What is the characteristic of sound? Articulatory characteristics of sounds. after a vowel sound: washes - mo [ye] t, sings - po [yo] t, give - yes [yu] t, bark - la [ya] t

Letter "y": hard or soft? This question is often asked by students who need to parse a word according to all the rules of phonetics. You will get the answer to it a little further.

General information

Before talking about what the letter “y” is (soft or hard), you should find out why the letters of the Russian alphabet are generally divided according to such criteria.

The fact is that each word has its own sound shell, which consists of separate sounds. It should be noted that the sound of this or that expression is fully consistent with its meaning. At the same time, different words and their forms have completely different sound design. The sounds themselves don't matter. However, they play an important role in the Russian language. After all, thanks to them, we can easily distinguish words. Here's an example:

[house] - [lady´] - [do´ma];
[m'el] - [m'el'], [volume] - [there], [house] - [volume].

Transcription

Why do we need information about what the letter "y" is (hard or soft)? During a word, it is very important to correctly display the transcription that describes its sound. In such a system, it is customary to use the following symbols:

This designation is called They must be put to designate transcription.

[´] is an accent. It is placed if the word has more than one syllable.

[b '] - a kind of comma is placed next to the consonant letter and indicates its softness.

By the way, during phonetic parsing of words, the following symbol is often used - [j]. As a rule, they denote the sound of the letter “y” (sometimes a symbol such as [y] is also used).

Letter "y": consonant or vowel?

As you know, in Russian all sounds are divided into consonants and vowels. They are perceived and pronounced differently.

Vowel sounds are those sounds during the pronunciation of which air passes easily and freely through the mouth, without encountering any obstacles in its path. Moreover, they can be pulled, with the help of them you can scream. If you put your palm to your throat, then the work of the cords (voice) during the pronunciation of vowels can be quite easily felt. There are 6 stressed vowels in Russian, namely: [a], [e], [u], [s], [o] and [i].
Consonant sounds are those sounds during the pronunciation of which the air meets an obstacle in its path, namely a bow or a gap. Their appearance determines the nature of the sounds. As a rule, a gap is formed when pronouncing [s], [w], [h] and [g]. In this case, the tip of the tongue approaches the upper or lower teeth. The presented consonants can be drawn (for example, [zh-zh-zh], [z-z-z]). As for the bow, such a barrier is formed due to the closing of the organs of speech. The air, or rather its flow, abruptly overcomes it, due to which the sounds are energetic and short. That is why they are called explosive. By the way, it is impossible to pull them (try it yourself: [p], [b], [t], [d]).

In addition to the above consonants, the Russian language also has the following: [m], [d], [c], [f], [g], [l], [p], [h], [c], [x] . As you can see, there are many more than vowels.

Silent and voiced sounds

By the way, many consonants form between pairs of deafness and sonority: [k] - [g], [b] - [n], [h] - [c], [d] - [t], [f] - [c], etc. In total, there are 11 such pairs in Russian. However, there are sounds that do not have pairs on this basis. These include: [th], [p], [n], [l], [m] are unpaired voiced, and [h] and [c] are unpaired voiceless.

Soft and hard consonants

As you know, consonants differ not only in sonority or, conversely, deafness, but also in softness and hardness. This property is the second the most important sign sounds.

So, the letter "y": hard or soft? To answer this question, you should consider each feature separately:

During the pronunciation of soft consonants, the entire tongue moves slightly forward, and its middle part rises slightly.
During the pronunciation of hard consonants, the entire tongue is literally pulled back.

It should be especially noted that many consonants form pairs among themselves according to such characteristics as softness and hardness: [d] - [d ’], [p] - [p ’], etc. There are 15 such pairs in total. However, there are also sounds that do not have pairs on this basis. What letters of solid consonants are unpaired? These include the following - [w], [g] and [c]. As for unpaired soft ones, these are [u '], [h '] and [y '].

Designation on the letter

Now you know the information about whether the letter "y" is hard or soft. But here a new question arises: "How is the softness of such sounds indicated in writing?" For this, completely different methods are used:

The letters "e", "u", "ё", "i" after the consonants (not counting "zh", "sh", and "c") indicate that these consonants are soft. Let's give an example: uncle - [d'a´d'a], aunt - [t'o´t'a].
The letter "i" after the consonants (not counting "zh", "sh", and "c") indicates that these consonants are soft. Let's give an example: cute - [m'i´ly '], sheet - [l'ist], no´tki - [n'i´tk'i].
The soft sign ("ь") after consonants (not counting "zh" and "w") is an indicator of grammatical form. It also indicates that consonants are soft. Examples example: distance - [gave '], stranded - [m'el '], request - [proz'ba].

As you can see, the softness of consonant sounds in writing is conveyed not by individual letters, but by their combinations with the vowels "e", "yu", "ё", "ya", as well as a soft sign. That is why when experts recommend paying attention to neighboring characters.

As for the vowel "y", it is always soft. In this regard, in transcription it is usually denoted as follows: [th ']. That is, the comma symbol, indicating the softness of the sound, must always be set. [u '], [h '] obey the same rule.

Summing up

As you can see, there is nothing difficult in making any word correctly. To do this, you just need to know what vowels and consonants are, deaf and voiced, as well as soft and hard. For a better understanding of how it is necessary to arrange transcription, we will give several detailed examples.

1. The word "hero". Consists of two syllables, with the 2nd being stressed. Let's do a breakdown:

g - [g ’] - voiced, consonant and soft.

e - [and] - unstressed vowel.

p - [p] - voiced, consonant, unpaired and hard.

o - [o] - stressed vowel.

th - [th ’] - voiced, consonant, unpaired and soft.

Total: 5 letters and 5 sounds.

2. The word "trees". Consists of three syllables, with the 2nd being stressed. Let's do a breakdown:

d - [d '] - voiced, consonant and soft.

e - [and] - unstressed vowel.

p - [p '] - voiced, consonant, unpaired and soft.

e - [e´] - stressed vowel.

in - [in '] - voiced, consonant and soft

e - [y '] - voiced, consonant, unpaired and soft and [e] - vowel, unstressed;

in - [f] - deaf, and hard.

Total: 8 letters and 8 sounds.

The syllable is divided into even smaller units - sounds, which are the smallest units of sounding speech, pronounced in one articulation.

Speech sounds are created by air vibrations and the work of the speech apparatus. Therefore, they can be considered as physiological phenomena, since they arise as a result of human articulatory activity, and physical (acoustic), i.e. perceived by ear. However, one cannot limit oneself to these two aspects when characterizing speech sounds; linguistics studies sounds as special units of language that perform a social function, i.e. function of communication between people. For linguistics, it is important to find out to what extent sounds are associated with the distinction between the meaning of words and their forms, whether all sounds are equally important for language as a means of communication. Therefore, in late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century. linguists began to study precisely the functional side of sounds, as a result of which a new department of linguistics appeared - phonology.

The sound composition of the Russian language

All speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants.

Vowels and consonants differ in acoustic and articulatory features: 1) vowels are tonal sounds, consonants are formed with the participation of noise; 2) vowels are sounds that are formed without the participation of an obstacle in the path of the air stream, all consonants are formed with the help of an obstacle (closed lips - [b], [p], a gap between the tongue and the hard palate - [x], etc. ); 3) vowels are not differentiated according to the method and place of formation, for consonants, the place and method of formation are very significant grounds for their classification; 4) during the formation of vowels, the organs of speech are tense evenly, while the formation of consonants, the organs of speech are most tense in the place where there is an obstacle; 5) the air stream when pronouncing vowels is weak, and when pronouncing consonants it is strong, since it needs to overcome the obstacle existing in its path; 6) all vowels can be syllabic, consonants (except sonorants) cannot form a syllable on their own.

In this opposition of vowels and consonants of speech sounds, an intermediate position is occupied by sonorant consonants, which are partly close to consonants (formation with the help of a barrier, differentiation according to the method and place of formation, the presence of noise), and partly to vowels (the predominance of tone, the ability to form a syllable) .

There are six vowel sounds (phonemes) in Russian: [i], [s], [y], [e], [o], [a]. Their classification is based on articulatory features: the degree of elevation of the tongue, the row, the participation of the lips.

There are 37 consonant sounds (phonemes) in modern Russian. Their formation and classification are much more complicated than vowels.

Intonation

Each phrase is articulated intonation.

Intonation- this is a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional side and manifested in successive changes in pitch (melodics - raising or lowering the tone), speech rhythm (ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables), speech tempo (acceleration and slowing down in the flow of speech), the strength of the sound (intensity of speech), intra-phrase pauses (which is reflected in the rhythm of the phrase) and the general timbre of the statement, which, depending on the target setting, can be “funny”, “playful”, “scared”, "gloomy", etc. Intonation performs important functions: it not only forms phrases, sentences and various syntactic constructions, but also participates in the expression of thoughts, feelings and the will of people. In fact, the same segment of a sounding speech, depending on how, with what intonation, it will be pronounced, can have a different meaning: He has come. - He came! - He came? The intonation of narrative speech is characterized by an increase in tone at the beginning of a phrase and a decrease in tone at the end of a phrase, at an indent; the interrogative phrase is characterized by a sharp rise in the indent; the intonation of the exclamatory phrase is even high.

It is difficult to convey intonation differences in writing. Apart from the dot, colon, dash, comma, brackets, exclamation mark, question mark, and ellipsis, we have no way of conveying the character of intonation in writing. And even with the help of these signs, it is far from always possible to reflect the intonation pattern of a phrase. For example:

Who does not know that he was the first to express this idea? - there is a question mark at the end of the sentence, but the phrase has an affirmative, not an interrogative meaning.

Intonation also performs another important function - with its help, a sentence is divided into semantic-syntactic units - syntagmas.

Variety of sounds and their difference

There are many sounds in every language. And in different languages their number is different, as is the ratio between vowels and consonants.

Each sound has its own acoustic features, characteristics to which modern phonologists are paying more and more attention, since they believe that the acoustic classification is a true linguistic classification, concerned with finding out what a sound is, while the articulatory classification of sounds (the most common) is aimed at understanding how sound is produced.

Sounds differ from one another in pitch, longitude, strength and timbre. Therefore, any two sounds that have different indicators of pitch, strength and timbre are different from an acoustic point of view. In addition, there are differences between sounds, explained by subjective and objective moments. 1. Individual differences between sounds are associated with the peculiarities of the pronunciation of individual people. Each person pronounces sounds to some extent in his own way. For linguistics, only such differences between sounds are important that make changes in the meanings of words. If two people (for example, a student and a professor) uttered the word student, then we notice that this word was uttered by them differently, but at the same time we assert that they uttered the same word. But if the same person utters two words, for example, a garden and a court, then we will find out without the slightest difficulty that these are different words, since they have two different sounds [a, y], which distinguish their sound appearance and indicate differences in meaning.

Thus, individual differences in the pronunciation of the same sound are not linguistically important. Conversely, linguistically important are different sounds as units of a system of language, regardless of the different pronunciation of them by individual people.

2. When we say the word city[gort], in for stressed syllable in place of the sound [o] a very obscure sound sounds, as it happens reduction(from the Latin reducere - to return, bring back) - weakening of sound under the influence of those phonetic conditions in which the sound turned out to be(unstressed position). Here the sound [o] not only loses part of its sonority, but also loses its quality - it turns into a sound [b]. In the same word, the final sound [d] is deafened, pronounced as [t] - this is a characteristic law of the modern Russian language (voiced consonants in the position of the end of the word are deafened). get stunned or speak out loud consonants can also be in the middle of a word under the influence of the subsequent deaf or voiced consonant: oak - oak [dupka], ask - request [proz" ba]. These phenomena indicate that under certain phonetic conditions (voiced before the deaf, deaf before the voiced, voiced at the end of a word, a vowel in an unstressed position, etc.) it is possible that one sound affects another and their changes or other sound processes.Such differences between sounds are usually called phonetically determined. They also do not have a linguistically significant meaning, since the word and its meaning do not change.

3. In words WHO And university after the consonant [v], we pronounce different sounds. These sounds in these words serve distinguishers their meaning. The difference in sounds is not positionally determined, since both act in the same position (stressed - strong for vowels), there is also no influence of neighboring sounds here. Differences between sounds, not due to either individual characteristics pronunciations, neither by the position of the sound, nor by the influence of one sound on another, are called functional. Functional differences between sounds are of linguistic importance.

Consequently, two sounds, the difference between which is not due to the position or influence of neighboring sounds, but is associated with a change in the meaning of the word, are functionally different.

onetic transcription

To record sounding speech, a special system of signs is used - phonetic transcription. Phonetic transcription is based on the principle of a one-to-one correspondence between a sound and its graphic symbol.

The transcribed sound (word, sentence, text) is usually enclosed in square brackets: [we] we. Sounding speech is recorded without capital letters and punctuation marks, but with pauses.

In words consisting of more than one syllable, the place of stress should be indicated: [z’imá] winter. If two words (for example, a preposition and a noun) are characterized by a single stress and are pronounced together, then they are connected by a league: [v_dom].
In Russian phonetic transcription the letters of the Russian alphabet are mainly used. Recording of consonants is carried out using all the corresponding letters, except for u and y. Special superscript or subscript icons can be placed next to the letter. They indicate some features of the sound:

[n '] - soft consonant ([n '] yobo palate);

[n:] - long consonant (bath); may be denoted by an accent or [n:].

The letter u in most cases corresponds to the sound that is conveyed by the sign [w ':]: y [w ':] élie, [w ':] etina. A voiced parallel to [w ':] will be the sound [zh ':], speaking, for example, in the word dró [zh ':] and yeast (other pronunciation is also allowed - dró [zh:] and).

The Latin letter [j] in transcription denotes the consonant “yot”, which sounds in the words block apple, water reservoir, sparrows [b'ji´] sparrows, language language, sará [j] barn, má [j] ka shirt, chá [ j] nickname teapot, etc. Please note that the consonant "yot" is not always transmitted in writing with the letter y.

Recording of vowel sounds is carried out using various kinds of signs.

Stressed vowels are transcribed using six characters: [i] - [p'ir] fir, [s] - [ardor] ardor, [y] - [beam] ray, [e] - [l'es] forest, [o ] - [house] house, [a] - [garden] garden.
Unstressed vowels undergo various changes depending on the place in relation to stress, on the neighborhood of hard or soft consonants, on the type of syllable. To record unstressed vowels, the symbols [y], [i], [s], [a], [b], [b] are used.

Unstressed [y] occurs in any syllable. In its quality, it is similar to the corresponding stressed vowel: m[u]zykálny, r[u]ká, water[u], [u]dar.
Unstressed vowels [and], [s], [a] are pronounced in the syllable that immediately precedes the stressed syllable (such a syllable is called the first pre-stressed one): [r'i] dov rows, mod [s] lér fashion designer, d [a] ská board . The same vowels, with the exception of [s], also appear at the absolute beginning of the word: [and] excursionist excursionist, [a] to search.
Unstressed [and], [s], [a] are similar in quality to the corresponding percussive sounds, but not identical to them. So, unstressed [and] turns out to be a vowel, middle between [and] and [e], but closer to [and]: [l'i] sá fox - cf .: [l'i´] fox himself. The pronunciation of the other vowels is also different. The use of the symbols [i], [s], [a] to denote unstressed sounds is associated with a certain degree of conventionality.

So, the unstressed vowels listed above are typical for the positions of the 1st pre-stressed syllable and the absolute beginning of the word. In other cases, the sounds [b] and [b] are pronounced.

The sign [b] (“ep”) conveys a very short sound, in its quality is average between [s] and [a]. The vowel [ъ] is one of the most frequent sounds in Russian speech. It is pronounced, for example, in the 2nd pre-stressed and in stressed syllables after solid ones: p [b] rohod steamboat, in [b] water carrier, back [b] l set, city [b] city.

In similar positions, after soft consonants, a sound is recorded that resembles [and], but is shorter. This vowel is conveyed by the sign [b] (“er”): [m'b] ditch world, [m'b] catchy chalky, za [m'b] r froze, za [l'l] zhi deposits.

Organs of speech. Formation of vowels and consonants

Sounds are made during exhalation. The flow of exhaled air is necessary condition sound formation.

The jet of air leaving the trachea must pass through the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. If the ligaments are tense and close together, then the exhaled air will cause them to oscillate, resulting in a voice, that is, a musical sound, a tone. Tone is required when pronouncing vowels and voiced consonants.

The pronunciation of consonants is necessarily associated with overcoming the obstacle created in the oral cavity on the path of the air stream. This obstacle arises as a result of the convergence of the organs of speech to the boundaries of the gap ([f], [c], [h], [w]) or a complete closure ([p], [m], [d], [k]).

Various organs can be close or closed: the lower lip with the upper lip ([p], [m]) or upper teeth ([f], [c]), certain parts of the tongue with hard and soft palate ([h], [d ], [w], [k]). The organs involved in the creation of the barrier are divided into passive and active. The former remain motionless, the latter make certain movements.

The air jet overcomes the gap or bow, resulting in a specific noise. The latter is an obligatory component of the consonant sound. In the voiced, the noise is combined with the tone; in the deaf, it turns out to be the only component of the sound.

When pronouncing vowels, the vocal cords vibrate, and a free, unhindered passage through the oral cavity is provided for the air stream. Therefore, the vowel sound is characterized by the presence of tone and the complete absence of noise. The specific sound of each vowel (what distinguishes [i] from [s], etc.) depends on the position of the tongue and lips.

The movements of the pronunciation organs during the formation of sounds are called articulation, and the characteristics of sounds corresponding to them are called articulation characteristics.

sweet sounds
Stressed vowels: classification features
The classification of vowel sounds is based on signs that describe the work of the organs of speech: 1) the movement of the tongue forward - backward (row);
2) the movement of the tongue up - down (rise);
3) the position of the lips (labialization).

On the basis of the number of vowels are divided into three main groups. When articulating front vowels ([i], [e]), the tongue is concentrated in the front of the oral cavity. When articulating back vowels ([y], [o]) - in the back. Middle vowels ([ы], [а]) occupy an intermediate position.
The lift sign describes the position of the tongue as it moves up or down. High vowels ([i], [s], [y]) are characterized by a high position of the tongue in the oral cavity. The articulation of the low vowel ([a]) is associated with the low position of the tongue. Vowels of the middle rise ([e], [o]) are given a place between the named extreme groups.
The vowels [y] and [o] are labialized (or rounded), because when they are pronounced, the lips are pulled forward and rounded. The remaining vowels are pronounced with a neutral lip style and are non-labialized: [i], [s], [e], [a].

The table of stressed vowels is as follows:

climb:
upper and´ ы´ ý (labial)
middle e´ ó (labial)
lower a

Unstressed vowels: classification features
In unstressed syllables, sounds other than those under stress are pronounced. They turn out to be shorter and articulated with less muscular tension of the organs of speech. This change in the sound of vowels is called reduction. So, all unstressed vowels in Russian are reduced.
Unstressed vowels differ from stressed vowels both quantitatively and qualitatively. On the one hand, unstressed vowels are always shorter than stressed vowels (cf.: s[a]dy´ gardens´ - s[á]dik sadik, p[i]lá pilá - n[i´]lit púlit). This feature of the sound of vowels in an unstressed position is called quantitative reduction.
On the other hand, not only the duration changes, but also the very quality of the vowels. In this regard, they speak of a qualitative reduction of vowels in an unstressed position. Paired with [b] argument gardener - with [á] dik unstressed garden [b] is not just shorter - it differs from stressed [á].
Any unstressed vowel experiences quantitative and at the same time quality reduction. When pronouncing unstressed, the tongue does not reach extreme points promotion and tends to take a more neutral stance.

The most "convenient" in this regard is the sound [b]. This is a vowel of the middle row, middle rise, non-labialized: with [b] an airplane flies, b [b] a furrow.

The articulation of all unstressed vowels shifts towards the “central” [b]. When pronouncing unstressed [s], [u], [y], [a], the force of change is not very significant: cf. r [s] bak fisherman - r [s'] ba fish, [s'i] net blue - [s' and'] niy, r [y] ká ruk - r [ý] ki ruki, l [ a] skát caress - l[á] skovy affectionate .. Unstressed [s], [i], [y], [a] can be left in the same cells of the table as the drums, slightly shifting them to the center.
Unstressed [b] ([s’b] neva blue) should take an intermediate position between unstressed [and] and “central” [b].
The sound "er" is characterized as a front-mid vowel, upper-mid rise, non-labialized.
The reduction can be stronger or less strong. Among the listed unstressed vowels, the sounds [b] and [b] stand out for their brevity. The rest of the vowels are more pronounced.
The vowel table, supplemented by unstressed sounds, takes the following form:
row: front middle back
climb:
upper i´ s´ y (labial.) y
and y
b
average
e´ b ó (labial)
lower a
á

Features of the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions (positional distribution of vowels)

Features of the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed positions depend on a number of conditions:
1) places in relation to the stressed syllable,
2) positions at the absolute beginning of a word,
3) hardness / softness of the preceding consonant.
The place in relation to the stressed syllable determines the degree of reduction of vowels. In phonetics, it is customary to name syllables not by their order in the word, but by the place occupied relative to the stressed syllable. All unstressed syllables are divided into pre-stressed and stressed. The numbering of pre-stressed syllables is carried out in the direction from the stressed syllable, that is, from right to left.
In the first pre-stressed syllable, four vowels are possible - unstressed [u], [i], [s], [a]: n [u] waiting need, [ch'i] s s'clock, w[s] lka silk, n [a]chnoy night.
In the remaining unstressed syllables (second, third pre-stressed and stressed), strongly reduced vowels [b], [b], as well as the sound [y] are pronounced. In the second pre-stressed syllable: d [b] movy smoke and brownie, [m's] meat grinder, [ch'u] do-work miraculous.
In stressed syllables: swamp [b] m swamp and swamps, gentle [b] d gentle and tender, blue [n'b] m blue and blue, pó [l's] m field, horse by horse.
In stressed syllables, at the absolute end of the word, along with the sounds [b], [b] and [y], the vowel [s] is fixed, only a very short one: note [s] note, note [b] note, no [t'b] note , note[y] note.
The position at the absolute beginning of a word after a pause also affects the features of vowel reduction. In this position, the sounds [y], [and], [a] are pronounced, regardless of their distance from the stressed syllable: [u] take away, [and] exporter exporter, [a] say stipulate.

Features of the distribution of unstressed vowels in a word can be presented in the form of a table.

In stressed syllable: drums [ý], [i´], [s´], [e´], [ó], [á]
In the 1st prestressed syllable, at the absolute beginning of a word: unstressed [y], [and], [s], [a]
In the 2nd, 3rd pre-stressed syllable,in stressed syllables: unstressed [b], [b], [y] + [s](in the abs. end of the word)
The hardness / softness of the preceding consonant is an important factor in determining the possibility of the appearance of certain vowels:

1) after hard can act[y], [s], [a], [b]: [lu] meadow meadow, [ly] net to go bald, [la] réts casket, [l] horses' horses;
2) after soft are pronounced[y], [and], [b]: [l'u] to be afraid to admire, [ch'i] to turn black, [l'l] doryub ice ax;
3) pre-shock[a] and [b] after soft ones are impossible: [r'i] dy' rows, [n'i] ti' five, [r'b] second private, [n'b] five-year-old tablet;
4) [b] after soft appears only in reflexive -sya, in endings and formative suffixes. Such pronunciation is possible, but not mandatory, and is associated with the task of conveying grammatical information about case, number, etc.:
received i´l [s'b] turned out - at the babý [s'b] at the grandmother;
drop [l'b] drop - drop [l'b] drop;
bear [d'b] m bears - bear [d'b] m bear;
landing in y´sa [d’b] - landing in y´sa [d’b] s.
All the features of vowel pronunciation analyzed above relate to the phonetics of commonly used significant words. Unions, prepositions, particles, interjections, rare borrowings may not obey the described patterns. They allow, for example, the following pronunciation of non-high vowels: slept, n[o] not for long, b[o]á, andánt[e].kt

It is easy to see that the expression of the thought contained in this phrase requires an obligatory pause after the word weapon. The presence of a pause creates two speech measures in a phrase. Thus, a speech tact is a part of a phrase, limited by pauses and characterized by an intonation of incompleteness. Pauses between speech measures are shorter than between phrases.

The speech tact, as well as the phrase, is directly related to the expression of content in the language. Depending on where one speech measure ends and the next begins, the whole meaning of the phrase sometimes changes: How he was struck // by the words of his brother. — How struck by his words // brother. The arbitrariness of dividing a phrase into speech beats can lead to the complete destruction of thought.

As a rule, the phrase consists of several speech measures: In the hour of trials // bow to the fatherland // in Russian // at the feet (D. Kedrin). The beat can match single word. But usually several words are combined in a speech tact.

onetic vowel alternations. Designation of unstressed vowels in writing

A vowel belonging to a certain morpheme can be stressed in some words, unstressed in others. So, unstressed [and] in the word [d’o] cheap cheap corresponds to the stressed labialized [ó], which sounds in the same root in the word [d’o] cheap cheap.

Sounds belonging to the same morpheme (root, prefix, suffix, ending) and replacing each other in different phonetic positions form phonetic alternation. In the example above, the phonetic alternation [ó] // [and] is fixed.

In Russian, the following are possible alternation of percussion and unstressed sounds:

1. [ý] // [y] z[ý] would, z[u]bnoy: teeth, dental.

2. [i´] // [and] // [b] [p’i´] shet, [p’i] sat, [n’b] sani´na: writes, writes, scribbling.

3. [y´] // [s] // [b] w[y´] re, w[s] rok, w[b] rok: wider, wide, wide.

4. [and´] // [s´] // [and] // [s] [and´] games, with [s´] grand, [and] play, with [s] play: games, played, play, play.

5. [e´] // [s] // [b] sh [e] st, sh [s] stá, sh [b] stovoy: pole, pole, pole.

6. [e´] // [and] // [b] [p’e´] shiy, [p’i] shkóm, [p’b] shekhod: on foot, on foot, pedestrian.

7. [ó] // [a] // [ъ] d[ó] mik, d[a] home, d[b] mov: house, home, brownie.

8. [ó] // [and] // [b] [p'ó] strobe, [p'i] str and´t, [n'b] strotá: colorful, variegated, variegated.

9. [ó] // [s] // [b] sh[ó] lka, sh[s] lká, sh [b] lkov i´ty: silk, silk, silky.

10. [á] // [a] // [b] tr[á] vka, tr[a] vá, tr[b] wiry: grass, grass, herbal.

11. [á] // [and] // [b] [n’á]th, [n’i] so, [n’b] wheelbarrow: fifth, nickel, piglet.

Please note that the quality of unstressed sound is not indicated on the letter. The fact that a vowel is unstressed is a signal orthograms. In the roots of the words on foot, dazzle, nickel, pronounced with unstressed [and], the letter is not written. When choosing the correct letter in these examples, you need to focus on the stressed version of the pronunciation of the root: [p'e´] shy, [p'ó] stro, [p'á] ty.

Such a check underlies the leading principle of Russian spelling - morphematic (more precisely, phonemic). The morpheme receives such a graphical representation, in which. positionally alternating sounds are written with one letter in accordance with the strong variant (the vowel is checked by stress, the consonant is placed before the vowel).

The spelling of unstressed vowels that are not checked by stress falls under another spelling principle - the traditional one. IN dictionary words with [a] báka, p ['i] chál, r ['i] b i´na, it is customary to write the letters o, e, i, in examples like mind ['i] rlá / mind ['i] rála - letters e and i. The last two examples are related to the operation of the rules, which in all reference books are given under the heading "Alternating vowels in the root." It should be borne in mind that in this case we are not talking about any phonetic alternations.

It is extremely rare for unstressed vowels to be written in accordance with the phonetic principle of orthography. The prefix ras- / raz- / ros- / rose- has four graphic variants, correlated with the peculiarities of its pronunciation in different words, and not with the situation of verification: p[a] confuse unravel, p[a] destroy destroy, p[ó] write down the painting in the presence of p[ó] rally rally (it is the last option that would be a test, because in it the vowel is under stress, and the consonant before the vowel).

vowels

Consonant sounds: classification features.
When classifying consonants, it is customary to take into account a number of features:
1) the ratio of noise and tone (noisiness / sonority),
2) participation or non-participation of the voice (sonority / deafness),
3) hardness / softness,
4) place of formation,
5) the way of education.

Particularly stipulated are the properties of pairing in deafness / sonority and pairing in hardness / softness.

Noisy and sonorous, deaf and voiced consonants

Noisy and sonorous consonants differ in the ratio of noise and tone.

Sonorants in Russian include nine sounds: [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [l], [l’], [p], [p’], [j]. As with all consonants, a barrier is created during the articulation of sonorants in the oral cavity. However, the force of friction of the air jet against the contiguous / closed organs of speech is minimal: the air jet finds a relatively free exit to the outside and no noise is generated. Air rushes either through the nose ([m], [m '], [n], [n ']), or into the passage between the lateral edges of the tongue and cheeks ([l], [l ']). The absence of noise can be associated with the instantaneous nature of the barrier ([p], [p']) or with the rather wide nature of the gap itself ([j]). In any case, no noise is created and the main source of sound is the tone (voice) created by the vibration of the vocal cords.

In the formation of noisy consonants ([b], [c], [g], [e], [g], [h], etc.), on the contrary, noise plays the main role. It occurs as a result of overcoming an obstacle with an air stream. The tonal component of the sound is non-basic and may either be completely absent (for deaf consonants) or supplement the main one (for voiced consonants).
Voiced and voiceless consonants differ in the participation / non-participation of tone (voice) in the formation of a consonant sound.

Tone (voice) is characteristic of the pronunciation of voiced, their articulation suggests compulsory work vocal cords. Voiced, therefore, are all sonorants: [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [l], [l '], [p], [p '], [j]. Among the noisy consonants, the voiced sounds include the following sounds: [b], [b '], [c], [c '], [g], [g '], [d], [d '], [g], [ f:'], [h], [h'].

[b] - [n] [b '] - [n '] [s] - [s] [s '] - [s ']

[c] - [f] [c '] - [f '] [g] - [w] [w: '] - [w: ']

[d] - [t] [d '] - [t '] [g] - [k] [g '] - [k ']

The listed sounds are, respectively, either voiced pairs or deaf pairs. The remaining consonants are characterized as unpaired. All sonorants are referred to voiced unpaired, sounds [c], [h '], [x], [x '] are deaf unpaired.

onetic alternations of consonants according to deafness / voicedness. Designation of deafness / voiced consonants in writing

The deafness / voicedness of consonants remains an independent, independent sign in the following provisions:
1) before vowels: [su]d court - [zu]d itching, [ta]m there - [da]m ladies;
2) in front of sonorants: [layer] th layer - [evil] oh evil, [tl '] I aphid - [dl '] I for;
3) before [in], [in ']: [verify '] check check - [beast '] beast beast.

In these positions, both voiceless and voiced consonants are found, and these sounds are used to distinguish between words (morphemes). The listed positions are called strong in deafness / sonority.

In other cases, the appearance of a deaf / ringing sound predetermined by its position in the word or the proximity of a particular sound. Such deafness / sonority turns out to be dependent, “forced”. Positions in which this happens are considered weak on the basis of the specified attribute.

The Russian language has a law according to which voiced noisy ones are deafened at the end of a word, cf. In the given examples, the phonetic alternation of consonants according to deafness / voicedness is fixed: [b] // [p] and [h '] // [s '].

In addition, positional changes relate to situations where the voiceless and voiced consonants are close. In this case, the subsequent sound affects the previous one. Voiced consonants in front of the deaf are necessarily likened to them in deafness, as a result, a sequence of deaf sounds arises, cf. ready [in ']it is preparing - ready [f't'] do not cook (i.e. [in '] // [f '] in front of the deaf).

Deaf consonants facing voiced noisy ones (except [c], [c ']) change to voiced ones, there is an assimilation by voicedness, cf. [t '] // [d '] before the voiced one), ask [s '] and´t to ask - ask for [s'b] a request (i.e. [s '] // [s '] before the voiced) .

Articulatory assimilation of sounds of the same nature, that is, two consonants (or two vowels), is called assimilation (from Latin assimilatio ‘similarity’). Thus, assimilation by deafness and assimilation by voicedness was described above.

The designation of deafness / voiced consonants in writing is associated with the use of the corresponding letters: t or d, p or b, etc. However, only independent, independent deafness / sonority is indicated on the letter. Sound signs that turn out to be “forced”, positionally conditioned, are not indicated in the letter. Thus, phonetically alternating sounds are written with one letter, the morphematic principle of spelling operates: in the word du [p] oak, the letter b is written, as in the test du [b] a of oak.

The exception will be the spelling of some borrowed words (transcription [p]tion transcription if available transcription [b '] to transcribe) and prefixes on s / s (and [s] use use if available and [s] learn to study). The graphic appearance of such examples falls under the phonetic principle of orthography. True, in the case of prefixes, it does not work to the end, combined with the traditional one: ra[w:] move = ra[w] move stir up.

The traditional principle of spelling is subject to the choice of a letter in dictionary words such as v[g] hall station, and [z] best asbestos. Their spelling does not depend on verification (it is impossible), nor on pronunciation.

hard and soft consonants

Hard and soft consonants differ in the position of the tongue.

When pronouncing soft consonants ([b '], [c '], [d '], [h '], etc.), the entire body of the tongue moves forward, and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate. This movement of the tongue is called palatalization. Palatalization is considered an additional articulation: it is superimposed on the main one associated with the formation of an obstruction.

When pronouncing solid consonants ([b], [c], [d], [h], etc.), the tongue does not move forward and its middle part does not rise.

Consonants form 15 pairs of sounds opposed in hardness / softness. All of them are either hard pairs or soft pairs:

[b] - [b '] [n] - [n '] [m] - [m ']

[in] - [in '] [f] - [f '] [n] - [n ']

[g] - [g '] [k] - [k '] [p] - [p ']

[d] - [d '] [t] - [t '] [l] - [l ']

[s] - [s '] [s] - [s '] [x] - [x ']

The hard unpaired ones include the consonants [c], [w], [g], and the soft unpaired ones include the consonants [h '], [w: '], [g: '] and [j].

The consonants [w] and [w: ’], [g] and [g: ’] do not form pairs, as they differ in two features at once: hardness / softness and brevity / longitude.

It should be noted that the sound [zh: '] is rare. It is possible only in a limited circle of words: I drive, reins, yeast, splashes, later and some others. At the same time, [zh: '] is increasingly being replaced by [zh:].

A very special position among soft consonants is occupied by the sound [j]. In the rest of the soft consonants, the raising of the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate is, as noted above, an additional articulation. The consonant [j] has the indicated articulation as the main one, because there are no other barriers when pronouncing [j]. Therefore, the sound [j] is in principle not capable of having a solid pair.

onetic alternations of consonants in hardness/softness. Designation of hardness / softness of consonants in writing. Letters b and b

The hardness / softness of consonants as an independent feature, and not arising due to positional changes, is fixed in the following strong positions:

1) before vowels, including [e]: [lu] to bow - [l'u] to hatch, [but] with nose - [n'o] s carried, past [t e´] pastel - pos [t 'e´]l bed;
Paired soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in native Russian words, paired hard ones - in borrowed ones. However, many of these borrowings have ceased to be perceived as rare: antenna, cafe, sausage, stress, mashed potatoes, prosthesis, etc. As a result, both hard and soft pronunciation of the consonant before [e] became possible in commonly used words.

2) at the end of the word: ko [n] kon - ko [n '] horse, zha [r] heat - zha [r '] heat;

3) for sounds [l], [l ’], regardless of their position: in [l] ná wave - in [l ’] ná free;

4) for consonants [c], [s '], [s], [s '], [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [n], [n '], [ p], [p'] (for front-lingual)
- in the position before [k], [k '], [g], [g '], [x], [x '] (before back-lingual): gó [r] ka hill - gó [r '] ko bitterly, bá [n] ka banka - bá [n '] ka banka;
- in a position before [b], [b '], [p], [n '], [m], [m '] (before the lips): and [z] bá hut - re [z '] bá carving;

In other cases, the hardness or softness of the consonant will not be independent, but caused by the influence of sounds on each other.

Similarity in hardness is observed, for example, in the case of a combination of soft [n '] with hard [s], cf. cue (i.e. [n'] // [n] before solid). A pair of June [n’] June - June’s [n’s] cue June does not follow this pattern. But this exception is the only one.

Assimilation by softness is carried out inconsistently in relation to different groups of consonants and is not respected by all speakers. Only the replacement [n] with [n '] before [h '] and [w: '] knows no deviations, cf: drum [n] drum - drum [n "h '] ik drum, gó [n] ok races - gó[n' w:']ik racer (i.e. [n] // [n'] before soft).

In accordance with the old norms, it was necessary to say: l ´ [m’k ’] and straps, [v’b ’] to drive in; [d’v ’] er the door; [with'j] eat eat; [s’t’] ená wall. In modern pronunciation, there is no mandatory softening of the first sound in these cases. So, the word la´ [mk ’] and straps (similarly trya´ [pk ’] and rags, lá [fk ’] and benches) is pronounced only with a solid, other sound combinations allow pronunciation variability.

The designation in writing applies only to cases of independent, and not positionally determined, hardness / softness of paired consonants. At the literal level, the soft sound quality [n '] in the words drum and racer is not graphically fixed.

Unlike deafness / sonority, independent softness of paired consonants is conveyed not by the letter corresponding to the consonant sound, but by the letter following it - by the letters i, e, u, i: face, ice, hatch, clang;
IN modern language the letter e ceased to denote the softness of the preceding consonant. The combination of letters ... those ... cannot be read if you do not see what word it belongs to - dough or test.

2) at the end of the word with a soft sign: horse, fire, dust;

3) in the middle of a word before a consonant letter, a soft sign: darkness, very, bathhouse.

The independent hardness of paired consonants is transmitted by such means:

Letters s, o, y, a, e: bast, boat, bow, weasel, karate;

At the end of the word, the absence of a soft sign: con_, heat_, puff_l;

In the middle of a word before a consonant there is no soft sign:
t_ min, s_ looks, bank_ ka.

The hardness / softness of unpaired consonants does not require a separate designation. The spelling i / s, ё / o, yu / y, ya / a after the letters w, w, h, u, c, corresponding to unpaired ones, is dictated by tradition: life, number, chicken, burn, burn, joke, brochure, cup. The same applies to the use / disuse of the letter soft sign in a number of grammatical forms: rye, married _, silence, baby_, thing, comrade_, can, brick_.

Please note that the name of the letters b and b turns out to be insidious. The letter "hard sign" never denotes hardness, its use is associated with a separating function, i.e. indicating the presence of [j] before the next vowel sound: st will eat, and [d'ju] tant adjutant.

The functions of the letter "soft sign" are wider. Firstly, it can also be used in the separating function, but not after prefixes: [vjý]ga blizzard, bu[l'jó]n broth. In this case, the letter b does not indicate the softness of the consonant. Secondly, a soft sign can traditionally be written in a number of grammatical forms after letters corresponding to unpaired consonants (see above). Again, the letter ь does not convey the softness of sounds in this use. And finally, in a number of situations, the letter b denotes the softness of consonants in writing. This function extends to examples with independent softness of paired consonants at the end of a word and in the middle of a word before a consonant (see above).

place and method of forming consonants

The place of formation of a consonant sound is a sign showing where in the oral cavity the air stream meets an obstacle.

This characteristic is given with the obligatory indication of the active (moving) and passive (fixed) organs. So, consonants, the articulation of which is associated with the movement of the lower lip, are labial-labial ([p], [p '], [b], [b '], [m], [m ']) and labial-dental ([ f], [f'], [v], [v']). Consonants formed with the active participation of the language are divided into front-lingual dental ([s], [s'], [s], [s'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [ c], [l], [l '], [n], [n ']), anterior lingual anterior palatals ([w], [w '], [g], [g '], [h '], [r ], [p ']), medial lingual palatals ([j]), posterior lingual palatals ([k '], [g '], [x ']) and posterior lingual posterior palatals ([k], [g], [x]) . All listed groups of sounds are reflected in the table of consonants (see below).

Considering the table (Appendix to the publication), be sure to pronounce the sounds given in it. The work of your own organs of speech will help you understand why each sound is placed in a particular cell.

The method of forming a consonant is a characteristic that simultaneously indicates the type of barrier in the oral cavity and the way to overcome it.

There are two main ways to form an obstruction - either the complete closure of the speech organs, or their convergence to the distance of the gap. Thus, stop and fricative consonants are distinguished.

When articulating slotted air, a stream of exhaled air exits in the middle of the oral cavity, producing friction on the contiguous organs of speech: h'], [w], [w¯'], [g], [g¯'], [j], [x], [x'].

The pronunciation of stop consonants includes the moment of complete closure of the organs of speech, when the exit of the air stream to the outside is blocked. The method of overcoming the bond may be different, depending on what further division into classes is carried out.

Stopping plosives involve removing the barrier with a strong and short push of air, which quickly comes out: [p], [p '], [b], [b '], [t], [t '], [d], [d' ], [k], [k'], [g], [g'].

In stop affricates, the organs of speech that are tightly adjacent to each other do not sharply open, but only slightly open, forming a gap for air to escape: [ts], [h '].

Closing nasals do not require breaking the bow at all. Thanks to the lowered palatine curtain, the air does not rush to the place of the shutter, but freely exits through the nasal cavity: [m], [m '], [n], [n '].

When the occlusive lateral [l] and [l ’] are formed, the air also does not come into contact with the barrier, bypassing it along its own trajectory - between the lowered side of the tongue and the cheeks.

In some teaching aids nasal and lateral sounds are described as occlusive-passing.

Stop trembling are characterized by periodic closing and opening of the organs of speech, that is, their vibration: [p], [p '].

Sometimes trembling is considered not as a variety of stops, but as a separate, third type of consonants along with stops and fricatives.

Phonetic alternations of consonants in place and method of formation. Phonetic alternations of consonants with zero sound

The place and method of formation of consonants can only change as a result of the influence of sounds on each other.

Before anterior palatine noisy teeth are replaced by anterior palatals. There is a positional similarity at the place of formation: [with] a game with a game - [sh sh] slaughter with a fur coat (i.e. [s] // [sh] in front of the anterior palatine), [with] a game with a game - [sh: 'h' ]championship with a championship (i.e. [s] // [w:'] before the anterior palate).

Explosive consonants before fricatives and affricates alternate with affricates, i.e. with closer articulatory sounds. Assimilation is carried out according to the method of formation: o [t] play to win back - o [cs] to fall asleep (i.e. [t] // [c] in front of the slot).

In many cases positional change exposed to several signs of consonants at once. So, in the above example with the championship, the assimilation touched not only the sign of the place of formation, but also the sign of softness. And in the case of [d] playing under the game - according to [h' w: '] some under the cheek ([d] // [h '] in front of the deaf, soft, prepalatine, slit [w: ']) there was an assimilation for all four signs - deafness, softness, place and method of formation.

In the examples le [g] ok is light - light [x'k '] y light, soft´[g] ok is soft - me´[h'k'] y soft, where [g] alternates with [x'], and not with [k'] before [k'], there is a dissimilarity (dissimilation) of sounds according to the method of formation. At the same time, dissimilation (dissimilation) on this basis is combined with likeness (assimilation) in deafness and softness.

In addition to the phenomena described above, in Russian speech, phonetic alternation of consonants with zero sound can be recorded.

Usually [t] / [t '] and [d] / [d '] are not pronounced between dental, between [p] and [h '], between [p] and [c], it also does not sound [l] before [ nc]. So, the loss of a consonant is presented in the following combinations:

Stl: happy [th’]e happiness - happy happy, i.e. [T'] // ;

Stn: place [t] about places - local local, i.e. [T] // ;

Zdn: uéz[d]a uyezd - uézny uézdny, i.e. [d] //;

Zdts: uz [d]á bridle - under the bridles´ under the bridles, i.e. [d] //; gollán [d'] Dutch Dutch - Dutch Dutch, i.e. [d'] // ;

Rdts: ser[d’]echko heart - heart heart, i.e. [d'] // ;

Rdch: ser [d ’] echko heart - serchishko heart, i.e. [d'] // ;

Lnts: só [l] little sun little sun - sun sun, i.e. [l] // .

Akin to the specified phenomenon and the loss of [j]. It occurs when an iota is preceded by a vowel, and then followed by [and] or [b]: mo mine - [mai´] mine, i.e. [j] // .

Please note that not a single phonetic phenomenon associated with the assimilation of consonants in place / method of formation or with the fact of their replacement by zero sound is indicated in the letter. According to the morphematic (phonological) principle of Russian orthography, positionally alternating sounds are written with one letter in accordance with the check. Example [w] with a fur coat is written as with a fur coat, because have [with] play with play. The unpronounceable consonant in happy happy is graphically restored on the basis of the test happy [th’]e happiness, etc.

Syllable

A syllable may consist of one or more sounds. In each syllable, only one syllabic sound is distinguished, constituting the core, the top of the syllable. Other sounds adjoin it - non-syllable.

The types of syllables are characterized by initial and final sounds. According to the initial sound, syllables can be:

1) covered - starting with a non-syllable sound: [ru-ká] hand,

2) naked - starting with a syllabic sound: [á-ist] stork.

According to the final sound, syllables are divided into:
1) closed - ending in a non-syllable: [bal-kon] balcony;

2) open - ending in a syllabic sound: [vá-z] vase.

IN modern linguistics There are several definitions of a syllable. The definition of a syllable as a set of sounds of different degrees of sonority (sonority) is widespread - from less sonorous to more sonorous. The syllabic sound is considered the most sonorous, it represents the top of the syllable. With this understanding, the syllable is built according to the law of ascending sonority.

This law predetermines the following features of syllable division.

1. Non-finite syllables strive for openness. Most open syllables: [na-ý-k] science, [a-pa-zdá-l] late.

2. Closed syllables in a word can appear only in three cases:

1) at the end of the word: [pla-tók] kerchief, [rash:’ót] calculation;

2) at the junction of sonorous and noisy in a non-initial syllable. Sonorant departs to the previous syllable, noisy - to the next: [zam-sh] suede, [bal-kon] balcony;

3) at the junction of [j] and any consonant. The sound [j] goes to the previous syllable, the consonant goes to the next one: [vaj-ná] war, [máj-kъ] T-shirt.

When learning to divide words into syllables, one should remember that the rules do not fully correspond to linguistic facts and still remain arbitrary, significant primarily within the framework of a specific theory.

In conclusion, we note that phonetic syllables often do not coincide with the morphemic structure of the word and the rules of hyphenation in writing.
Compare:
Phonetic syllables Morphemic articulation Word hyphenation
[ma-jór] major may-or
[sa-glá-sn] co-voice-n-a co-voice-on / sog-la-sleep

Memo. Alphabet. Compiled by Fedotova T.I.

In the Russian alphabet33 letters. Of them 10 vowels , 21 consonants And 2 letters , which do not represent sounds, -ъ and ь signs .

Characteristics of sounds that are indicated by letters .

Letter

Sound

Vowel the first row, which denotes the hardness of the consonant. Under stress and without stress (A). If the consonant sounds solid and after it is heard (A), we write the letter A (happy). If the consonant sounds soft and after it is heard (A), we write the letter I (row). An exception is words with CHA, SCHA.

We hear (I), and we write A.

The alphabet is pronounced like(A).

Voiced double consonant P . Can be soft and hard. The second letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabet(BE)

Voiced double consonant by deafness-voicedness. deaf coupleF . Can be soft and hard. The third letter of the alphabet.

Pronounced in the alphabet(VE)

Voiced double consonant TO. Can be soft and hard. The fourth letter of the alphabet.

Pronounced in the alphabet(GE)

Voiced double consonant by deafness-voicedness. deaf couple -T. Can be soft and hard. The fifth letter in the alphabet.

Pronounced in the alphabet(DE )

Vowel second row, which. Iotated. There is no sound (E) . The letter E can stand for different sounds depending on the location in the word and stress.

Option 1 . The letter E is under stress.

If E stands at the beginning words (spruce), after b and b (ate up),after a vowel (trip), then it means 2 sounds (YE) 2) Any iotized letter denotes 1 sound only if it comes after a consonant (sang). Here the letter E stands for the sound(E )

Option 2 . Letter E without accent

1) If E is at the beginning of the word (spruce), after b and b (drive up), after the vowel (ate), then it means 2 sounds. The sixth letter in the alphabet. In the alphabet it is pronounced (YE).

Vowel second row, whichdenotes the softness of a consonant . Iotated. Attention! You can not put an accent on Yo, since Yo is always stressed. There is no sound (Yo) . The letter Ё can stand for different sounds depending on the location in the word.

If Yo is at the beginning of a word (hedgehog), after b and b (rise), after a vowel (sings), then it means 2 sounds (YO) .

Any iotated letter denotes 1 sound only if it comes after the consonant ((carried). Here the letter Yo denotes the sound(ABOUT) The seventh letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabet(YO ).

AND

Voiced double consonant by deafness-voicedness. Deaf couple - Sh.Whatever comes after it: the vowel of the second row (I), b-sound is always pronounced firmly. The eighth letter of the alphabet. In the alphabet it is pronounced (ЖЭ).

Voiced double consonant for deafness - sonority. deaf coupleWITH . Can be soft and hard. The ninth letter of the alphabet.The alphabet is pronounced (ZE)

AND

Vowel second row, whichdenotes the softness of a consonant . Under stress (I) and without stress (I). If the consonant sounds soft and after it is heard (I), we write the letter I (peace). The exception is words with a combination of ZhI, SCHI. We hear (S), and write I . The tenth letter in the alphabet.In the alphabet it is pronounced (I).

Always media (no deaf couple.) Scientifically-sonorous . Always soft (no solid pair). Eleventh letter of the alphabet.

The alphabet is pronounced I-SHORT .

Deaf double consonant for deafness - sonority. voiced pair -G . Can be soft and hard. The twelfth letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabet(KA).

Always voiced consonant (no deaf pair).sonorous. Can be soft and hard. The thirteenth letter of the alphabet. In the alphabet it is pronounced (EL) .

Always voiced consonant (no deaf pair).sonorous . Can be soft and hard. The fourteenth letter of the alphabet. In the alphabet it is pronounced (EM ).

Always voiced consonant (no deaf pair). sonorous. Can be soft and hard. The fifteenth letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabet(EN)

ABOUT

Vowel the first row, which. Under stress (O), and without stress (A). If the consonant sounds solid and after it is heard (O), we write the letter O (nose). If the consonant sounds soft and after it is heard (O), we write the letter Yo (carried). Exception - walked, silk . The sixteenth letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabet(ABOUT)

Voiceless double consonant by deafness-voicedness. ringing couple -B . Can be soft and hard. The seventeenth letter of the alphabet. In the alphabet it is pronounced (PE )

Always voiced consonant (no deaf pair).sonorous . Can be soft and hard. The eighteenth letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabet(ER).

WITH

Voiceless double consonant by deafness-voicedness. voiced pair -Z . Can be soft and hard. The nineteenth letter of the alphabet. The alphabet is pronounced (ES).

Voiceless double consonant by deafness-voicedness. ringing couple -D. Can be soft and hard. The twentieth letter of the alphabet. In the alphabet it is pronounced (TE )

G sweet the first row, whichdenotes the hardness of a consonant . Under stress (U) and without stress (U). If the consonant sounds solid and its field is heard (U), we write the letter U (bow). If the consonant sounds soft and after it is heard (U), we write the letter Yu (hatch).The exception is words with combinations CHU, SCHU. The twenty-first letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabet(U )

Voiceless double consonant IN. Can be soft and hard. The twenty-second letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabet(EF).

Always voiceless consonant (no ringing pair). Can be soft and hard. The twenty-third letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabet(HA).

Always voiceless consonant (no ringing pair).Always a hard consonant (no soft pair). The twenty-fourth letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabet(CE).

Always voiceless consonant (no ringing pair).Whatever comes after it : first row vowel (hA c), consonant (dotn th), is it at the end of the word (ball) - soundalways pronounced softly . The twenty-fifth letter of the alphabet. In the alphabet it is pronounced (Che )

Voiceless double consonant by deafness-voicedness. voiced pair-J Always solid. Whatever comes after it: the vowel of the second row (thorn), ь (dry) - the sound is always pronounced firmly. twenty-sixth letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabet(SHA).

SCH

Always voiceless consonant (no ringing pair).Always soft . What would after him nor stood: first vowel ( plo shcha dka ), consonant (power n th), is it at the end of a word (ovosch )- the sound is always pronounced softly. The twenty-seventh letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabet(SCHA)

Kommersant

Solid sign. Sound does not mean . Written only after a consonant before vowelsYo, E, Yu, I . The twenty-eighth letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabetSOLID SIGN .

Vowel first row, which denotes the hardness of a consonant . Under stress (S) and without stress (S).The letter Y is never at the beginning of a word. . If the consonant sounds solid and after it is heard (s), we write the letter Y (son).Exception - words with combinations ZhI, SHI . We hear (Y), and we write I. The twenty-ninth letter of the alphabet.

Pronounced in the alphabet(S).

Soft sign. This letter has a dual role.

b- indicator of softness . If the consonant letter sounds soft, after it there is no vowel of the second row and this is not CH, W, Y, then after it you need to write b (horse, skates). Words with combinations CHK, CHN, LF (girl, sand, chick), written without b.

Dividing b . Doesn't mean sound. Written only after a consonant before vowels E, E, Yu, I, I. The thirtieth letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabetsoft sign .

Vowel the first row, whichdenotes the hardness of a consonant . Under stress (E) and without stress (E). Usually a letter is written after vowels (poet) or at the beginning of a word ((echo). The thirty-first letter of the alphabet. In the alphabet it is pronounced (E)

Vowel second row, whichdenotes the softness of a consonant . Iotated. There is no sound (Yu). The letter Yu can stand for different sounds depending on the location in the word. The accent doesn't matter.

If Yu stands at the beginning of a word (yula), after b and b(drink) after a vowel (sing) then it means 2 sounds (YU ).

Each iotized letter represents 1 sound only ifstands after the consonant (hatch). The letter Yu stands for the sound (U). Exception- words with combinationsBC , SC . We hear (Yu), and we write U (pike). thirty second letter alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabet(YU)

Vowel second row, which denotes the softness of a consonant . Iotated . There is no sound (I). The letter I can stand for different sounds depending on the location in the word and stress.

Option 1. The letter I is under stress. 1) If I costs at the beginning of a word (apple), after b and b(weeds ), after a vowel (accordion). It means 2 sounds. (YA )

2 ) Any iotized designates 1 sound only if it comes after a consonant (elm). The letter I stands for sound (A)

Option 2 Letter I without stress 1) Any iotated letter means 1 sound only if it comes after a consonant (meat). Here the letter I stands for the sound (I). The exception is words with combinations CHA, SCHA. We hear (I), and we write A (thicket).The thirty-third letter of the alphabet. Pronounced in the alphabet(YA)

Sounds belong to the section of phonetics. The study of sounds is included in any school curriculum in the Russian language. Acquaintance with sounds and their main characteristics occurs in lower grades. A more detailed study of sounds from complex examples and nuances takes place in middle and high school. This page gives only basic knowledge by the sounds of the Russian language in a compressed form. If you need to study the device of the speech apparatus, the tonality of sounds, articulation, acoustic components and other aspects that are beyond the scope of the modern school curriculum, refer to specialized textbooks and textbooks on phonetics.

What is sound?

Sound, like words and sentences, is the basic unit of language. However, the sound does not express any meaning, but reflects the sound of the word. Thanks to this, we distinguish words from each other. Words differ in the number of sounds (port - sport, crow - funnel), a set of sounds (lemon - firth, cat - mouse), a sequence of sounds (nose - dream, bush - knock) up to a complete mismatch of sounds (boat - boat, forest - park).

What sounds are there?

In Russian, sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. There are 33 letters and 42 sounds in Russian: 6 vowels, 36 consonants, 2 letters (ь, ъ) do not indicate a sound. The discrepancy in the number of letters and sounds (not counting b and b) is due to the fact that there are 6 sounds for 10 vowels, 36 sounds for 21 consonants (if we take into account all combinations of consonant sounds deaf / voiced, soft / hard). On the letter, the sound is indicated in square brackets.
There are no sounds: [e], [e], [u], [i], [b], [b], [g '], [w '], [ts '], [th], [h] , [sch].

Scheme 1. Letters and sounds of the Russian language.

How are sounds pronounced?

We pronounce sounds when exhaling (only in the case of the interjection “a-a-a”, expressing fear, the sound is pronounced when inhaling.). The division of sounds into vowels and consonants is related to how a person pronounces them. Vowel sounds are pronounced by the voice due to the exhaled air passing through the tense vocal cords and freely exiting through the mouth. Consonant sounds consist of noise or a combination of voice and noise due to the fact that the exhaled air meets an obstacle in its path in the form of a bow or teeth. Vowel sounds are pronounced loudly, consonant sounds are muffled. A person is able to sing vowel sounds with his voice (exhaled air), raising or lowering the timbre. Consonant sounds cannot be sung, they are pronounced equally muffled. Hard and soft signs do not represent sounds. They cannot be pronounced as an independent sound. When pronouncing a word, they affect the consonant in front of them, make it soft or hard.

Word transcription

Transcription of a word is a record of sounds in a word, that is, in fact, a record of how the word is pronounced correctly. Sounds are enclosed in square brackets. Compare: a - letter, [a] - sound. The softness of consonants is indicated by an apostrophe: p - letter, [p] - hard sound, [p '] - soft sound. Voiced and voiceless consonants are not marked in writing. The transcription of the word is written in square brackets. Examples: door → [dv'er '], thorn → [kal'uch'ka]. Sometimes stress is indicated in transcription - an apostrophe before a vowel stressed sound.

There is no clear juxtaposition of letters and sounds. In the Russian language, there are many cases of substitution of vowel sounds depending on the place of stress of a word, substitution of consonants or dropping out of consonant sounds in certain combinations. When compiling a transcription of a word, the rules of phonetics are taken into account.

Color scheme

In phonetic analysis, words are sometimes drawn with color schemes: letters are painted with different colors depending on what sound they mean. Colors reflect the phonetic characteristics of sounds and help you visualize how a word is pronounced and what sounds it consists of.

All vowels (stressed and unstressed) are marked with a red background. Iotated vowels are marked green-red: green means a soft consonant sound [y ‘], red means the vowel following it. Consonants with solid sounds are colored blue. Consonants with soft sounds are colored green. Soft and hard signs are painted in gray or not painted at all.

Designations:
- vowel, - iotated, - hard consonant, - soft consonant, - soft or hard consonant.

Note. Blue-green color in schemes at phonetic parsing not used, since a consonant cannot be both soft and hard at the same time. The blue-green color in the table above is only used to show that the sound can be either soft or hard.

§ 6. Sounds are pronounced with the help of the organs of speech. The main organs of speech are the lips (upper and lower); teeth (upper and lower); tongue (distinguish: front, middle and back parts of the tongue); alveoli (tubercles at the roots of the upper teeth); solid sky; soft sky; nasal cavity; nasopharynx; epiglottis; laryngeal cavity; vocal cords, between which is the glottis; trachea, bronchi; lungs; diaphragm.

§ 7. The articulatory characteristic is different for vowels and consonants. The characteristic of vowel sounds includes differences in the degree of tongue elevation (depending on the vertical movement of the tongue), along the row (depending on the horizontal movement of the tongue), and the presence or absence of labialization (rounding). The articulatory characteristic of consonant sounds includes differences in the participation of noise and voice, in the place and method of noise formation, in the presence or absence of palatalization (mitigation).

§ 8. The articulatory characteristics of vowels are presented in Table. 1. The table includes

Table 1

Articulatory characteristics of vowels

Characteristics of vowel sounds		Vowel sounds
Characteristics of vowel sounds		[And]	[s]	[y]	[e]	[O]	[A]
According to the degree of elevation of the tongue	top lift	+	+	+
	medium lift				+	+
	bottom lift						+
In a row, or in a place where the tongue is raised	front row	+			+
	middle row		+				+
	back row			+		+
By the presence or absence of labialization	round			+		+
By the presence or absence of labialization	unlabialized	+	+		+		+

there are stressed vowels in the position of the absolute beginning of the word not before a soft consonant (for example, [a], [o], [y], [i], [s], [e] - the names of letters; [a] d, [o] kna , [y] goal, [and] gly, [s] kat (pronounce the sound [s] instead of o, a) (special), [e] that (spelling it).

§ 9. According to the degree of elevation of the tongue, i.e., depending on the movement of the tongue vertically in relation to the palate, vowels of the upper, middle and lower rise are distinguished (see Fig. 1).

High vowels include [and], [s], [y]. When upper vowels are formed, the middle (y [and], [s]) and the back of the back of the tongue (y [y]) rise high to the palate: to the hard - when pronouncing [and], to the back of the hard and to the front of the soft palate - when pronouncing [s] and to the soft palate - when pronouncing [y].

Middle vowels include [e] and [o]. When vowels of the middle rise are formed, the middle (y [e]) and the back of the back of the tongue (y [o]) first rise high to the palate, and then fall lower.

[a] belongs to low vowels. When the sound [a] is formed, the tongue almost does not rise to the palate and lies flat.

§ 10. According to the row, or according to the place where the tongue is raised, i.e., depending on the horizontal movement of the tongue, the vowels of the front, middle and back rows are distinguished (see Fig. 2).

Front vowels include [i] and [e]. When forming front vowels, the middle part of the back of the tongue moves forward, the tip of the tongue drops and rests on the lower teeth (y [i]) or is located at the lower teeth (y [e]).

Back vowels include [o] and [y]. When forming back vowels, the tongue moves back, the tip of the tongue touches or does not touch the lower teeth (y [o]) or drops (y [y]).

The middle vowels include [s]. During the formation of a middle vowel, which occupies an intermediate position between the front and back vowels, the tongue is pushed back to a lesser extent than during the formation of back vowels, the back of the tongue is highly raised.

The vowel [a] is not localized in relation to the row: when the sound [a] is formed, the tongue almost does not articulate towards the palate.

§ 11. According to the presence or absence of labialization, i.e., depending on the participation or non-participation of the lips in the formation of vowels, labialized and non-labialized vowels are distinguished. In the formation of labialized vowels, the lips move forward, round and form a narrow air outlet. The vowels [o] and [y] are labialized. When forming the vowel [o], the lips protrude to a lesser extent than when forming the vowel [y]. Lips do not take an active part in the formation of non-labialized vowels. Non-labialized ones include [u], [s], [e], and [a].

§ 12. The articulatory characteristics of consonants are presented in Table. 2. The table includes consonant sounds that appear in positions before vowels, for example [n] ar, [n '] el, [b] ar, [b '] el, [f] ara, [f '] etr, [ in] ar, [v '] id, [t] ak, [t '] ik, [d] orog, [d '] elo, [s] alo, [s '] ate, [s] al, [s '] mirror, [ts] drop, [h] as, [sh] ar, [zh] ar, [〙 '] and, to [〇 '] and, [k] ak, [k '] sly, [g ]am, [g '] id, [x] ata, [x '] and triy, bka, [m] al, [m '] ir, [r] az, [r '] isa, [n] ac, [ n '] from, [l] apa, [l '] ica.

§ 13. Depending on the degree of participation in the formation of consonant voices and noise, noisy consonants (voiced and voiced) and sonorants are distinguished.

If the vocal cords are close, tense and fluctuate, then a voice arises. If the vocal cords are not close, not tense and do not fluctuate, then the voice does not arise. When the air stream passes through the obstacles, friction occurs, resulting in noise. The ratio of voice and noise depends on the strength of the air stream, on the nature of the barrier, and on the strength of the muscular tension of the organs of speech. The weaker the air jet, the stronger the voice and the weak noise, and vice versa, the stronger the air jet, the stronger the voice and the weaker the noise. The ratio of voice and noise is different for different consonants.

When pronouncing noisy ones, a certain kind of barriers are formed in the oral cavity, through which a strong air stream passes, forming a noise that is clearly audible along with the voice. Noisy consonants include [n], [n '], [b], [b'], [f], [f '], [c], [c '], [t], [t '], [ e], [d'], [s], [s'], [s], [s'], [c], [h], [w], [g], [〙'], [〇' ], [k], [k'], [g], [g'], [x], [x'].

When pronouncing sonorants in the oral cavity, barriers also arise, but a weak air stream passing through this barrier forms only a slight noise; air passes freely through the opening in the nasal or oral cavity. Sonorants are pronounced with the help of a voice with the addition of a slight noise. Sonorants include consonants [j], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [l], [l '], [p], [p '].

§ 14. Depending on the degree of participation of the vocal cords and on the strength of the muscular tension of the active (or also passive) organ of speech (see § 15), noisy voiceless and voiced are distinguished. The voice does not participate in the formation of deaf noisy voices: the vocal cords are not close, not tense, do not fluctuate. In the formation of deaf noisy, moreover, more energetic work of the active (or also passive) organ of speech takes place than in the formation of voiced noisy ones. The deaf noisy consonants include [p], [p '], [f], [f '], [t], [t '], [s], [s '], [c], [h], [ w], [〙'], [k], [k'], [x], [x']. Noisy voiced consonants are formed with the help of noise with the addition of a voice: the vocal cords are close, tense and fluctuate. Noisy voiced ones include [b], [b '], [c], [c '], [d], [d '], [h], [h '], [g], [〇 '], [ r], [r'].

Note. In modern Russian, a double pronunciation of the sound is allowed in place of the letter combinations zhzh, zzh inside the root morph: [〇'], for example vi[〇']at, e[〇']y, and [〇], for example vi[〇]at , e[〇]y (but only dro[〇']u, vo[〇']u). The pronunciation [〇'] corresponds to the old Moscow pronunciation norms (see § 23). It is also possible to pronounce the sound twice in place of the letter combination zhd in the word rain and in the formations from it rainy, rainy. In accordance with the old Moscow pronunciation norms, in place of the combination of letters zhd, [〇'] and at the end of the word [〙'] are pronounced, for example, do[〇'˙а], do[〇'˙у]..., do[〙'] , up to[〇']living, with admissible up to[x'(g)]living, up to[〇']eva. In accordance with modern standards in place of the letter combination zhd, it is possible to pronounce [zhd '], [zhd], at the end of the word [pcs '], for example, until [zhd '] I, before [zhd '] yu .., before [pcs '], until [zhd ]living, until [waiting ']eva.

Consonants that differ only in deafness - voicedness and forming pairs [p] - [b], [p '] - [b '], [f] - [c], [f '] - [c '], [t] - [d], [t '] - [d '], [s] - [s], [s '] - [s '], [w] - [g], [〙 '] - [〇 '], [k] - [g], [k '] - [g '], are called paired for deafness - voicedness, and consonants [c], [h], [x], [x '], as well as sonorant [p] , [p '], [l], [l '], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [j] - unpaired in deafness - voicedness (see § 126).

Note. In modern Russian, in accordance with old Moscow norms, in place of the letter u, as well as the letter combinations sch, zch, a long soft [〙 '] is pronounced; [〙']i, bru[〙']atka, izvo[〙']ik. In the traditional Leningrad pronunciation (see § 23), instead of [〙 '], [sh'h] is pronounced: [sh'h] and, bru [sh'h] atka, out [sh'h] ik.

table 2

Articulatory characteristics of consonants

Sound

Participation of noise and voice

Noise generation method

Location of noise

Presence or absence of palatalization

noisy

sonorny

deaf

voiced

occlusive

affricate

slotted

sluice-through

trembling

labial

lingual

labial

labiodental

anterior lingual

middle language

posterior lingual

side

nasal

dental

palatine-tooth

midpalatal

guttural

solid

soft

[P]

[P']

[b]

[b ']

[f]

[f']

[V]

[V']

[T]

[T']

[e]

[d']

[With]

[With']

[h]

[h ']

[c]

[h]

[w]

[and]

[〙’]

[〇’]

[To]

[To']

[G]

[G']

[X]

[X']

[j]

[m]

[m']

[n|

[n']

[R]

[R']

[l]

[l']

§ 15. To characterize consonants at the place of noise formation, it is enough to note the participation of teeth, tongue, lips and palate.

According to the place of noise formation, all consonants differ depending on the articulation of the active and passive organ of speech. The active organs are the tongue in the lower lip, and the passive organs are the upper lip, teeth and palate.

According to the active organ, all consonants are divided into labial and lingual. The labial consonants include [n], [n '], [b], [b '], [f], [f '], [c], [c '], [m], [m ']; lingual consonants include [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [s], [s'], [h], [h'], [c], [h], [w ], [g], [〙'], [〇'], [k], [k'], [g], [g'], [x], [x'], [j], [n] , [n'], [l], [l'], [p], [p']. Lingual are subdivided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual (see Fig. 3).


Rice. 3. [t], [d] (–––––) [k], [g] (– – – – –); [j] (–.–.–.–).

The anterior part of the tongue is involved in the formation of anterior lingual consonants. The front-lingual ones include [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [s], [s '], [h], [h '], [c], [h], [w] , [g], [〙'], [〇'], [n], [n'], [p], [p'], [l], [l']. The middle part of the back of the tongue is involved in the formation of middle language consonants. [j] belongs to the middle language. The back part of the back of the tongue takes part in the formation of the posterior lingual. Back-lingual ones include [k], [k '], [g], [g '], [x], [x '].

According to the passive organ, towards which the active organ articulates, the labial consonants are divided into labial and labial consonants (see Fig. 4, 5).

When teeth are formed, the front of the tongue articulates towards the upper teeth, forming an air barrier at the upper incisors and alveoli. Dental include [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [c], [s], [s '], [s], [s '], [n], [n' ], [l], [l']. With the formation of palatine teeth, the tip of the tongue is more bent upwards and backwards, forming a barrier to air in the dental part of the hard palate. The palatine teeth include [h], [w], [g], [〙 '], [〇 '], [p], [p '].


Rice. 8. [j]

Rice. 9. [k], [g]			Rice. 10. [x]

The medial consonant [j] is mid-palatal in its passive organ; when it is formed, the back of the back of the tongue articulates towards the middle part of the palate (see Fig. 8).

The posterior lingual [k], [k '], [g], [g '], [x], [x '] are posterior palatine according to the passive organ; when they are formed, the back of the back of the tongue articulates towards the soft palate (see Fig. 9, 10).

§ 16. According to the method of noise formation, that is, depending on the nature of the barrier that forms between the active and passive organs, noisy consonants are divided into stop, affricate and fricative (or fricative). When occlusive consonants are formed, the active organ, articulating towards the passive, forms a complete closure, or a complete shutter; the exhaled air forcefully breaks this shutter, resulting in noise (see Fig. 4, 9). Stops include [n], [n '], [b], [b'], [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [k], [k '], [g ], [G']. When gap consonants are formed, the active organ, approaching the passive, forms a gap; as a result of the friction of the exhaled air against the walls of the gap, noise is generated (see Fig. 5, 7, 10). Noisy slots include [f], [f'], [v], [v'], [s], [s'], [h], [h'], [w], [g], [〙 '], [〇'], [x], [x']. Among fricative noisy consonants, single-focal and two-focal consonants stand out. In monofocal consonants, noise is formed in only one place. So, when pronouncing [s] noise is formed in the gap between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth, when pronouncing [f] - in the gap between the lower lip and upper teeth, and when pronouncing [x] - in the gap between the back of the tongue and the soft palate. Single-focus slits include [s], [s '], [s], [s '], [f], [f '], [c], [c '], [x], [x ']. In bifocal consonants, noise is formed simultaneously in two places. So, when pronouncing [w], the noise is formed simultaneously in the gap between the tip of the tongue and the beginning of the hard palate and in the gap between the back of the back of the tongue and the soft palate, and when pronouncing [〙 '] - simultaneously in the gap between the middle part of the back of the tongue and the hard palate , as well as the tip of the tongue and upper teeth. The slit two-focal ones include [w], [g], [〙’], [〇’].

Affricates occupy an intermediate position between stop and fricative. During the formation of affricates, the active organ, approaching the passive, forms a complete closure, as in the formation of stops, however, the opening does not occur by explosion, but by the transition of closure into a gap. Affricates include [c], [h]. The sound [ts] is a single-focal affricate, during the pronunciation of which noise is formed in the gap between the front of the back of the tongue and the upper teeth (or alveoli). The sound [h] is a two-focal affricate, during the pronunciation of which noise is formed simultaneously in two places: in the gap between the tip of the tongue and the beginning of the hard palate (as when pronouncing [sh]) and in the gap between the middle part of the back of the tongue and the hard palate (as when pronouncing [〙']).

Sonorant consonants, depending on the method of formation, are divided into fricative, occlusive and tremulous.

The consonant [j] belongs to the fricative sonorants (see above the description of the fricative noisy ones and Fig. 8). When pronouncing [j], a gap is formed between the middle part of the back of the tongue and the hard palate, through which a weak air stream passes. As a result of the friction of the air jet against the walls of the slot, a voice with a slight noise arises.

When the occlusal passages are formed in the oral cavity, a complete closure is formed, as in the formation of the stoppers, but there is a passage for air through the mouth or through the nose. The occlusive passages are divided into oral, or lateral ([l], [l ']), and nasal ([m], [m '], [n], [n ']). See fig. 11, 12, 13.


Rice. 13. [n]

When pronouncing [l], the tip of the tongue closes with the upper teeth (as in the formation of interlocks), but the sides of the tongue are lowered and form gaps through which a weak air stream passes freely. When pronouncing [m], the lips close (as in the formation of labial occlusives, see § 15), but the soft palate is lowered, as a result of which a weak air stream passes freely through the nasal cavity. When pronouncing [n], the front of the tongue rests against the beginning of the hard palate (near the upper teeth), but the soft palate is lowered, as a result of which a weak air stream freely passes through the nasal cavity.

With the formation of trembling, the tip of the tongue, slightly bent and raised to the alveoli, vibrates under the influence of the air jet, as a result of which it sometimes closes with the alveoli, then opens (see Fig. 14). The edges of the tongue are pressed against the lateral teeth, and a weak air stream passes in the middle. Trembling consonants include [p], [p '].

In most consonants, the raising of the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate is an additional articulation that occurs simultaneously with the main articulation of the consonant, and only in [j] this articulation is the main one (see Fig. 8). Soft consonants include [p'], [b'], [t'], [d'], [f'], [c'], [s'], [h'], [h], [〙 '], [〇'], [k'], [g'], [x'], [j], [m'], [n'], [p'], [l']. Hard consonants are characterized by the absence of additional articulation. These include [p], [b], [f], [c], [t], [d], [s], [h], [c], [w], [g], [k] , [g], [x], [m], [n], [p], [l]. Consonants [p], [p '], [b], [b '], [f], [f '], [c], [c '], [t], [t '], [d], [d'], [s], [s'], [s], [s'], [k], [k'], [g], [g'], [x], [x'], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [p], [p '], [l], [l '], differing only in hardness - softness and forming pairs such as [n] - [p '], [b] - [b '], etc., are called paired in hardness - softness, and consonants [h], [w], [g], [〙'], [〇'], [ j], [ts], which do not form similar pairs, are unpaired in hardness - softness (see § 126).