a particular infectious disease for the sake of saving humanity, tested it on themselves, knowing that if it turned out to be insufficiently developed, they would die, which in some cases happened.
Mercy, or selfless altruism, is the main difficulty for sociologists who adhere to the theory of evolution, which absolutely does not fit into their simplified argument, since it cannot be explained by desire, since it cannot be explained, for example, by the desire of the selfish genes of the individual to self-preservation, as is now accepted in the scientific community.
Mercy cannot be attributed to affection, friendship and romantic love, which can be safely considered mutually beneficial relationships and which can be partially observed in other (non-human) species of living beings.
In the mass consciousness, mercy is understood as generosity, kindness to people, readiness to forgive or at least understand a person, even if he has done something very bad. This is also concern for others (remember the sisters and brothers of mercy). In the philosophical encyclopedia there is such a definition of the concept of mercy: compassionate, benevolent, caring, loving attitude towards another person; opposite to indifference, hardness of heart, malice, hostility, violence.
L. N. Tolstoy most accurately expressed the essence of mercy: “Mercy consists not so much in material assistance, but in the spiritual support of one’s neighbor. Spiritual support, first of all, is not in the condemnation of the neighbor, but in the honor of his human dignity. Mercy is more a moral help to a person who has found himself in a difficult life situation than a material one.
Rational altruism- this is a balancing act between your own interests and the interests of another person and other people.
Rational is reasonable and logical. This is competence and knowledge, skills and abilities, and not feelings and premonitions, desires and impulses, impressions and experiences. Rationality is an attitude of consciousness, a type of thinking and a personality trait when decisions are made by choosing the best option by comparison based on facts and logic, and not emotional impressions, impulsiveness, desires, feelings and intuition.
Altruism as generalized exchange(a kind of rational altruism). Generalized exchange systems are characterized by the fact that they are based on efforts made unilaterally without direct compensation. Anyone can be a beneficiary (from an altruistic action) or one who performs this action. The rationality of a generalized exchange is that everyone who needs help can receive it, but not directly from someone, but indirectly; the relationship of trust between people plays an important role here.
Utilitarian understanding of altruism. An altruistic act is seen as based on the maximization of some common good, including through the involvement of other people for this. Example: a person has a certain amount of money and he wants to donate it to the development of a certain territory. He finds some organization that owns this territory, and donates money to it, hoping that it will spend it in the right way. At the same time, as follows from the example, such a utilitarian understanding of altruism can lead to bias and the pursuit of certain self-interests.
Reciprocal (mutual) altruism(a kind of rational altruism) - a type of social behavior when individuals behave with a certain amount of self-sacrifice in relation to each other, but only if they expect reciprocal self-sacrifice. The term was coined by sociobiologist Robert Trivers.
The rationality of mutual altruism is obvious: actions based on the norms of reciprocity (fairness, honesty) are focused on accurate accounting of the efforts made and their compensation. Rather, it is about preventing the use of altruists by egoists so that the process of exchange can continue. Reciprocity is a means to prevent exploitation.
This type of behavior is inherent not only to humans, but also to a number of animals. This is about mutual help. According to this principle, people, interacting with each other within small towns, schools, workers, student groups, strive to maintain balance, since the unequal distribution of benefits or costs causes displeasure. Therefore, as the experiments show, the subjects are much more helpful in completing the task to another subject, if he had not previously refused to help them themselves.
Some forms of altruism (mutual assistance, support for the helpless, the sick, children, the elderly, the transfer of knowledge) are called indirect reciprocal altruism, since it is assumed that the return service is expected indirectly - through the mediation of observing third parties, who subsequently reward the helping person with the reputation of a worthy citizen who should be helped in every possible way if necessary. In other words, by their altruistic behavior in this moment a person creates a base for reciprocal services in the future, and from many outsiders, and not from the one who was helped.
Summing up the review rational altruism, I want to note that in its manifestation there is a lot of selfishness. Intelligence in this case although it is manifested, it is supported by calculations of benefits (fear of receiving less than given), the need to show reciprocity, which lowers this concept and puts the manifestation of such altruism on one level with animal altruism.
emotional altruism. In a state of emotional excitement, a person can act both very prudently and reasonably, and act very illogically and stupidly. As a rule, greater emotionality leads to a decrease in rationality: emotional people tend to be more spontaneous, unexpected, emotional reactions than consistency and following a plan. However, people high level development, high emotionality coexists perfectly with rationality.
Emotional altruism, in my opinion, can have two types of manifestation depending on situational features: passive and active. . Passive Manifestation limited to the manifestation of emotions, which are not followed by any active actions. For example, if such an altruist observes the state of happiness experienced by another person, then his natural reaction is unconditional joy for him, which is very good for him now. If the other is stressed or anxious about the situation they just experienced, then such an emotional altruist will become an empathetic listener, completely absorbed and involved in the story so much that he can experience the same emotions as the narrator.
Active Empathy manifests itself in specific actions and choices, and very often such an altruist does not have time (or is not able) to predict the consequences of his act. Examples of emotional altruists are those mothers who are able to blindly follow the whims of their children, often using parental love for the purpose of manipulation. Also here can be attributed people who are guided in their relationships with society by impulsiveness, on the basis of which their behavior model is perceived by others as conflicting, inconsistent, devoid of rationality and intelligence. Without being aware of their actions, they easily commit irresponsible acts, the consequences of which they can realize (in best case) only after some time during the analysis. If the passive manifestation of emotionality does not have negative consequences for the recipients of such assistance, then in the case of an active manifestation, they may well take place. To emotional altruists, I would include individuals of an extroverted type.
"Extraversion is characterized by an interest in an external object, responsiveness and readiness to perceive external events, a desire to influence and be influenced by events, a need to interact with the external world, the ability to make turmoil and noise of any kind (and actually find pleasure in it), the ability to hold constant attention to the world around, making many friends and acquaintances without much, however, analysis, and, ultimately, the presence of a feeling of great importance to be close to someone chosen, and consequently, a strong tendency to demonstrate oneself.Accordingly, the life philosophy of an extrovert and his ethics are, as a rule, of a highly collectivist nature (beginning) with a strong inclination towards altruism. His conscience is largely dependent on public opinion" (PT, par. 9.2)."
From this definition it can be concluded that the true the nature of extrovert altruism partly lies in his high-energy potential, which he seeks to use up by directing his inner experiences outward. Such “help” is sometimes obsessive, it is rather a reason for active communication, interaction with the object of help, and often even introduces destruction into relations with another person (if the latter does not want such interaction).
Altruism, limited to a certain group, is called parochial("parochial", "local") altruism(parochial altruism). It is known that we unconsciously divide people into “us” and “them”, and this is reflected in our altruistic behavior. One group of people (“our own” - people who are similar to us in habits, inclinations, manner of dressing, social status etc.) we are more inclined to help than to another group - "foreign" people. Because similarity breeds sympathy, and sympathy breeds the desire to help, we are more likely to help those who are similar to us. And we are talking about both external and internal similarity. The name is associated with the typology of political cultures developed by the American political scientists G. Almond and S. Verbe. They identified three types of cultures: parochial, dependent, and participatory. Parish altruism is part of the parish culture. It is shown that support for "us" and hatred for "strangers", associated with belonging to certain religious communities, are observed in different human cultures. The propensity for parochial altruism is significantly related to the frequency of attendance at churches and communities. Of the six confessions studied, this effect was most pronounced among the parishioners of the Russian Orthodox Church.
With acute intergroup hostility, helping “ours” and aggression towards “strangers” equally benefit the group. In human societies, altruistic actions of the parochial type, as a rule, are highly valued, considered highly moral, heroic, patriotic, etc. People prone to such behavior are especially in demand during wars and conflicts. They are revered as heroes who combine selflessness, sincere devotion to brothers in arms and hatred of enemies.
Altruism out of sympathy and empathy. Altruism can be associated with various kinds of social experiences, in particular with sympathy, empathy for another, mercy and goodwill. Altruists, whose benevolence extends beyond family, neighborly, friendly relations, as well as relations with acquaintances, are also called philanthropists, and their activities are philanthropy. Apart from goodwill and compassion, altruistic actions are often done out of affection (to something/someone) or general gratitude for life.
Alternative altruism suggests that the subject, ignoring his own interests, helps another, but in a special way: damaging his rivals, infringing on their interests. The defense of the motherland, the fight against terrorism, crime, the selfless protection of another person from someone else's non-physical and physical aggression, etc. are examples of such activities. Here, too, an attitude is at work, expressed in the readiness to make sacrifices in favor of others, however, these sacrifices include not only the subject himself, but also others who differ from their neighbors and oppose them. For such cases, psychologist A. N. Poddyakov introduces the term "alternative altruism" (alter-altruism). Alter-altruism - humanity in relation to some at the expense of inhumanity in relation to others. It is related to the economics and social policy of the distribution of limited public goods, the provision of material or financial assistance to certain groups of the population at the expense of the interests of others. A. N. Poddyakov highlights two types of alter altruism:
Help "friends" with damage to "strangers". This is primarily aggression associated with the protection of "their own". This is the parochial altruism discussed above;
Forced differentiation of “ours”: helping one at the expense of others. This is a conscious sacrifice of the interests of a part of the group due to the dramatic limited resources.
These are all cases where assistance is provided to one person or group, while reducing the chances of survival of another or others (saving some, sacrificing others). Such situations often occurred with mothers during the siege of Leningrad: they decided which of their children to save from starvation, because giving your ration to everyone will not save a single one. The same situation can take place on a sinking ship, etc.
Moral (normative) altruism consists in acting in accordance with one's own conscience. Acting to fulfill commitments (one makes to oneself or another) and expectations (others have for one) are sometimes seen as a degree of altruism. At the same time, such actions can often turn out to be actions of calculation.
The problem with the accuracy of the definition of moral altruism, in particular, its classification as altruism without an admixture of egoism, lies in the subjectivity of considering the very concept of conscience. Who knows what the source of the “hidden voice of conscience” is, whether it comes from highly intuitive levels of consciousness of the individual or is it a source of low-emotional (selfish) manifestations that wedged into the decision-making process?!
Transfinite altruism(transfinite - from lat. trans - for and finis - end; infinite, limitless, beyond the finite) - this is the highest, spiritual type of altruistic behavior; it is truly humane and environmentally friendly. Psychologist V.R. Dorozhkin explains that this type of altruism is not directly related to the cultural and value norms of a particular time, it has an enduring value, its reference points are the basic universal norms, and it is characterized by the highest degree of love in each of its acts. Transfinite altruistic behavior, which is the highest, spiritual level of development of altruism and consists in self-transcendence of oneself into the world, in which a person experiences himself and the world as parts of a single whole, conveys inner love and fullness to the world. This type of behavior always has a humanistic orientation and a high degree morality. It is possible to characterize altruistic behavior as transfinite if a number of conditions are met, which include: a) correlation of altruism with universal norms of humanism; b) detection of specific altruistic emotions that bring spiritual pleasure to the subject of altruistic behavior.
Free from all selfishness. The author of iissiidiology, who singled out this type of altruism, explains that at the initial stage of eradicating egoism and connecting highly intellectual Altruism to one’s choices, there arises a desire to serve people, to selflessly help them in mastering knowledge, to responsible and strong friendship, to creative cooperation in some kind of from the directions of self-improvement or self-actualization. When the selfish tendency to divide into “pleasant people” and “other people”, as well as into “people in general” and “everything else” disappears from self-consciousness, a person will begin to consciously and truly serve the All. Gradually, selfish motivations will be replaced by new, less "material" and "profitable", and will become more perfect and altruistic in relation to all beings of the surrounding reality.
Highly intelligent Altruism is expressed in informational motivation and analytical transformation of existing experience into each of the decisions made. An example of the activity of this type of altruism can be the image of a person who models and builds as his main goal the ideas of a radical increase in the welfare of society. Such a person has a high need and an inexhaustible desire to constantly bring his individual contribution to something useful for society and do everything to eradicate shortcomings in it; trying to fill the world only by positive mental reactions and intellectual decisions, which forms and maintains in her a powerful conviction in the correctness of her actions. And in order to achieve these states, you need to get rid of negative reactions and egoism, constantly direct your intellectual and altruistic activity to the unconditional benefit of other people, even regardless of how they react to your sincere desire to help them, whether they understand you, thank you, respect you. and, in general, whether they take you seriously. Intellectual altruism is based not on idle reasoning “about high matters” and far-fetched ambitious games of “humanity”, “charity” and “virtue”, but on the fact that a person is simply not able to live and act otherwise, even if he forbidden to be realized in it under the threat of death.
3. Alternative to currently existing types of altruism
Arguing a lot with myself about the various types of manifestations of altruism, I came to the conclusion that all their diversity is due to the presence of varying degrees of selfishness in the ideas of people who are subjectively approaching the interpretation of this concept itself. The more selfishness is reflected in a person's ideas, the greater the degree of selfishness will be colored by the altruistic act he performs, although usually a person has a better opinion of himself and is ready to notice someone else's selfishness rather than his own.
Powerful technological progress began to have a very strong and negative impact on the minds of people: with an abundant flow of information, people become more and more limited, superficial, cynical and aggressive. Intelligence without the parallel cultivation of altruism can lead humanity to an evolutionary dead end. from which it will be very difficult to get out. An example of development in this direction can be the projects currently developed on the global chipization of humanity (implantation of microchips into the biological form), robotization, computerization, etc. over time, it becomes very difficult to perform an act, the motivation for which would be, for example, self-sacrifice, sympathy and mercy.
On the other hand, the actions of a person committed by him in relation to other people without the connection of rationality and intellect lead to one-sidedness of situational perception or its distortion by himself. Take, for example, the manifestation of the same sympathy. From a subjective point of view, it is positive in its essence, but nevertheless it can be attributed to a selfish act, since the empathizer, carried away by his own experiences, does not think about the possible harm that he causes to another person with such a plausible act. Yes, at this moment he is positive, he sympathizes and empathizes. However, the consequences of such empathy, devoid of a reasonable approach, can become even more tragic for the other person. In my opinion, highly intellectual Altruism just that is to do not harm another with your "good", passively empathizing and resonating with his painful states (and thus only deserving his good disposition for himself), but on the contrary, help him see the cause of his own troubles and misfortunes with the help of “necessary” words and actions that can deeply “shake up” his consciousness. It is necessary to try to bring a grain of rationality into the manifestation of one's compassion and be able to convey it to another - this is the highly intellectual Altruism.
So, it turns out that any of the currently existing types of altruism is either a sensual-intuitive aspect, or an intellectual-rational one, and therefore cannot be considered true and acceptable in the perception of most people, since the “supporters” of these diametricalities for the most part categorically perceive each other’s position . But what if we combine these two aspects, developing in turn both intellect and high sensuality? The author of such knowledge as iissiidiology, just, and offers this option, considering it the most harmonious and acceptable. He writes that in order to develop highly intellectual Altruism in oneself, one must get rid of egoism, as well as consciously and purposefully work on oneself, gradually cultivating such qualities as responsibility, honesty, openness, etc. in oneself.
An example of the ultimate goal of such a person, according to Oris O.V., is any activity aimed at achieving the maximum benefit for our society and state. This is possible through the comprehensive development of intellectuality (which involves the continuous study of the latest information of a high intellectual level) with the obligatory combination with genuine (devoid of egoism) altruism, “including” orientation towards the most highly emotional feelings and thoughts. Consciously choosing a life guideline and realizing highly intellectual Altruism, based on a reliable foundation of more reliable and high-quality knowledge, such a person, by his active creative activity is capable of overcoming stagnant crisis tendencies in society, diplomatically reaching wise interests and consensuses that satisfy all interested parties, based on an understanding of only positive principles of relationships. Full responsibility for her actions and control of any manifestations of personal egoism allows her to fully focus on public service. Constant conscious work on tracking, recognizing the internal relationships of ongoing events, intuitively foreseeing them possible causes, allows her to achieve personal responsibility for each of her choices.
A person who is actively striving for self-improvement will be especially interested in highly intellectual Altruism. The harmonious development of altruistic and intellectual tendencies seems to me the most logical and optimal. In addition, not a single author from among those who have devoted their works to describing the problems of altruism in society, except for the author of iissiidiology, penetrates so deeply into the essence of the emergence of human egoism (as well as negativism in general) and does not offer specific motivations and methods for cultivating altruism. .
In my opinion, in terms of development modern society people are little informed about the need to cultivate altruism. Reliance on independent development morality and morality of such a society is a rather lengthy process. I am convinced that in order to really change something in the world around you, you need to start with yourself, “infecting” other people with your own example.
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4. Jonathan Seglow (Ed.). The Ethics of Altruism. ROUTLEDGE CHAPMAN & HALL. London. - ISBN 978-0-7146-5594-9.
5. Clive Staples Lewis, Mere Christianity (1952, based on radio broadcasts 1941-1944)
6. V. Zelensky. Dictionary of Analytical Psychology, M., Cogito-Center, 2008
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9. Oris O.V., “Immortality is available to everyone”, Volume 15, Publisher: JSC “Tatmedia”, Kazan, 2011
According to the definitions, altruism is a disinterested concern for the welfare of other people. Selflessness can be attributed to the manifestation of altruism - the sacrifice of one's personal interests for the sake of another person. Altruism is interpreted as a kind of good, the highest manifestation of virtue.
The concept of altruism
The term "altruism" (with Latin"alter" - "other") was French and "father" - Auguste Comte. According to Comte, a kind of altruism: "Live for others." It is worth noting that the concept was identified on the basis of long-term observations of people's behavior. It turned out that very many, even notorious scoundrels and criminals, love someone in their lives, and these people are taken care of. And for the sake of loved ones, many are ready to step over their own principles, beliefs, to provide assistance, assistance in anything.
There have been many observations, experiments, in order to find out the ability of people to care for others completely disinterestedly. The results show that people are capable of this, but revealing the true motives can be very difficult.
Altruism and selfishness
Altruism, of course, is opposed to selfishness, which is presented as a kind of manifestation of evil. Unlike altruism, selfishness presupposes the dominance of one's own interests over public ones. To some extent, it is generally accepted that selfishness is something bad, vicious. However, it should be understood that neither altruism nor egoism are “ultimate truths”, and with a high degree of certainty it can be argued that both are virtues in reasonable proportions.
Almost every person has both altruistic and selfish inclinations. Imposed care can have an effect opposite to the altruist's expectations. And the rejection of one's own goals, dreams can hardly be perceived as a pure blessing. The unfulfillment of one's own desires very often entails unhappiness in life.
It should be understood that both altruism and egoism in their pure form practically do not exist. The all-embracing benevolence and similar selfishness actually makes sense within the context. Perhaps most people will be able, after delving into themselves, to agree with the statement that most often people are altruists and egoists in relation to specific individuals, groups of the population, and not to all inhabitants of the globe.
