Formation of the Moscow state. Apothecary order, school of doctors. Functions of the Pharmaceutical order, its role in the training of medical personnel. The influence of Western European powers on education in Russia Training of Russian doctors in the 17th-18th century

The training of physicians in the Muscovite State had a craft character for a long time: a student studied with one or several physicians for a number of years, then served in the regiment as a medical assistant for several years. Sometimes the Pharmaceutical order appointed a test test (exam), after which the person promoted to the rank of doctor was given a set of surgical instruments.

In 1654, during the war with Poland and the plague epidemic, under the Pharmaceutical order, the first in Russia was opened. doctorsky school. It existed at the expense of the state treasury. Children of archers, clergy and service people were accepted into it. Training included collecting herbs, working in a pharmacy, and practicing in the regiment. In addition, the students studied the Latin language, anatomy, pharmacy, diagnosis of diseases ("signs of infirmity") and methods of their treatment. During the hostilities, one-year bone-cutting schools also functioned.

Teaching at the Medical School was visual and was conducted at the bedside of the patient. Anatomy was studied by bone preparations and anatomical drawings. There were no tutorials yet. They were replaced by folk herbalists and healers, as well as "doctor's tales" (case histories).

E. Slavinetsky(1609-1675) was a highly educated and gifted man. He graduated from Krakow University and taught first at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, and then at the Medical School under the Aptekarsky Prikaz in Moscow. The translation of the work of A. Vesalius made by him was the first scientific book on anatomy in Russia and was used in teaching anatomy at the Medical School. This manuscript was kept in the Synodal Library for a long time, but was subsequently lost and has not been found to this day.

The Pharmaceutical Order made high demands on the students of the Medical School. Those accepted for study promised: "... do no harm to anyone and do not drink or gossip and do not steal by any kind of theft ...". The training lasted 5-7 years. Medical assistants attached to foreign specialists studied from 3 to 12 years. AT different years the number of students ranged from 10 to 40. The first graduation of the Medical School, due to the large shortage of regimental doctors, took place ahead of schedule in 1658. The school functioned irregularly. For 50 years she has trained about 100 Russian doctors. Most of them served in the regiments. The systematic training of medical personnel in Russia began only in the 18th century.

Doctors who provided medical assistance to the civilian population were more often treated at home or in a Russian bath. Inpatient medical care at that time practically did not exist.

17th century was also the time of the creation of the first civilian hospitals in Russia. Around 1652, the boyar Fyodor Mikhailovich Rtishchev organized two civil hospitals in his homes, which are considered the first properly arranged civil hospitals in Russia. In 1682, a decree was issued on the opening in Moscow of two hospitals ("spitals") for the civilian population, designed to treat the sick and teach medicine. (In the same year, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was established in Moscow.)

Trade relations and political rapprochement with the West, which emerged during the time of Ivan IV the Terrible and noticeably strengthened with the accession to the throne of the Romanov dynasty (1613), had as its consequence an invitation to the royal court of foreign doctors, pharmacists and paramedics from England, Holland, Germany and other countries . Foreign doctors at that time enjoyed great respect and honor in the Muscovite state. However, the circle of people who used their services was very limited (as a rule, the royal court). At the court of Boris Godunov (1598-1606), several foreign doctors, mostly Germans, were already serving.

The first Russian doctors of medicine appeared in the 15th century. Among them is Georgy Dorogobycha (c. 1450-1494), who received a doctorate in philosophy and medicine from the University of Bologna (1476). Subsequently, he was rector of the University of Bologna (1481-1482), worked in Hungary (1482-1485), lectured at the University of Krakow (since 1485). His work "Prognostic judgment of the current year 1483 by George Drogoba-chas Rus, doctor of medicine of the University of Bologna", published in Rome in Latin, is the first printed book of the Russian author abroad.

In 1512 he received the degree of doctor of medicine in Padua (Italy) Francis Skorina from Polotsk (an outstanding Belarusian first printer and educator). Subsequently, he worked in Prague, Vilna, Koenigsberg.

Thus, the XVI-XVII centuries. in Russia were the time of the formation of pharmacies and pharmacy business, the beginning of the training of doctors from born Russians, the creation of the first hospitals in cities - the time of the birth of the state organization of medical affairs in Russia.

Aptekarsky Prikaz, the first state medical institution in Russia, was founded around 1620. In the first years of its existence, it was located on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin, in a stone building opposite the Chudov Monastery. At first it was a court medical institution, attempts to create which date back to the time of Ivan the Terrible (1547-1584), when in 1581 the first Sovereign (or “Tsar”) pharmacy in Russia was established at the royal court, since it served only king and members royal family. The pharmacy was located in the Kremlin and for a long time (almost a century) was the only pharmacy in the Moscow state. In the same 1581, at the invitation of Ivan the Terrible, a court physician arrived in Moscow for the royal service English queen Elizabeth Robert Jacob; in his retinue were doctors and pharmacists (one of them named Yakov), who served in the sovereign's pharmacy. Thus, initially only foreigners (English, Dutch, Germans) worked in the court pharmacy; Pharmacists-professionals from born Russians appeared later.

The initial task of the Pharmaceutical Order was to provide medical assistance to the king, his family and associates. The prescribing of medicine and its preparation were associated with great rigor. The medicine intended for the palace was tasted by the doctors who prescribed it, the pharmacists who prepared it, and, finally, by the person to whom it was handed over for transfer “upstairs”. The “selective medical remedies” intended for the tsar were stored in a pharmacy in a special room - a “kazenka” with the seal of the clerk of the Pharmaceutical Order.

Being a court institution, the "tsar's pharmacy" only served service people as an exception.

Thus, over time, there is a need for state regulation of the sale of medicines. Moreover, growing Russian army constantly demanded a regular supply of troops with medicines. In this regard, in 1672, the country's second "...pharmacy for the sale of all kinds of medicines of all ranks to people" was opened.

The new pharmacy was located at the New Gostiny Dvor on Ilyinka, near Embassy order. By the royal decree of February 28, 1673, both pharmacies were assigned the right to monopoly trade in medicines.

Aptekarsky order not only managed pharmacies. Already by the middle of the XVII century. from a court institution, it grew into a large national institution, the functions of which expanded significantly. It was in charge of: inviting doctors to the service (domestic, and together with the Posolsky order and foreign ones), monitoring their work and paying for it, training and distributing doctors by position, checking "doctor's tales" (case histories), supplying troops with medicines and organization of quarantine measures, forensic medical examination, collection and storage of books, management of pharmacies, pharmacy gardens, and collection of medicinal raw materials.

Gradually, the staff of the Pharmaceutical Order increased. So, if in 1631 two doctors, five doctors, one pharmacist, one oculist, two interpreters (translators) and one clerk served in it (moreover, foreign doctors enjoyed special benefits), then in 1681 80 people served in the Pharmaceutical Order , among them 6 doctors, 4 pharmacists, 3 alchemists, 10 foreign doctors, 21 Russian doctors, 38 students of medicine and bone-setting. In addition, there were 12 clerks, gardeners, interpreters and household workers.

In the second half of the XVII century. in the Moscow state, a peculiar system of collecting and harvesting medicinal herbs has developed. In the Pharmaceutical order, it was known in which area this or that medicinal plant mainly grows. For example, St. John's wort - in Siberia, malt (licorice) root - in Voronezh, hellebore - in Kolomna, scaly (anti-hemorrhoid) grass - in Kazan, juniper berries - in Kostroma. Specially appointed purveyors (herbalists) were trained in the methods of collecting herbs and delivering them to Moscow. Thus, the state "berry duty" was formed, for non-compliance with which a prison sentence was supposed.

Near the walls of the Moscow Kremlin, the sovereign's apothecary gardens (now the Alexander Garden) began to be created. Their number was constantly growing. So, in 1657, by decree of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676), it was ordered "The Sovereign Apothecary Court and the garden to be moved from the Kremlin-city beyond the Butcher's Gate and arranged in a garden settlement in empty places." Soon, apothecary gardens appeared at the Stone Bridge, in the German settlement and on other Moscow outskirts, for example, on the territory of the current Botanical Garden. Landings in them were carried out in accordance with the orders of the Pharmaceutical Order.

In some cases, drug procurement specialists were sent to other cities. A significant part of medicinal raw materials for pharmacies was prescribed "from abroad" (Arabia, countries Western Europe Germany, Holland, England). The Aptekarsky Prikaz sent out its letters to foreign specialists who sent the required medicines to Moscow.

At the beginning of the 17th century foreign doctors enjoyed significant privileges in the Muscovite state. The training of Russian doctors at that time was of an artisanal nature: a student studied with one or more doctors for a number of years, then served in the regiment as a medical assistant for several years. Sometimes the Pharmaceutical order appointed a test test (exam), after which a set of surgical instruments was issued to the person promoted to the rank of Russian doctor.

The first state medical school in Russia was opened in 1654 under the Pharmaceutical order at the expense of the state treasury. Children of archers, clergy and service people were accepted into it. Training included collecting herbs, working in a pharmacy, and practicing in the regiment. In addition, students studied anatomy, pharmacy, Latin language, diagnosis of diseases and methods of their treatment. Folk herbalists and medical books, as well as "doctor's tales" (case histories) served as textbooks. During the hostilities, bone-cutting schools functioned. Teaching was conducted at the bedside of the sick - in Russia there was no scholasticism that dominated at that time in Western Europe.

Anatomy at the medical school was taught visually: for bone preparations and anatomical drawings, there were no teaching aids yet.

In the 17th century the ideas of the European Renaissance penetrated into Russia, and with them some medical books. In 1657, the monk of the Chudov Monastery, Epiphanius Slavinetsky, was entrusted with the translation of the abridged work of Andreas Vesalius "Epitome" (published in Amsterdam in 1642). E. Slavinetsky (1609-1675) was very an educated person, he graduated from Krakow University and taught first at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, and then at the Medical School under the Aptekarsky Prikaz in Moscow. The translation of the work of Vesalius made by him was the first book on scientific anatomy in Russia. For a long time it was kept in the Synodal Library, but during Patriotic War 1812 died in the fire of Moscow.

The Pharmaceutical Order made high demands on the students of the Medical School. The training lasted 5-7 years. Medical assistants attached to foreign specialists studied from 3 to 12 years. Over the years, the number of students varied from 10 to 40. The first graduation of the Medical School, due to the large shortage of regimental doctors, took place ahead of schedule in 1658. The school functioned irregularly. For 50 years she has trained about 100 Russian doctors. Most of them served in the regiments. The systematic training of medical personnel in Russia began in the 18th century.

Doctors who provided medical assistance to the civilian population were most often treated at home or in a Russian bath. Inpatient medical care at that time practically did not exist.

Monastic hospitals continued to be built at monasteries. In 1635, at the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, two-story hospital wards were built, which have survived to this day, as well as the hospital wards of the Novo-Devichy, Kirillo-Belozersky and other monasteries. In the Muscovite state, monasteries were of great defensive importance. Therefore, during enemy invasions, temporary hospitals were created on the basis of their hospital wards to treat the wounded. And despite the fact that the Apothecary Order was not involved in monastic medicine, in wartime the maintenance of patients and medical care in temporary military hospitals on the territory of monasteries was carried out at the expense of the state. This was an important distinguishing feature of Russian medicine in the 17th century. The first Russian doctors of medicine appeared in the 15th century. Among them is Georgiy from Drogobych, who received a PhD in philosophy and medicine from the University of Bologna (modern Italy) and later taught in Bologna and Krakow. His work "Prognostic judgment of the current year 1483 by Georgy Drogobych from Russia, Doctor of Medicine of the University of Bologna", published in Rome, is the first printed book of a Russian author abroad. In 1512, Francysk Skorina from Polotsk received the degree of Doctor of Medicine in Padua (modern Italy). In 1696, also at the University of Padua, the degree of Doctor of Medicine was awarded to P. V. Posnikov; being a highly educated man, he subsequently served as the Russian ambassador to Holland.

№34. "Measures held in the Moscow state to combat epidemics."

The chronicles provide material on the anti-epidemic measures used in Muscovite Russia: separating the sick from the healthy, cordoning off the centers of infection, burning down infected houses and quarters, burying the dead far from their homes, outposts, bonfires on the roads. This shows that already at that time the people had an idea about the transmission of contagious diseases and about the possibility of destroying, neutralizing the infection.

(short and no dates)

At the end of the XVI - beginning of the XVII century. quarantine measures began to acquire a state character. From 1654 to 1665, more than 10 royal decrees were issued in Russia "on precaution against pestilence." During the plague of 1654-55. barriers and barriers were installed on the roads, through which no one was allowed to pass under pain of death, regardless of rank and title. All contaminated items were burned at the stake. .Letters along the way they were rewritten many times, and the originals were burned. Money was washed in vinegar. The dead were buried outside the city. Priests, under pain of death, were forbidden to bury the dead. Lechtsov were not allowed to see contagious people. If any of them accidentally visited a "sticky" patient, he was obliged to inform the sovereign himself about this and stay at home "until the royal permission."

The import and export of all goods, as well as work in the fields, were stopped. All this led to crop failures and famine, which always followed the epidemic. Scurvy and other diseases appeared, which, together with hunger, gave a new wave of mortality.

The medicine of that time was powerless in the face of epidemics, and the system of state quarantine measures developed at that time in the Moscow State was all the more important. The creation of the Pharmaceutical Order was of great importance in the fight against epidemics.

(more complete).

№35. “Medicine in the Muscovite State (XV-XVII centuries), training of doctors, opening of pharmacies, hospitals. The first doctors of medicine in the Moscow state.

Until the end of the 17th century, traditional medicine occupied a leading position in Russia (folk knowledge was stored in herbalists and medical books). In the clinics of this period, a significant place was given to surgery (cutting). In Russia, operations of skull drilling, abdominal dissection, and amputation were carried out. The patient was put to sleep with the help of mandrake, poppy and wine. Tools (files, scissors, chisels, axes, probes) were carried through the fire. The wounds were treated with birch water, wine and ash, and sewn up with flax fibers, hemp or animal small intestines. Magnetic iron ore was used to extract metal fragments of arrows. Famous in Russia and the original designs of prostheses for the lower extremities.

In the 16th century in Muscovite Russia, the division of medical professions was noted. There were more than a dozen of them: healers, doctors, greengrocers, engravers, ore throwers (blood throwers), teethers, full-time masters, chiropractors, stone cutters, midwives.

There were few doctors and they lived in cities. There is a lot of evidence of the activities of artisan doctors in Moscow, Novgorod, Nnzh-nem-Novgorod, etc. Payment for healing was made depending on the participation of the doctor, his knowledge and the cost of medicine. The services of doctors were used primarily by the wealthy strata of the urban population. The peasant poor, weighed down by feudal obligations, could not pay for expensive medical services and resorted to sources of more primitive medical care.

Chronicles of the early period give an idea of how the wounded and sick were treated. Numerous testimonies and miniatures in handwritten monuments show how in the XI-XIV centuries. in Russia, the sick and wounded were carried on stretchers, transported on pack stretchers and in wagons. Care for the injured and sick was widespread in Russia. Guardianships existed at churches and in quarters of cities. Mongol invasion slowed down medical care by the people and the state. From the second half of the 14th century, medical care began to acquire the former patronage of the state and the people.

Almshouses provided medical care to the population and were a link between the population and the monastery hospitals. City almshouses had a kind of emergency rooms "shops". The sick came here to provide assistance, and the deceased was brought here for burial.

Large monasteries maintained hospitals. The regime of Russian monastic hospitals was largely determined by the statutory provisions.

Creation of hospitals:

§ Continuation of the traditions of monastic medicine.

§ 1635 - two-story hospital wards were built in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra

§ Establishment of the first civilian hospitals

§ 1682 - issued a decree on the opening of two hospitals ("spitals") for the civilian population.

There were two pharmacies in Moscow:

1) old (Gosudarev), founded in 1581 in the Kremlin, opposite the Chudov Monastery;

2) new (publicly available) - since 1673, in the New Gostiny Dvor "on Ilyinka, opposite the Embassy Court.

The new pharmacy supplied the troops; from it, medicines were sold to “every rank to people” at the price available in the “instruction book”. Several pharmacy gardens were assigned to the new pharmacy, where medicinal plants were bred and cultivated.

In the 17th century, the Muscovite state sent a small number of young people (Russians and children of foreigners living in Russia) abroad to study medical sciences, but this event, due to the high cost and small number of those who were sent, did not bring a significant replenishment of the number of doctors in Muscovite Russia. Therefore, it was decided to teach medical practice more systematically. In 1653 under the Streltsy order, a chiropractic school was opened, and the following year, in 1654, under the Pharmaceutical order, a special medical school was organized.

The first doctors of medicine:

Petr Postnikov is a graduate of the University of Padua

George from Drohobych - from the University of Bologna

Francis Skarina - University of Padua.

№36. « Reforms of Peter I in the field of organization of medical care and training of medical personnel.

By the beginning of the XVII century. many monasteries maintained hospitals. During the siege of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra by the Polish army (1608-1610), a hospital was organized in the monastery not only for the wounded Russian soldiers, but also for the civilian population. Later, in 1635, two-storey hospital wards were built in the monastery.

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Training of Russian doctors

Education of Russian doctors at the beginning of the 17th century. was artisanal. For many years it was necessary to stay with a foreign doctor as an apprentice in order to get the right to take an exam in the Pharmaceutical Order. In the middle of the XVII century. The Pharmaceutical Order consisted of 38 students.

At the exam, foreign doctors asked strictly, seeing each Russian doctor as their competitor. Produced to the rank of doctor, a set of surgical instruments was issued. The position of the Russian regimental doctors was not prestigious, and the salary was very meager.

However, the interests of the state and the needs of the army required high-quality training of domestic doctors, and in 1654, under the Pharmaceutical Order, the first Russian medical school was created with a training period of 4 to 6 years, in which archer children were recruited. Textbooks were foreign, in Latin, and translated. The monk of the Chudov Monastery Epiphanius Slavinetsky in 1657 translated A. Vesalius' "Anatomy" into Russian.

Teaching was conducted at the bedside of the patient. In 1658, the first graduation of Russian doctors sent to the regiments took place.

There were cases when young people were sent to study abroad - to England (University of Cambridge) and also to Italy (University of Padua). Mostly they were the children of translators, officials of the Embassy Department, who knew foreign languages.

In 1696, Petr Vasilievich Posnikov defended his doctoral dissertation at the University of Padua. Later, he, being diplomatic service, purchased surgical instruments abroad, contributed to the acquisition of exhibits for the first Russian museum - the Kunstkamera, supervised the education of Russian students abroad.

Muscovite Russia XVI - XVII centuries. was not isolated from other states. It is natural to assume that she experienced the influence of Western powers on her culture. V. O. Klyuchevsky believed that "Western influence, penetrating into Russia, met here with another influence that had hitherto been dominant in it - Eastern, Greek." At the same time, unlike the Greek, which "led only the religious and moral life of the people", the Western one "penetrated into all spheres of life." However, in his opinion, one cannot speak of Western influence before the 17th century. Let us present the logic of his reasoning. In the XV-XVI centuries. Russia was already familiar with Western Europe. But during this period, you can only talk about communication, and not about influence. Influence, according to V. O. Klyuchevsky, comes only when the society that perceives it begins to realize the need to learn from a culture that surpasses it. And only in the XVII century. a “feeling of national impotence” is spreading in Russia, and this leads to the realization of its backwardness. Hence the understanding of the need to learn from Western Europe. Here we are talking, first of all, about conscious influence, "about the desire of Russians to master someone else's." However, the unconscious influence, according to the author, begins to spread much earlier. In this article, we are interested in the conscious borrowing of Russians from Western culture, their desire to comprehend Western European education.

It is known that in the XVI - XVII centuries. the influx of foreigners to Russia is increasing. This was repeatedly written by foreigners - contemporaries. For example, Jiri D. spoke negatively about foreigners present in Russia. However, his attitude towards the Calvinists and Lutherans, whom, as he believed, were the majority among those who came to Muscovy, was largely biased.

Despite these unflattering characteristics, among those who came to Russia there were many highly educated people who sought to pass on their knowledge to the Russian people, obtained in Western European universities. The most striking example of this is Maxim the Greek, who came to Russia in 1508. He, as you know, received a European education, therefore he synthesized, in the words of one of the researchers of his work, N.V. Sinitsina, “Western European” and “Athos experience”. Maxim Grek gathered a circle around him. The members of the circle were interested, among other things, in the achievements of Western science. It is no coincidence that it is called the Maxim Grek Academy.

Memoirs of foreigners about Russia of the 16th-17th centuries are replete with remarks that "Russians do not learn any other language," "hate learning," and so on. This does not mean at all that the Russian people did not have the appropriate abilities. Yu. Krizhanich rightly pointed out this. “... let no one say,” he wrote, “that we, the Slavs, have been ordered by the will of heaven the path to knowledge, and whether we cannot or should not learn. After all, just like other peoples, not in a day or in a year, but gradually learned from each other, so we can also learn ... ". According to A. Mayerberg, the reasons for the non-proliferation of education in Russia lay in the fact that the teachers themselves were poorly educated; without neglect, they did not want to take themselves.

It should be noted that there is evidence that the Russian authorities planned to train their people and even took some steps in this direction. So, Ivan IV suggested, according to Daniil Prince from Bukhov, in the event of a successful outcome of the Livonian War, “to open elementary schools in my cities of Pskov and Novgorod, in which Russian youth would study Latin and German.”

B. Godunov's attempt to send Russian people abroad for education at the turn of the 16th - 17th centuries was a peculiar result of trips of individuals in search of education to the West. This experiment, as you know, ended unsuccessfully: out of 18 people who went abroad in search of education, only one G. Kotoshikhin returned. It is no accident, therefore, that Kotoshikhin himself, among the reasons that the Russian church opposed the spread of education in Russia, called the fear that “having learned the faith and customs of the states, and the good liberty, they would begin to cancel their faith, and pester others, and about returning to their house and relatives would not have any care and would not think. Nevertheless, these and other facts demonstrate the understanding by the Russian government of the need to train its people.

So, we see that individual people even before the 17th century. tried to join the Western education. However, even today, most researchers still believe that the spread of Western influence only begins in the 17th century. In the 17th century the attempts of Russian people to get an education in the West have become more obvious, which is why we have incomparably more information about the spread of Western European education in Russia.

Foreigners who lived in the so-called German Quarter passed on knowledge to their children. As a result, the first foreign schools. Thus, one of the first Lutheran schools arose in 1601, which perished in the Time of Troubles. In 1621, the Lutheran church community made an attempt to organize another school. She studied Latin and German. In addition to the children of foreigners, many Russian people also studied here. In it, which is of particular interest to us, students and various departments were sent. So, for example, in 1678, two boys were sent there to learn "Latin and Caesar's language for the pharmaceutical business." In 1673, 26 philistine and clerk boys were sent to the school "for teaching comedy sciences."

Foreigners - doctors - had a great influence on the formation of medical knowledge in Russia. Among them are A. Clausend, T. Korver, D. Frenscham (XVI century), P. Pantanus, J. Shartling, L. Blumentrost, A. Graman, V. Sibilist (XVII century) and others. Initially, only they were doctors in the Muscovite state. But later Russian doctors also appeared. For the first time in the sources, the Russian doctor Matyushka was mentioned in the middle of the 16th century.

And in 1654, under the Pharmaceutical Order, the first special educational institution- "School of Russian doctors", the first set consisted of 30 students. The term of study at school was set to 5-7 years. The study of the first set of students lasted four years. In view of the great need for regimental doctors in 1658, early graduation took place. 17 doctors were sent to the active army, the rest - to the Streltsy order for service. At the same time, the system of apprenticeship continued to exist for teaching the medicinal art. Students of medicine and pharmacy were sent to experienced doctors and pharmacists to gain medical knowledge and medical skills.

It is also impossible to overestimate the role of translators who arrived in Russia. Thanks to their knowledge of the Russian language, they had the opportunity to acquaint the Russian reader with various treatises, translating them into Russian. There is especially a lot of evidence of such translations from the 17th century. Here we can also name the translators of the Ambassadorial Order of Gozvinsky, who have left us such translated works as Aesop's fables, "Tropnik or a small way to the salvation of Pope Innocent" (1609) and N. G. Spafariy, who translated "The Book of the Temple and the Sacred mysteries" by Simeon of Thessalonius, "Chrysmologion" and others.

Thanks to the efforts of these people, foreign books were widely distributed in Russia in the 17th century. This is also evidenced by the calculations of B. V. Sapunov. He, having analyzed 17 inventories of personal libraries, 10 - monastic and 66 - church, indicates the following figures. Out of 3410 books, 1377 (40%) came from abroad to personal libraries, out of 6387 - 770 (12%) in monastic collections were of foreign origin, in church libraries 1462 books - 47 (3%) - were of foreign origin. In total, according to the calculations of A. I. Sobolevsky, in Moscow Russia for the period of the XV - XVII centuries. 129 different foreign works were translated. Meanwhile, this number is somewhat underestimated. Thus, the list compiled by A.I. military art” (1696) and some others.

As you can see, all of the examples listed belong to the 17th century. But there is every reason to say that foreigners, including employees of various orders, were engaged in translation activities before. So, for example, in the inventory of the royal archive mid-sixteenth in. mention is made of translations from the Polsky Chronicler and Cosmographia, stored in box No. 217. In addition, some translated works in the lists of the 16th century have survived to this day. So, for example, we know the so-called "Trojan story" by Guido de Columna in the list of the XVI century. The authorship of these works has not been determined. But the place of storage (in the first case) and the subject matter of the works (in the first and second cases) allow us to assume that the origin of these translations is connected with the activities of the translators of the Posolsky Prikaz. Naturally, this assumption cannot be considered an absolute truth, therefore, in the future, it is necessary to carefully study the authorship of translated works in order to clarify all the sources of the formation of knowledge of Russian people in the 16th century.

Let's pay attention to the next point. Most foreigners - translators of foreign literature were in the Russian service in various orders. According to the estimates of G. Kotoshikhin, in the Moscow state there were 50 translators (translating written documents) and 70 interpreters (translating oral speech). The staff of the Ambassadorial Prikaz included translators from “Latin, Sveisky, German, Greek, Polish, Tatar”. For the most part, these were foreigners (for example, G. Staden, as follows from his autobiographical notes, was originally taken to the Posolsky Prikaz as a translator). Translators, according to the income and expense books, were also in the Aptekarsky order. So, in 1644, among the doctors, pharmacists, clerks, clerks of the Pharmaceutical Order, translators Vasily Alexandrov and Matvey Yelisteev are also mentioned. Basically, translators from Latin gathered here, which was due to the fact that in Europe it was Latin that was required to train a doctor.

We find confirmation of this data in the studies of some historians. So, V. O. Klyuchevsky, comparing two treaties on February 4 and August 17, 1610, according to which the throne was offered to Prince Vladislav, among other differences, emphasizes that if the first of them contained the condition “for each of the Moscow people, for science, it is free to travel to other Christian states", then in the second - this condition disappears. He sees the reason for this difference in the composition of the embassies that proposed one or another version of the agreement: if the first was mainly representatives of the "nobility and deacon", then the second - "the highest boyars". The striving to acquire knowledge in the West by certain commanding officers is also visible in the following fact. As soon as Peter I began to send Russian young people to Europe, Ivan Mikhailovich Volkov (from May 30, 1677 a clerk, and from 1684 to 1717 a clerk of the Ambassadorial order), together with other employees of the Ambassadorial order, sent three of his sons abroad at once. The same desire can be noted in the verses of the so-called command school. Savvaty, the clerk of the Printed Order, wrote in his poetic instruction to his student:

It is fitting for you to love the teaching, Like a sweet river to drink, Because the teaching is good and commendable for everyone, If you receive it in young noctech.

The same idea is emphasized in the poetic "Domostroy" and Karion Istomin. According to the memoirs of De la Neuville, V.V. Golitsyn drafted a program to improve the state and military service, in which not least were plans to force the nobility to get an education in the West. All these data allow us to say that individual clerks thought in a new way, and many of them made a lot of efforts to spread new ideas about education in Russian society.

Let's give some concrete examples. V. O. Klyuchevsky points out that “usually the princes were taught by the clerks of the Ambassadorial order.” In addition, they bought foreign books: for example, by order of A. L. Ordin-Nashchekin, in 1669 he was sent 82 Latin books; wrote essays: clerk Griboyedov writes “History, that is, a story about piously ruling and holyly living divinely crowned tsars and great princes who are faithfully ruling in the Russian land ...”, under A. S. Matveev (1672-1675) books were written on world history “ Vassiliologion" and other books on national and foreign history, the authors of which were, as mentioned above, Nikolai Spafariy and Petr Dolgovo, gold painter M. Kvachevsky; organized schools: F. M. Rtishchev at his own expense summoned “up to 30 learned monks”, who were supposed to translate foreign books into Russian and teach those who wished Greek, Latin and Slavic grammar, rhetoric, philosophy and “other verbal sciences”. “This is how, concludes V.O. Klyuchevsky, an academic fraternity appeared in Moscow, a kind of free academy of sciences.”

So, for example, for the treatment of various diseases were used: salt, cloves, rose hips, nut oil, bean blossom, apple trees, pears, wine, etc. Many of these remedies were known in Russia long before the 17th century. In addition, the close connection between upbringing and education, traditional for the Russian school, was preserved. So, for example, in the preface to the collection of pedagogical content intended for Prince P. M. Cherkassky, it is said that two terms of education must be distinguished in the education of the child. The first 7 years should be devoted entirely to the moral education of the child, and only the second 7 years "teach someone art."

On the other hand, many foreigners, making up study guides for the education of Russian people, took into account the peculiarities of the Russian cultural tradition. These are the textbooks compiled by Yu. Krizhanich, the Likhud Brothers and some other authors. In addition, some authors tried, in particular, the unknown author of "On the Causes of the Fall of Kingdoms", to reveal the main theses of ancient thinkers in relation to Russian history.

The role of foreigners in the education of Russians was rather high. Moreover, individual officials were well aware of the need for education and sought to independently get acquainted with the achievements of Western European science. This desire, on the one hand, and the adaptation of European education to Russian conditions, on the other hand, testified that the process of teaching Russians was precisely a dialogue of cultures, and not the suppression of one, "more developed" culture of another.

The first state medical school in Russia was opened in 1654 under the Pharmaceutical order at the expense of the state treasury. Children of archers, clergy and service people were accepted into it. Training included collecting herbs, working in a pharmacy, and practicing in the regiment. In addition to pharmacy, students studied pharmacy, pharmacology, Latin, anatomy, diagnosis, diseases and their treatment. Their textbooks were the famous “Herbalists”, “Healers”, which constitute the richest heritage Ancient Russia. But a special place in teaching was occupied by “pre-Khtur tales” (case histories). European experience was also used in the training of Russian doctors. So, in 1658, Epiphanius of Slovenia translated "Anatomy" by Andrei Vesalius - the best textbook in the world, which was not yet known in many European universities.

The Pharmaceutical Order made high demands on the students of the Medical School. Those accepted for study promised: “... do no harm to anyone and do not drink or gossip and do not steal by any kind of theft ...” The training lasted 5-7 years. Medical assistants attached to foreign specialists studied from 3 to 12 years. Over the years, the number of students varied from 10 to 40. The first graduation of the Medical School, due to the large shortage of regimental doctors, took place ahead of schedule in 1658. The school functioned irregularly. For 50 years she has trained about 100 Russian doctors. Most of them served in the regiments. The systematic training of medical personnel in Russia began in the 18th century. After graduating from the “School of Russian Doctors”, diplomas were awarded, which stated: “... he heals stab and cut and chopped wounds and makes plasters and ointments and other articles that are worthy of the medical business, and the medical business will be.” The first doctors of the Moscow state had to deal with many diseases. Here is a list of diseases known at that time: scurvy, fever, scrofula, scab, "stone", "scaly" (hemorrhoids), "saw" (joint diseases), "sickness" (venereal diseases), "carrying", jaundice, erysipelas , asthma and others.

Monastic hospitals continued to be built at monasteries. In 1635, at the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, two-story hospital wards were built, which have survived to this day, as well as the hospital wards of the Novo-Devichy, Kirillo-Belozersky and other monasteries. In the Muscovite state, monasteries were of great defensive importance. Therefore, during enemy invasions, temporary hospitals were created on the basis of their hospital wards to treat the wounded. And, despite the fact that the Aptekarsky Prikaz did not deal with monastic medicine, in wartime the maintenance of patients and medical care in temporary military hospitals on the territory of monasteries was carried out at the expense of the state. This was an important distinguishing feature of Russian medicine in the 17th century. The first Russian doctors of medicine appeared in the 15th century. Among them is Georgiy from Drogobych, who received a PhD in philosophy and medicine from the University of Bologna (modern Italy) and later taught in Bologna and Krakow. His work "Prognostic judgment of the current year 1483 by Georgy Drogobych from Russia, Doctor of Medicine of the University of Bologna", published in Rome, is the first printed book of a Russian author abroad. In 1512, Francysk Skorina from Polotsk received the degree of Doctor of Medicine in Padua (modern Italy). In 1696, also at the University of Padua, the degree of Doctor of Medicine was awarded to P.V. Postnikov; being a highly educated man, he subsequently served as the Russian ambassador to Holland. 3. Gorelova L.E. The First Medical School of Russia // Russian Medical Journal. - 2011. - No. 16.